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CO)()(Eh"'l' O~ fOREGOl NG CRITIC1Sl48
myself how it could h~ve happened. Perhaps bis thought is
dominated by t.he t raditional Anlo-So..wn empiricism. Perhaps also
the fonat.icism and emptinCS3 of the orthodoxy of the Ie Absolut.e
wbicb he found so for bidding, no 1onger exist.s a.s sueb, but has
bceomc one wlth the world, experience_, aod history; that the new
philosophy has rejccted the static elements of Hcgclian ism in
ordcr to preserve Md develop the dyno.mic ones. For the ncw
philosophy is a. thcory of perpetua! conftict, of solutions that
generat.e new problems, of a continua! cnrichment, such as
pragmatism claims to be but cannot logica.lly become. However that
may be, bis pbilosophical position is such as I ba.ve described
ahove.
A COMMENT ON THE FOREGOING CRITICISMS
JOBN DEWEY
I fully appreciate the attention giveo Art a. E:tp
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come occupy feel a certain dissatisfaction in the scarcity or
vagueness of such references in Dewey's treatise. In the Preface we
read: "I aro somewhat embarrassed in an effort to acknowledge
indebtedness to other writ.ers on the subject. Sorne aspects of it
may be inferred from authors mentioned or quoted in the text. I ha
ve read on t he subject for many years, however, more or less
widely in English literature, somewhat less in French and stillless
in German, and I ha ve absorbed much from sources which I cannot
now directly recall. Moreover, my obliga-tions to a number of
writers are much greater t han might be gathered from allusions to
them in the volume itself" (p. vii) . But he must also ha ve
availed himself of sorne I talian aut.hors, though these were
perhaps included among the English because read in English
translations. However, Dewey expressly men-tions my studies more t
han once in the course of his argument, now to rnake use of their
concepts, for example of my criticism of the separation of the arts
from each other; but moreoften to exorcise with horror, as I said
above, my somewhat mad "idealistic" (or rather "organic") way of
philosophizing.
Even so, an ltalian reader is pleasantly surprised to meet on
every page observations and theories long since formulated in ltaly
and familiar to him. For example, that 'expression' in the poet
ical sense is not to be confused with the expression which goes by
the same name but is not expression in and for
Translated by Katharne Glbert. Arta$ Experi ence, by John Dewey.
Mnton, Balch, New York, 1934. Al! page ref-
erences, unless otherwse ndcated, are taken from t his book.
203
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BENEDETTO C ROCE in 1947
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not such things as aesthetic contents or non-aesthetic contents
(p. 187); that all the other arts are in every art (p. 195); that
there are not artistic "things", but only an artistic doing, an
artistic producing (p. 214); that the so-called 'modi-fications of
the beautul' such as the sublime, grotesque, tragic, comic, etc.,
have practica! use but surely not conceptual or dialectical
meaning; that the aesthetic process is of great importance for the
philosopher, because through it he understands the nature of every
psychic process; and therefore aesthetics is indispensable to the
work of philosophy (p. 274); that it is impossible in judging art,
to forego either of the two elements: the sensitive and the
intellectual (p. 290); tbat aesthetic judgment is not that of a
court pronouncing in the light of laws or rules (p. 299-300); that
bistorical knowledge is indispensable for judg-ment on art.
And so on, for here I note rapidly only certain points. Nor am 1
setting them down to put forward a claim to authorship or priority,
but rather to observe that whatever kind and however much stimulus
Dewey has received from the thought of others, he thinks over
problema for himself, so that bis observations come out wit.h
freshness and sxmtaneity and sustain the reader's interest; part
icularly the interest of one who, having arrived earlier and by
other routes at the same con-clusions, and discovering bis own
ideas in a new form, finds in this an added proof of their
truth.
But precisely because of this obvious agreement of his doctrines
with so-called idealistic aesthetic, a disciple of Dewey's, and his
co-religionist in pragma-tism, has very recently raised a
respectful and resolute protest against the new
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fulfilled in the perception itself" (p. 254). This corre
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as indication of the extreme to which philosophy may go in
superimposing a preconceived theory upon esthetic experience,
resulting in arbitrary distortion" (p. 294- 5).
Now, without doubt, 1 hold that poetry and t he other arts have
for their material not externa! things (nobody knows what and where
such t hings are) but the "sentiments" or human passion, and 1 hold
that nothing can exist sepa-rated {roro knowing. As 1 hold these
propositions to be true, it is natural that 1 should use them to
establish the place of art in the system of mind. Dewey does not
undertake to refute these doctrines of mine because he considera
that he has already refuted their very foundation: viz.
philosophical reflection. He says in another book: "Reason, as a
Kantian faculty that introduces generality and regularity into
experience, strikes us more and more as supertluous-the
un-necessary creation of roen addicted to traditional formalism and
to elaborate terminology. Concrete suggestions arising from past
experiences, developed and matured in the lght of the needs and
deficiencies of the present , emp/Qyed as aims and methods of
specific reC0118tructicm, and tested by success or failure in
accomplshing this task of readjustment, suffice. To such empirical
suggesticms used in constructive fashion for new ends the name
intelligence is given" (p. 95-96) .
It is certainly st range that a mind so keen and a genius so
acute as Dewey's should turn in such vicious circles and
positivistic tautologies; and 1 oft.en ask
Recot&Siruction in Philosophy, by John Dewey. The italics
are Croce's . (K. G.)
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207
myself how it could have happened. Perhaps bis thought is
dominated by the traditional Anglo-Saxon empiricism. Perhaps also
the fanaticism and emptiness
PREV of the orthodo.,:y of the Kantians and Hegelians who were
bis first masters in America stirred in him a revolt which has not
yet quieted clown. Perbaps this feeling of revolt has prevented him
from seeing that the Hegelian and rela.ted structures ha.ve fallen
to pieces and that the Absolute which he found so for-bidding, no
longer exists as such, but has become one with tbe world,
experience, and history; that the new philosophy has rejected the
static elements of Hegelian-ism in order. to preserve tl.Ild
develop the dynamic ones. For the new philosopby is a tbeory of
perpetua) confict, of solutions that generate new problems, of a
continua) enricbment, such as pragmatism claims to be but cannot
logically become. However that may be, his philosopbical position
is sucb as 1 have described above.
A COMMENT ON THE FOREGOING CRIT1C1SMS
JOHN DEWEY
1 fully appreciate the attention given Art as Experierl,u by the
distinguished ltalian philosopher Benedetto Croce-as I appreciate
his heroic resistance to the wave of Fascism which swept so many
1talian thinkers and educators off their feet. That he should have
read my book tl.Ild then have taken the trouble
CLOSE X
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A COMMENT ON THE FOREGOING CRITICISMS
JOHN DEWEY
I fully appreciate the attention given Art aa Experien,u by the
distinguished 1 talia.n philosopher Benedetto Croce-ilS 1
appreciate bis heroic resistan ce to the wave o Fascism which swept
so many Italian thinkers a.nd educators off their feet. That be
should have read my book a.nd then have taken the trouble to write
about it for publication in another country commands a.nd receives
my hearty thanks. 1 wish also to express my gratitude to Proessor
Katharine Gilbert for interesting Croce in writing the article,
a.nd or sending me a. t ranslated copy of it together with the
suggestion tha.t I write a. reply.
I regret that what 1 ha.ve to say is largely o the nature of a
comment rather than being a reply m a.ny distinctive sense of that
word. For a reply, as I under-stand the word, requires a common
ground on which both parties stand and from which deviations and
departures can be measured. I do not find such a common ground in
this present case. And I can perhaps best introduce my comment by
telling why I ca.nnot find it. In substance, it is because Croce
assumes that I ha.ve written about art with the intention of
bringing it within the scope of pragmatic philosophy-although I
have not, as he sees the matter, carried out successfully the claim
involved in this purpose. The actual fa.ct is that I have
consistently treated the pragmatic theory as a theory of kwm'ing,
and as confined within the limits of the field of specifically
cognitive subject-matter. And in addition I ha ve specifically
rejected the idea that aesthetic subjectmatter is a form o
knowledge, and have held tbat a prime defect of philosophies o art
has been treating subjectmatter as if it were (whether the creators
and enjoycrs of it were aware of it or not) akind of knowledge of
Reality, presumably of a higher and truer order than a.nything o
which "science" is capable. The consequence of this approa.ch, I
concluded early in my studies,
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1 had supposed that the presence of the word "experience" in my
title, es-pecially in its close connection with The Live Animal of
the first chapter, would indicate the point of view and method of
approach adopted in discussion of the creation and enjoyment of
works of art. But it seems that that supposition was
over-optimistic. The meanings belonging to historie empiricist
philosophies have been read into the word, in spite of the fact
that the pragmatic theory of knowing has systematically criticized
these empiricisms because of their system-atic failure to connect
experiences with the processes and operation of human Iife AS
life.
The foregoing remarks indicate the absence of common ground on
which to stand in making a reply. But they should also indicate the
point of view from which 1 may reply to certain remarks of my
critic in pleading Not Guilty to sug-gestions of slighting
acknowledgments to writers to whom 1 am presumably in-debted, and
to a kind of Xenophobia with respect to Italian writers in
particular. For good or for evil, as 1 have already said, I have
learned little from what has been written in the name of the
Philosophy of Art and Aesthetics, since it has seemed tome to
subordinate art to philosophy, instead of using philosophy asan
incidental aid in appreciation of art in its own language. 1 have
Jeamed much, however, from the writings of essayists and literary
critica, espedally from Eng-lish writers whose works are themselves
a part of the great tradition of English Jiterature, and from what
poets, painters, etc., have said about the arts they ha ve
practiced-a source, in my judgment, that is unduly overlooked by
those who philosophize on art. I do not think that I exaggerate in
sayng tbat 1 owe more to the books on the plastic arts written by
the man to whom my book is dedicated, Albert C. Barnes, than to all
the offteial treatises on art composed by philosophers.
1 fear I shall have to be explicit with reference to the bearing
of these state-
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writing the kind of scholarly treatise in which footnotes breed
and multiply on every page as authorities for what is said in the
text. My aim was much humbler.
STYLE AND PERSONALITY: A Graphclogical Portrait of Osear
Kokoschka
J . P. RODIN
1. Expressionism and &r.tio. Le style, c'est l'homme m~me.
(Butfon). When we compare the methods of modem science with those
of modem a.rt,
we are surprised by a peculiar phenomenon. In whatever country a
piece of scientific work is carried out a.nd to whatever nat
ionality the scientist ma.y belong, the methods tha.t he uses are
based on intema.tionally recognized and applied principies, and tbe
results bring about changes a.ffecting the whole of mankind. In the
pla.~tic arts man's creative urge, the will to expression, has
experimented in various directions, and at one and the same time
methods of representat ion have been used that differ from each
other in the principies on which they are based. Modern art does
not give a definite, unambiguous picture of man's emotional and
intellectuallife at t.be present day.
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Dewey began to be recognized just recently in Italy where (in
addition to the Hegelian Royce) another sharp, quick-witted
American philosopher, James (not however comparable to Dewey in
solidity) was already widely known. His Principies of Psychology as
well as other writings were translated into Italian. Dewey's
educational ideas had attracted the attention of Lombardo Radice,
but it was not until 1931 that De Ruggiero wrote an integrated
ac-count of Dewey's philosophy in his series of essays, Filosofi
del novecento, which at my request he was t.hen preparing for the
Critica.'
Just like Lombardo Radice, who was an educator but an idcalist,
De Ruggiero soon perceived that the conclusious at which Dewey
arrived in bis euquiry into various philosopbical problems were
logically inconsistent witb his persistent profession of empiricism
and pragmati~m . De Ruggiero believed that, if "t.o him idealism
wa.s uot a result," it was nonctheless, "a dircction in which he
wa.s moving and of wbich be wa.s constan ti y acquiring clearer
consciousness." Tbis judgment or rather prediction wa.s repeated at
the end of his essay after baving shown that "the metaphysical,
etbical, and educational developments of Dewey's doctrines surpass
by f11r the initial pragmat.ic and instrup:.ental premises."
Meanwhile, in expectation of tbe further development tbat he felt
was certain, De Ruggiero offered Italian readers a translation of
Reconstn.u;tion in Philoso-
Translated by Frederie S. Simoni. 'Vol. XXIX, issue of 20 Sept.
1031, pp. 341- 57.
1
CHPYRIGH1' 1952 Tnt AMtRI
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far t.o call them "commonpl9.(!cs," but restrict.ed himself to
saying that "thcy are reasonably familia.r to connoisseurs and to
cultivated essayists and critics, "8 whieh is a euphcmistic and
courteous way of saying that t.hey are "common-places" with respect
to a.est.hetic problems. I would have been truly proud to have
things "in common" with Dewey, but I aro not happy either for
myself or for him to have theorized "commonplaces" '"'ith him,
which not only would do me an injustice, since I am not accustomed
to amuse myself In this way, but would even do him an injustice
because those "commonplaces" comprise the major part of what there
is of a positive nature in his aesthetics. Nonethe-Jess, those
allegcd "commonplaces" are so litt.le common that t.hey have been
achieved only after st ruggles and disputes often last ing
centurics, and which even today are from time to time rcnewed. For
exarnplc, the negation of the distinction of art into single arts,
each one possessing its unique aesthetic prov-
' Ricustruzione filos(fjie
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But the other reply, which is that of "fin de non recevoir,"
proffered me by Dewey is to me unacceptable and leads me to touch
upon the ill effects wit.h which empiricism and pragmatism damage
the great and beautiful truth Dewey teaches in his books. He
answers that in my review he does not find a common ground for
discussion.9 Bccause of a natural discretion, I did not ask for a
dis-cussion. Also, I know through personal experience that one does
not always feel like replying and arguing, not because the opponent
is held in little regard, but often because one's mind is involved
in other studies or is stimulated with other emotions, or because
one becomes tired of renewing discussions already mstained many
times or of returning upon problems upon which one does not have
anyt.hing substantially new to say. But to answer that there is no
com-mon ground between us (as Dewey replies) is not allowable, not
only because it would be an indication of little faith in the
goodness of God, but for the fact that we are both standing on the
grounds of philosophy, which we have both studied and loved, and on
that ground we find ourselves in contrast, which does not lea ve us
indifferent, or which at least does not lea ve me indifferent .
There are two methods of escape from that contrnst: the first is
that one of the adversaries completely refute the theory of tbe
other and thereby displace it by his own; the second is that, in
the course of the dispute, each one recip-rocally acknowledges the
part that is true and the part that is false in the other, and by
discarding the two sickly portions, will find t hemselves in the
healthy
'A Comment, in t he issue cited pp. 7-9.
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pages instead considered as the key for understanding the
present. Thc true point of departure of b.istory is always a
certain situation in the present with its indi-
viduali:c~ed problems. " 10 This was the same theory which 1 had
promulgated in my academic memoir
of 1912: Hiswry, chronicle.s, an.d .false hisrories,11 in which
1 maintained that history is only that which is born from a present
interest that reanimates and revivifies the past, and that without
this stimulus, the past remains a heap of disconnected and
extrinsic data, which is just what the annotations called
chronicles are, and that because of being always animated by an
interest of the present, every true and living history is not "of
the past," but is "contempo-rary." This is the conclusion which my
logical studies had brought to a head. In thesc studies it became
clear to me that the only form of thought is the historical
judgment, and that t.his judgment is the genuine logical "a priori
synthesis" which Kant had correctly defined, but which he had then
sougbt in the judgments of the seiences, incurring an error
analogous to that of Vi
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IPrezi Moodle YouTube Wikipedia WoBut in Dewey's empirical and
pragmatic treatment, this tmth which he (as Kant did earlier) calls
the "Copernican revolution in philosophy,"'2 can never achieve
adequate demonstration, because it has a beginning we know not
where, and carries the name of the old and inept concept of
"sensation."'a He interprets it as a practkal activity which should
by agitating and intensi-fying itself, produce a knowing which then
becomes independent, but we know not how if it is "relegated toa
derived position, secondary in origin," and such it remains, "even,
if its importance, when once it is established, is
oversbadow-ing."" The last word is one which sounds very much Like
Ueberwindung or the Hegelian overcoming, but one which does not
bave the strength of completing the process without remaining a
"pietiner sur place."
This process which is not really a process and which l.ies
midway between
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This procesa which is not really a process and which les midway
between the immobile and the eccentric takes such a peculiar course
because empirically and pragmatically Dewey cannot overcome the
dualism of mind and nature. He is led to delude himself that he has
overeome it by means of a continuous process of nature-mind, in
which the hyphen connecting the two words would provide the victory
which speculative logic, distinguishing the categorical con-cepts
from the emprica! concepts, and the activity of Vemunft from that
of Verstand, and resolving the externa! world into the interna),
nature into mind, is alone capable of accomplishing. Why should
Dewey object in his Art as
E:~:perience to my assertion of the unity of intuition and
expresaion, which, if he \Vll but reflect upon it, finds its
complement not in recognition of roan as an abstract being, but as
a "living being"?a Why doesn't this satisfy him if not because he
preserves a dualism, and therefore is incapable of thinking
intuition to be in the very act expres.sion, the will to be action,
mind in t.he very act living body? On this same question, he says
in his Art as Experience and he repeats in the comments to my
review, that I "wish to subordinate creation of art and aesthetic
enjoyment to a preconceived system of philoso-
" See the New Republic of Oct. 20, 1949: " Jobo Dewey: a S!)
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,
books and which he candidly believes to be the fruit of bis
empiricism and pragmatism, but which in reality are due solely to
the genial insight with whlch nature has endowed him. Empiricism
and pragmati1:1m have been able here and there to obscure this
insight, but fortunat.ely for ourselves and for him, they have not
succeeded in suffocating or extinguishlng it.
"Jqu.mal of Aesthetics, iMd., p. 208; cp. Art as Experience, pp.
294-95. 17 Reconstruction., p. 115 sqq.
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