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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.0 Background of Study

Sports are well known by all people in this world and it is important and attractive

to people even though in the country even though in Malaysia. Sports development and

achievement are now really competitive. Within the competitive sports or the world class

tournament, the athletes become more powerful, stronger, faster and improved. Besides

that, the advanced technologies lead to all athletes to have the chances to win the game or

tournament. For an example, in the 100 meter sprint event, the gold medalist won the

event just by milliseconds different from silver medalist. Many factors that can be

consider increasing the performance of an athlete for example the anthropometric factors

and heredity.

Many research and development plays the roles to observe how they can improve

and produce the world class athlete in this world. In logically thinking, many children and

people play sports based on the interest and popularity of a sport. Athletes can improve

the ability by training of the sports. It is good to have the sport that they interesting at but

to having high achievement of the sport, the talent is an important thing. Talent is

something naturally exists of ability. The top and world class athlete can be produced by

the combination of proper training, field of sports and also the talent. Prediction that

effective for the rank of the performance is based on the testing such as bleep test,

standing broad jump, agility T-test, and variation sit up, these will be relate to the ratio of

2D:4D.


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There are many positive impact and benefits for those who involved in sports.

One of the impacts that can be seen nowadays is that, it is scientifically affirmed that

athletics and physical exercise contribute immensely to the health of adolescence,

reducing the likelihood for the development of a significant list of serious pathogeneses.

By involving in sports also means that an individual is in the active lifestyle. Increase in

physical activity will lead to decreasing the risk of getting diseases such as cardiovascular

disease, hypertension and others. Having an active lifestyle means that an individual is

tend to do physical activities such as jogging, cycling, hiking and many more these

physical activities will lead to improve physical fitness, reducing stress, and enhances in

social involvement. Despite that for those who are not having an active lifestyle might be

easier in resulting for diseases such as hypertension, heart attack and many more.

Sport performance can be influenced by a lot of factors which are body

characteristic that include body size, body shape and many more. This characteristic will

change accordingly towards time, and it is different from one and another. There are also

inner and external factors that influence the changes such as population, environmental,

age, sex, and hormones. Heredity is one of the potential catalyst that can enhance

performance in sports this is through the genetic factors that will influence the body

characteristic of an individual. Much individual told that ones is born to be an athlete,

but an athlete success is not only depending on the talent itself but also the training

consumed. The ability to respond to training is mostly affected by the genetic

characteristic. The strength, the efficiency of energy produced, metabolism to meet the

demand of the vigorous exercise (Putz et al. 2004). All of these characteristics such as


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genetic, heredity, training, and others are important to potentially become a success

athlete.

Based on that, many research are done, and one of the researches for developing

talented athletes is the digit ratio (2D:4D) differences, that is the ratio of lengths of the

index finger and ring finger. This is the biomarker for many fields, and parts of it are the

sporting ability, the putative marker of prenatal androgen action with better sport

performance. The biomarker of the hormone plays important rules to determine the talent

and performance of an athlete. The relationship between the digit ratios is correlated to

prenatal testosterone. Prenatal testosterone exposure has been shown to be associated

with sporting achievement (Manning and Taylor, 2001). Previous studies shown

significant associated between the second-to-fourth digit ratios (2D:4D) and sexual,

physiological, and behavioral variables in sport of various disciplines such as running,

soccer, and skiing (Manning and Taylor 2001). Other than that, female who has low in

2D:4D different also show an increasing in sport performance. It has been suggested that

direct competition among men for women or for resources which attract women may

account for sex differences in sports and athlete performance (Manning and Taylor

2001).

There are many indicators or physiology marker for the sex hormones

testosterone and estrogen, and one of the markers is 2D:4D digit ratio. The hormones will

indicate the aggressiveness of a person. The hormone of testosterone influence the

prenatal growth that indicate lower of 2D:4D digit ratios and the hormone of estrogen

influence and vice versa (Manning 2022b,pp24). Improved training program and

evolution in modern technology are proven to improve athlete performances to elite level


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however talent is also important in ensuring that the athletes are ready to be developed as

a world class athletes. Recently the identification programs had been done all over the

country including Malaysia. The objective of this program is to identify individual sports

potential and developing high achievement athlete for the country and identified each

individual response to training intervention.

1.1 Problem Statement

Many of researchers have been investigating individuals characteristic correlate

to the finger length. These researches have been done on comparison of second and

fourth digit ratios. They are study about the variety of the characteristics including

sporting ability, musical ability, health risk and numerical and even literacy competence

(Putza, Gaulinb, Sporterc, & McBurney 2004). There are a lot of researches that have

been investigating on the individuals characteristic correlate to the finger length. These

researchers were comparing the second and fourth digit ratios. The study is about the

variety of the characteristics including sporting ability, musical ability, health risk and

numerical and even literacy competence (Putza, Gaulinb, Sporterc, & McBurney 2004).

The talent identification by digit ratios became more interesting to be study. It has been to

be proven lately as an early predictor for sporting ability and performance for adult. The

inconsistency of the result produced in the previous study lead to make us become

confuse and not clear about it. Moreover, most of the study done before is to the young

adult population and not to the adolescence. Talent identification by digit ratios has

become more interesting as lately it has been proven to be an early predictor for sporting

ability and performance for adult. Inconsistencies of the results in previous studies tend to


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lead us to a confusing situation. Moreover, previous study is focusing more on youngster

instead of adolescence population.

There are limited research has been done on identifying the sporting ability and

the talent identification to the adolescence in Malaysia. There is something great to be

study about digit ratios correlate to the sporting ability among adolescence population in

this country. Fink et al. (2006) also proved that 2D:4D ratio was more associated with

sports performance in young adults, not in adolescence. Not only that, the closest study

by Manning, Trivers, Thornhill, & Singh (2000), Hnekopp et al. (2006) and Manning &

Hill (2009) were focused on the hand performance of Jamaican adolescence, sprinting in

boys and physical fitness as there have been only a few parallel studies of the relative

lengths of the finger and its correlation to athletic ability.

Throughout this study, it will help the country to produce and develop an elite and

world class athletes by having correct predictor to successful sporting ability. Detection

of sporting potential by examining the ratio between the index and ring fingers could help

identify talented individuals at a pre-competitive stage (Manning et al. 2001). This

country can use the related research such as this study to find talented athletes and to

produce more world class athletes in the specific field of sports.


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1.2 Purpose of the study

The purpose of the study is to determine the relationship between digit ratios

(2D:4D) and the sporting ability using relevant physical fitness testing. This is to examine

the physical fitness level of a person by having the digit ratio calculation and the multiple

physical fitness testing. This will help in determine the talent identification of an

individual. The study is focusing on the sporting ability among Malaysian age 18 to 23

years old. Besides that, an athlete may be able to know their sporting ability and talent

identification development for accurate sport for them. Some more coaches from each

sport in the country easily identified talented athlete to be develop.

1.3 Hypothesis of the study

The hypotheses in this study are:

I. Hypothesis 1H0: There is no significant relationship between low digit ratio (2D:4D) and

agility.

H1: There is a significant relationship between low digit ratio (2D:4D) and agility.

II. Hypothesis 2H0: There is a no significant relationship between low digit ratio and muscular

power.

H1: There is significant relationship between low digit ratio and muscular power.


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III. Hypothesis 3H0: There is no significant relationship between low digit ratio and muscular

strength.

H1: There is a significant relationship between low digit ratio and muscular

strength.

IV. Hypothesis 4H0: There is no significant relationship between low digit ratio and cardiovascular

endurance.

H1: There is a significant relationship between low digit ratio and cardiovascular

endurance.

V. Hypothesis 5

H0: There is no significant relationship between low digit ratio and fitness rating.

H1: There is a significant relationship between low digit ratio and physical fitness

ability.


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1.4 Significance of study

The study of adolescence achievement in sports and their physical characteristics

have now become important and popular aspects of identifying sporting athletic ability at

early ages of childhood, and the impact of it has attracted numerous researchers in the

scientific literature over the past few years. The reason for knowing the truth about the

research is that we may be able to produced young talented and capable athletes either

men or women. It will definitely being a good tools for coaches, scientist, parents and

others to help them by having the information of the relationship between digit ratio and

sport ability. Nevertheless, this study can give a new perspective on the factors of

determining the sports talent identification and ability of the adolescence, physical

growth development and how to develop the adolescence to be elite and successful

athletes in future. Finally, this research will provide information for future research as

reference. The children and the adolescences may be able to identify the sports that they

capable to be in rather than just get involved in sports without knowing their capability

and ability.


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1.5 Limitation of the study

This study focused on the specific physiological characteristics of digit ratios

2D:4D to see how the result will relate with fitness component.

1.5.1 Subject

The subjects are 70 teenagers age between 18 to 23 years old. They have

been chosen since they were facing physical fitness test during their

interviews for diploma and degree intake for sport science and recreation

faculty, UiTM.

1.5.2 Population

Target population for this study is teenagers that active in sports,

specifically targeted the teenagers that having the interview in sport

science course, diploma and degree intake for sport science faculty UiTM.

1.5.3 Nutrition

Subjects cannot take any supplement to improve their performance before,

during and after test and training. Any illegal drugs that can enhance their

performance are banded. Any substances that can immediately enhance

the performance are not allowed.


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1.6 Delimitation of Study

It is difficult to produce world class athletes such as other country although we

have certain sports those world class athletes such as badminton, squash, archery, and

cycling. The question is how to produce more world class athletes and how to find the

new talent and backup athlete for the future. The method used for selecting the athletes

play important roles for this situation.

1.6.1 Weather

The test will be conducted in the all or the place that having good and big

space. The hall is to avoid any unexpected weather that can change the

validity of the testing.

1.6.2 Health

Subject must in the good condition and healthy. It is difficult to ensure that

the subjects are all in the good health. This situation cannot be control

because subject come from vary place and background. For an example is

the history of injured athletes.


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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

2.0 Introduction

The study of young adolescence achievement in sports and their physical

characteristics have now become important and popular aspects of identifying sporting

ability at early ages, and the impact of it has attracted numerous researches in the

previous study. The successes of young athletes can serve as a powerful inducement for

others to follow. The role of sex hormones along with the genes inherit from the

biological parent plays an important role in the development of digit lengths. Digit ratio

has its own unique relationship to human performance in sports. Interest in digit ratio has

been surging recently due to its function to give early predictions of the individuals

ability in sports and other fields. In particular, the high amount of testosterone influenced

the 2D:4D ratio to be more masculine or not (Bailey & Hurd 2005). Lower digit ratio

among men is said to have a positive impact on their ability to perform in football, or

more general is associated with a high level of attainment across a number of sports

(Manning & Taylor, 2001).

The relative contribution of other factors affecting digit ratio during childhood

such as a development phase and nutritional requires further investigation. The

associations of 2D:4D in sports performance are of a similar magnitude to those between

2D:4D and various gym-based tests of physical fitness. Hnekopp, Manning & Muller

(2006), have reported that measures of physical education grade and physical fitness in

boys and young men are correlated with 2D:4D. The physical fitness measures were


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determined from six exercises testing which were similar to this study (running, sit-ups,

jumping, speed agility quickness, and endurance). However, in other study has found

performance in a wide range of sports type is also said to be negatively related with

2D:4D ratio.

These rather weak associations may reflect the general magnitude of correlations

between 2D:4D and sports performance more too young adolescents to adolescent in

contrast to associations in adults. That finding suggests that there were little evidence

regarding sporting ability with 2D:4D ratio. This is support by the result of tests of grip

strength in young adolescence also show weak or no association with 2D:4D ratio (Fink,

Thanzami, Seydel & Manning 2006). The significance of this study will hopefully

provide more information of the relationships between 2D:4D digit ratio in young

adolescence. It would offer scientists, coaches, athletes and parents a better understanding

on it and also its relation to exercise and involvement in sports. Gaining a better

understanding of the role of digit ratio in young adolescence is important because finding

new strategies to maximize the sporting ability potential in young adolescence. As we

already know young adolescence has better condition to improve in sports in the context

of development of their performance.

Furthermore, this study can give a new perspective on the factors of determining

the sports talent identification of the young adolescence, physical growth development

and how to develop them to be elite and successful athletes in the future. In order to

create world champion or Olympian many aspects must be observed, not only focus on

the nature and nurture of the athlete but also the specific talent that will give a big impact

on the athletes performance.


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2.1 Young adolescence and sporting ability

Adolescence is naturally related to sports as they develop their cognitive, mental,

emotional, physical and social capacities, from a very early age, through playing.

Millions of young adolescence around the world does engage in sports that may take

either the form of an organized activity or the form of spontaneous games in various

settings. Engagement in sports has many significant positive effects for the well-being of

adolescence.

First of all, it is scientifically affirmed that athletics and physical exercise

contribute immensely to the health of adolescence, reducing the likelihood for the

development of a significant list of serious pathogeneses. Good physical status along with

lean body mass is often considered a surrogate for skeletal muscle mass, which is an

important predictor of several physiological capacities expressed in absolute terms (e.g.,

maximal oxygen uptake, neuromuscular strength, anaerobic capacity and others (Baxter

et al., 2008).

Increased physical activity has been associated with an increased life expectancy

and decreased risk of cardiovascular disease. Physical activity produces overall physical,

psychological and social benefits. Inactive young adolescence is likely to become

inactive adults in future. The unhealthy person will easily to get the disease such as

obesity, high blood pressure, heart attack, and many more.

The physical characteristics that determine sport performance are constantly

changing especially during the growing years of childhood. Body size, shape, and

composition, as well as the physiological characteristics, are unique to an individual.


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These physical traits are influenced by age and sex, along with a host of internal and

external environmental factors. Baxter-Jones et al. (2008), stated that hormones are

basically regulators of body functions, and they play an important role in physical growth

and sexual maturation among the adolescence.

Most importantly, body characteristics are determined by genetic factors.

Hereditary influences on body structure and the body's many functions are so important

in determining the potential for athletic performance that it is often said that great athletes

are born, not made. The significance of one's genetic endowment cannot be denied. Aside

from the size, shape, and makeup of the body, there are several ways in which body

functions respond to exercise and training that are important contributors to athletic

performance (Kathleen et al. 2001). As with the body's structure, these abilities to

respond to training are in large part determined by genetic characteristics. They include

the potential for developing outstanding muscle strength, the capability of producing

muscle energy efficiently, and the capability of increasing the body's metabolism to a

very high level to meet the demands of vigorous exercise (Putza et al. 2004).

Quick reaction and speed of movement are also important to the athlete, as are the

potentials for speed and power. These traits are all hereditary. Hereditary factors are

critical in determining which the young adolescence can look forward to being

outstanding, and perhaps even elite athletes.

2.2 Digit ratio (2D:4D)

The relative lengths of the index and ring fingers (the 2D:4D ratio) in humans has

been a topic of considerable research interest in recent years. Digit ratio is often


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described as the ratio of the lengths of differentdigits. The fingers typically measured

from the bottom crease where the finger joins the hand to the tip of the finger. Prenatal

testosterone exposure has been shown to be associated with the digit ratio. It has been

suggested by some scientists that the ratio of two digits in particular, the 2nd (index

finger) and 4th (ring finger), is affected by exposure totestosterone while in

theuterus and that this 2D:4D ratio can be considered a crude measure for prenatal

androgen exposure. This mean with lower 2D:4D ratios pointing to higher androgen

exposure (Manning & Taylor, 2001).

The main characteristic of finger length ratio is sexually dimorphic with lower

digit ratio found in males. The digit ratio sexually dimorphism is established at least as

early as the ninth week of fetal life in the womb is found in infants and young

adolescence. It showed no evidence of change at puberty (Manning et al., 2007). Digit

ratio in men tend to have longer ring fingers than index fingers, or ratios less than 1.00,

and women tend to have index and ring fingers of equal length, or ratios of 1.00.

The longer the ring fingers compared to the index finger, study suggest that, the

higher the physiology aggressiveness (Hnekopp et al., 2006). This is depending with

those findings and support the possibility that an association between low 2D:4D and

sports and athletic achievement results at least in part from the action of prenatal

testosterone on such achievement. Most of the recent researches agreed to regard the

association between sports achievement and digit ratio. Digit ratio provides the essential

information on detecting the sporting ability or achievement in sports among the

individuals, especially the young adolescents.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Fingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_fingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_fingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_fingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosteronehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uterushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Uterushttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Testosteronehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ring_fingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_fingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Index_fingerhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Finger


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Furthermore, researches conducted by Manning et al. (2001), found that low

2D:4D ratio is significantly related with a high level of attainment among a number of

sports. They further indicated that football players in the 1st team squads had lower

2D:4D than the reserves players. This is proved again by Manning & Taylor (2001) in the

same study that men and women that had played at the international level had lower digit

ratios than those who had not played at international level. Manning et al. (2007) have

found that 2D:4D is associated with endurance running such that men and women with

high prenatal testosterone (low 2D:4D) tend to run faster.

2.3 Talent Identification

Talent identification is important to identify youngster and adolescences

capability. However, the progress of the development had been a little bit slow and too

late. The presumption from the above is that athletic talent is based, at least in some part,

on a genetic or innate predisposition that is responsive to training intervention. There is

strong evidence of genetic involvement in individual differences in sport-related

performance attributes (Hoare & Warr, 2000).

Throughout days, the youngsters shows signs of expert sporting potential, but not

all of them will be attaining the international sporting excellence. This is caused by their

talent rather than their interest that influence their level of excellence. Expertise in sport

is so highly prized and so difficult time and resource consuming to attain that any means

that can be found to accelerate the acquisition of expertise and to make skill learning

more efficient will be exceptionally valuable to athletes, coaches, officials, and others.


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Talent identification program is designed to identify young athletes, who possess

extraordinary potential for success in senior elite sport, and to select and recruit them into

talent promotion program (Vaeyens, 2009). The purpose of talent promotion is to

increase athletes potential by means of a variety of institutional measures designed to

accelerate talent development such as through additional competition and training

opportunities, effective time management, high-profile coaching, scientific and medical

intervention, individual funding, and counseling and welfare.

Talent identification is important in modern sport. They suggested that efficient

talent identification procedures should play a major role in modern sport. Finding the

correct timing to nurture sports talent is important. The younger the adolescence the

better it is. Final talent identification should take place at around 14 years of age.

Meanwhile, in team sports such as soccer, Hoare & Warr, (2000) stated that the young

soccer players can still be nurtured between ages of 15 years and there is still room for

improvement in these capacities as a result of growth and maturational process with the

training. Variant for this study is which is look on to adolescence ages range 18 to 23 that

already achieve maturity in the way of knowledge and understanding the nature of sports

that they involve.


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2.4 Testosterone Hormone Exposure to 2D:4D Digit Ratio

This study wants to show the correlation of digit ratio and the sporting ability.

Sporting ability can be inherited by exposure of testosterone level in the male body.

Exposure of testosterone in fetal and adult is a vital aspect in the establishment and

maintenance of sex dependence abilities in sports related to physical competitiveness

(Longman et al., 2011).

All over study, sex hormones shows an important role to sexual differentiation

about cognitive way and the physiological (Berenbaum & Beltz, 2011). During gestation,

rapid development and exposure to testosterone in the brain undergoes and permanently

organizes the structure of the brain in a way that influences the physical aggressiveness

such as an aggression, spatial abilities, interests, gender identity, and sexual orientation

(Berenbaum & Beltz, 2011). Other research shows that prenatal exposure to testosterone

also appears to contribute to the ratio of the second digit to the fourth digit which

assumes as the 2D:4D ratio (Manning et al., 1998, Manning, 2011, 2002).


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CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

3.0 Introduction

The main purpose of this present study was to investigate the variables of

physical characteristics through examining the 2D:4D finger length among the Malaysian

young adolescence for predicting their sporting ability and the responses towards the

physical fitness tests. The specific responses measured were the 2D:4D digit ratio along

with the adolescence physical fitness level. This study methodology was mainly divided

into three parts.

3.1 Research design and methodology

This study was evaluating the assessment of 2D:4D ratio and relate to sporting

ability of the subject. The method was adopted by Manning and Taylor that conducted

the study method to achieve the demand of this study. Design of the study use one shot

data which is subject was asses to do a fitness test which consist of all fitness components

such as power, strength, endurance and speed agility quickness. After fitness test,

subjects will be asked to measure the length of their digit ratio. Data was analyzed

statistically to see the correlation of the digit ratio with the sporting ability of the subjects.


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3.2 Research method work flow

Figure 3.1: The flowchart explains the process of this study

RESULT AND DISCUSSION

DATA ANALYSIS

PEARSON CORRELATION SCATTER PLOTS

FITNESS TESTSTANDING

BROAD JUMPVARIATION SIT

UPAGILITY T-

TEST BEEP TEST

DIGIT RATIO ASSESSMENTSCAN BOTH HAND USING

SCANNERMEASURING FINGER LENGTH

SUBJECT PROFILE70 YOUNG

ADOLESENCE18 - 23 YEARS OLD HEALTHY

DIGIT RATIO AND PHYSICAL FITNESS ABILITY


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