Devices of Sound

Introduction to

LITERATURE

Poetry. Drama • Fiction •Literary Theory & Criticism

uction to Literature ·

· aure: Structure, Sound osenberg, 2006. Print. - rd University Press,

-- Tone" The Norton ~ · York: Norton, 2010.

Harcourt: Newson and

13th November,

of Poetry. Uyo: Billy

. London: Longmans,

'on of African Poetry.

_ .. Literature. New York:

Chapter Nine

DEVICES OF SOUND

Isaac Eyi Ngulube

I would define, in brief, the Poetry of, words as The Rhythmical Creation of Beauty.

-Edgar Allan Poe

The sound must seem an echo to the sense. Alexander Pope

1. Exordium

123

No one knows for certain the precise origin of poetry. What we do know, however, is the fact that, it is the most ancient of arts. It had existed since human beings created language. Primitive cultures without written langliages integrated rhythmic patterns of words into their rittial ceremonies. These were in the form of chants accompanied by music · of a simple beat and the dance of a measured step. The urge to create and appreciate poetry is as basic to human experience as language itself (Meyer 769). My father once told me that Eleme poetry echoed the concerns of the poets and that of the listeners. It chronicles acts of bravery, fearsome foes, .natural disasters, mysterious events, births, deaths, things that brought pains or · pleasure, bewilderment or revelations. As time progressed poetry became an integral part of religion. This informs Meyer's claim that from its very beginnings, poetry has been associated with what has mattered most to people. Its concern - whether natural or supernatural - can, of course, be expressed without vivid images, rhythmic patterns, and pleasin:g sounds, but human beings have always sensed a magic in words that goes beyond rational, logical understanding (769).

'Poetry is a patterned form of verbal or written expression of ideas in concentrated, imaginative, and rhythmical terms. Poetry usually contains rhyme and a specific meter, but not necessarily'

124 Introduction to Literature

(Aniebo 1). Poetry, though a means of communication, is a unique experience in itself. What is special about poetry? What makes it valuable? Why should I read it? How is reading it different from reading prose? I begin with Arlington Robinson's succinct observation: 'poetry has two outstanding characteristics. One is that it is indefinable. The other is that it is eventually unmistakable.' His comment stresses how a poem affects the reader not how a poem is defined. The word indefinable acknowledges that poetry can include many different purposes, subjects, emotions, styles, and forms. Poetry pervades a society in a variety of forms, ranging from advertising jingles to song lyrics. Good poetry has meaningful sound as well as musical sound (Kennedy 809). The sounds of consonants and vowels can contribute greatly to a poem's effect. In a poem the sound of word working together with meaning pleases the mind and ear; the effect is euphony, as in Tennyson's 'Come down, 0 maid': 'Myriads of rivulets hurrying through the lawn, I The moan of doves in immemorial elm5, I And murmuring of innumerable bees.' The opposite is cacophony: a harsh, discordant effect. This is eVident in Milton's scornful reference in 'Lycidas' to corrupt clergymen whose songs 'Grate on their scrannel pipes of wretched straw.' This line is a Doggerel, a term used for lines whose subject matter is trite and whose rhythm and sounds are monotonously heavy-handed.

In this· section, I examine the feature of poetry you might not have thought about before: its rhythm. Yes, poetry has a rhythm, just as music does - a regular beat. When you learn to listen to that beat and think about it when you read poetry, you will be in a better position to appreciate poetry. Even though the terms used here may be

. new to your vocabulary, the concepts they name are part of your everyday language. This section is really about consciousness raising; it's about awareness. That awareness will help you determine the message you get while reading poetry. .

'Rhythms affect us powerfully. We are lulled by a hammock's sway, awakened by an alarm clock's repeated yammer. Long after we come home from a beach, the rising and falling of waves and tides continue in memory. How powerfully the rhythms of poetry also move us may be felt in folk songs' (Kennedy 829).

Devices of Sound

'A rhythm is and departures of the~· the beats of the heart. .. a sound (the throb of and sound are not ider:. .... <', rhythm from the mi ·

shaking of the pavem1 of the moon and stars,, poetry, several kinds 01

alliteration, and assonz:xd rhythm of a poem, Vt-e

When we hear a poem part of its sound.

Rhythms in pauses. 'Every nice 'finely tuned'), 'm English verse of ten :3J ·---

fourth, fifth, or sixth _ ~ line is called a cesura apply the name to any the line. In studying a lines (jl). Usually, a ~I there can be a cesura ' will find it at the eru William Blake, after an ·

Lines of ten or tweh-e cesura, though sometimes

· Pauses also after each line. At the

uction to Literature

_,..._--......w.LL<· cation, is a unique poetry? What makes it

l.. ""1UJ·, ... g it different from s succinct observation:

... · that it is indefinable. His comment stresses is defined. The word lude many different

....................... Poetry pervades a

....-.:>-1".· .... ing jingles to song 11 as musical sound

vowels can contribute ound of word working , the effect is euphony,

of rivulets hurrying emorial elm8, I And

is cacophony: a harsh, s scornful reference in Grate on their scrannel

......... _ a term used for lines ythm and sounds are

poetry you might not ·~"""""' has a rhythm, just

to listen to that beat will be in a better

used here may be e are part of your

ed by a hammock's yam.mer. Long after we

......... '"'· "" of waves and tides -~ .. ., of poetry also move

punos)o s.a:>JAaa

Devices of Sound 125

'A rhythm is produced by a series of recurrences: the returns and departures of the seasons, the repetitions of an engine's stroke, and the beats of the heart. A rhythm may be produced by the recurrence of a sound (the throb of a drum, a telephone's busy signal), but rhythm and sound are not identical' (829). A deaf person at a parade can sense rhythm from the motions of the marchers' arms and feet, from the shaking of the pavement as they tramp. Rhythms inhere in the motions of the moon and stars, even though they move, we hear no sound. In poetry, several kinds of recurrent sound are possible, including rime~ alliteration, and assonance. But most often when we speak of the rhythm of a poem, we mean the recurrence of stresses and pauses in it. When we hear a poem read aloud, stresses and pauses are of course, part of its sound.

Rhythms in poetry are not only due to stresses but also to pauses. 'Every nice ear,' observed Alexander Pope (nice meaning 'finely tuned'), 'must, I believe, have observed that in · any smooth English verse of ten syllables, there is naturally a pause either at the fourth, fifth, or sixth syllable.' Such a light but definite pause within a line is called a cesura (or caesura), 'a cutting.' Kennedy and Gioia apply the name to any pause in a line of any length, after any word in the line. In studying a poem, we often indicate a caesura by double lines (jl). Usually, a cesura will occur at a mark of punctuation, but there can be a cesura even if no punctuation is present. ·Sometimes you will find it at the end of a phrase or clause or, as in these lines by William Blake, after an internal rime:

And priests in black gowns II were walking their rounds And binding with briars II my joys and desires.

Lines of ten or twelve syllables (as Pope knew) tend to have one . cesura, though sometimes there are more:

Cover her face: II mine eyes dazzle: II she died young.

Pauses also tend to recur at more prominent places - namely, after each line. At the end of a verse the reader's eye, before turning to

126 Introduction to Literature .

go on to the next line, makes a pause, however brief. If a line ends in a full pause - usually indicated by some mark of punctuation - we call it end-stopped. All the lines in this passage from Christopher Marlowe's Doctor Faustus (in which Faustus addresses the apparition of Helen of Troy) are end-stopped:

Was this the face that launch'd a thousand ships, And burnt the topless towers of Ilium? Sweet Helen, make me immortal with a kiss. Her lips suck forth my soul: see, where it flies! Come, Helen, come, give me my soul again. Here will I dwell, for heaven is in these lips, And all is dross that is not Helena.

A line that does not end in punctuation and that therefore is read with only a slight pause after it is called a run-on line. Because a run-on line gives us only part of a phrase, clause, or sentence, we have to read on to the line or lines following, in order to complete a thought. All these lines from Robert Browing's 'My Last Duchess' are run-on lines.

Sir, 'twas not Her husband's presence only, called that spot Of joy into the Duchess' cheek: perhaps Fra Pandolf chanced to say 'her mantle laps Over my lady's wrist too much,' or 'Paint Must never hope to reproduce the faint Half-flush that dies along her throat.' Such stuff Was courtesy, she though . . .

A passage in run-on lines has a rhythm different from that of a passage like Marlowe's in end-stopped lines. When emphatic pauses occur in the quotation from Browning, they fall within a line rather than at the end of one. The passage by Marlowe and that by Browning are in line of the same meter (iambic) and the same length (ten

Devices of Sound

syllables). What ~ running on, or lack o~

To sum up: . stresses and pauses. Ti- ....

things: making the :_. short; indicating p-·-~ing ·then over; ....... ~ cannot convey mea.ning. rhythm must be one the vowel sound ha .... stealthily, walk to her same· but the vowel ~ called near rime, off moon, rain, green, _ expectation of an exact can help a poet say well for disappointed couplet:

2. Devices of sound Alexander Pope's corrr;;ie::d employed in the stu~ ·

Here, I shall concen understanding, appreci" • employ prosodic fc length, quality and p · (the length of time it

_ -.,f. If a line ends in a __ =.ctuation - we call it

· ~ istopher Marlowe's _ arition of Helen of

and ships, ?

and that therefore is -on line. Because a

.. r sentence, we have - - complete a thought.

:Juchess' are run-on

• · that spot • ps

e laps - Paint

ent from that of a .- en emphatic pauses

ithin a line rather _ and that by Browning

~e same length (ten

Devices of Sound

syllables). What makes the big difference in their rhythms is the running on, or lack of it.

To sum up: rhythm is recurrence. In poems, it is made of stresses and pauses. The poet can produce it by doing any of several things: making the intervals between stresses fixed or varied, long or short; indicating pauses (cesuras) within lines; end-stopping lines or ' ~ing then over; writing in short or · 1ong lines. Rhythm in itself cannot convey meaning. And yet if a poet's words have meaning, their rhythm must be one with it. To have an exact rime, sounds following the vowel sound have to be the same: red and bread, wealthily and stealthily, walk to her and talk to her. If final consonant sounds are the same but the vowel sounds are different, the result is slant rime, also called near rime, off rime, or imperfect rime: sun riming with bone, moon, rain, green, gone, thin. By not satisfying the reader's expectation of an exact chime, but instead giving a clunk, a slant rime · can help a poet say some things in a particular way. It works especially well for disappointed letdowns, negations, and denials, ~s in Blake's couplet: ·

He who the ox to wrath has moved · Shall never be by woman loved.

2. Devices of sound Alexander Pope's comment above reveals that there are two devices · employed in the study of poetry-devices of sense and devices of sound: Here, I shall concentrate on the devices of sound, because they aid· the understanding, appreciation and enjoyment of poetry. These devices employ prosodic features -stress, intonation, prominence, rhythm, length, quality and pitch. The length of a vowel refers to its duration (the length of time it takes to complete its articulation). Long vowels, i: u: a: a: :l:, have implication in poetic appreciation than their short counterpart- 1 e u o re. Long vowels attract stress while short ones do not. Stress, on the other hand, helps in determining the metrical feet of a poetic line. The quality of a vowel is momentous in the analysis and appreciation of poems. English vowels are of three different types -monophthongs, diphthongs and triphthongs. Whereas the diphthongs

128 Introduction to Literature .

and triphthongs are stress attracting the monophthongs does not. The diphthongs and triphthongs produce the melody in a poetic line the monophthongs trigger monotonous effect. ·

A stress (or accent) is a greater amount of force given to one syllable than is given to another in speaking. A stressed syllable takes more breath and emphasis, with the result that it comes out slightly louder, higher in pitch or longer in duration than other syllables (Roach 79). In this manner we place a stress on the first syllable of words such as eagle, impact, open, and statue, and on the second syllable in cigar, mystique, precise, and until. Each word in English carries at least one stress, except for the articles a, an, and the, the conjunction and, and one-syllable prepositions: at, by,for,from, of, to, with. Even these, however, take a stress once in a while: 'Get on 'with it!' 'You're not 'the 'Dolly Parton?' One word by itself is seldom long enough for us to notice a rhythm in it. Usually a sequence of at least few words is needed for stresses to establish their pattern (Kennedy 830). The pitch of the voice is responsible for the cadences (tempos and rhythm) in a poetic line. Pitch rises and falls producing musical effect in the poem. There are various shades of pitch: the fall-rise~ risefall and level pitch. The level pitch will produce monotony in a poetic line while the other shades of pitch will trigger different intonation pattern. A particular intonation pattern is capable of yielding different shades of meaning. The mode of phonation is another significant prosodic feature that poets employ in their poems. Poets tactfully contrast voice and voiceless consonants achieving alliteration, assonance and consonance. Voiceless consonants are eye-catching while the voiced consonants are ear-appealing. In William Hathaway poem Oh, Oh we see the effective use of sound devices.

Oh, Oh My girl and I amble a country lane, Moo cows chomping daisies, our own Sweet saliva green with grass stems. 'Look, look,' she says at the crossing,. 'thechoO-choo 's light is on.' And sure Enough, right smack dab in the middle

Devices of Sound

The vowel [ oo] of the -emotion and forebodre:_, appropriate. This vowe first two lines, the infi walk in the country, wt...pleasure. Note specially·· 'chomping.' The visual ,e suggests an innocent, • repetitive oo sounds carefully orchestrated are meant to be savoured. 'Right smack dab in the • hint that all is not well.

Filled with conn successful future tog1 for them as it 'chuckle very last line does 'the strategically 'poised' couple . and brings their ~ reversal parked in the las: •• does the couple. The si ..,:i..,.,. that what seemed like hi ·various devices of soun

tt:t:ltl.ongs does not. The a poetic line the

force given to one s:res.sed syllable takes · e-0mes out slightly than other syllables

e first syllable of and on the second h word in English a, an, and the, the by,for,from, of, to, mile: 'Get on 'with

: itself is seldom long sequence of at least · pattern (Kennedy

.. e cadences (tempos - producing musical

· the fall-rise, risenotony in a poetic

different intonation of yielding different

· - another significant ~'11'1 ~ . Poets tactfully ~ · eving alliteration,

IC!'.ilC:US are eye-catching William Hathaway

Devices of Sound

Of maple dappled summer sunlight is the lit headlight - so funny. An arm waves to us from the black window. We wave gaily to the arm. 'When I hear 10 trains at night I dream of being president,' I say dreamily. 'And me first lady,' she says loyally. So when the last boxcars, named after wonderful, faraway places, and the caboose chuckle by we look 15 eagerly to the road ahead. And there,

129

poised and growling, are fifty Hell's Angels. [Emphasis mine]

The vowel [ ~] of the title offers an interjection expressing strong emotion and foreboding. No other vowel would have been more appropriate. This vowel evokes the right emotion in the reader. In the first two lines, the informal language conjures up an idyllic picture of a walk in the country, where the sights, sounds and tastes are full of pleasure. Note specially the vowels of the words 'amble,' 'moo' and 'chomping.' The visual effect of the many os in lines f-5 and 15 suggests an innocent, wide-eyed openness to experience while the repetitive oo sounds echo a kind of reassuring, satisfied cooing. The carefully orchestrated tis, ms, ps, and ss of lines 6-8 create sounds that are meant to be savoured. But the cacophonic plosives t, k, d, and b in 'Right smack dab in the middle' and, 'the black Window' of the poem hint that all is not well.

Filled with confidence and hope, the couple imagines a successful future together in exotic locations. Even the train is happy for them as it 'chuckle[s]' in approval of their dreams. Not until the very last line does 'the road ahead' yields a terrifying surprise. The strategically 'poised' final line derails the leisurely movement of the couple . and brings their happy story to a dead stop. The emotional reversal parked in the last few words awaits the reader as much as it does the couple. The sight and sound of the motorcycle gang signal that what seemed like heaven is, in reality, hell: Oh, oh. I now turn to various devices of sound. ·


t.METER Poets use words some of which are stressed while· others are unstressed. The pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables established in a line of poetry is called meter. The stressed ( ' ) is also called the accented or long syllable. The unstressed (·)syllable is also called the unaccented or short syllable. In determining the meter, the importance of the word (content or structural), the position in the metrical pattern (initial, medial or end), and other linguistic factors are considered. In identifying the meter of a line or verse, the type and number of feet are, also, considered.

To enjoy the rhythms of a poem, no special knowledge of meter is necessary. All you need to do is pay attention to stresses and where they fall, and you will perceive the basic pattern. There is nothing occult about the study of meter. Most people find they can master its essentials in no more time than it takes to learn a complicated game as · chess. If you take the time, you will then hav_e the pleasure of knowing what is happening in the rhythms of many a fine poem (Barnet 245).

To be aware of a meter, you need to listen to a poem, or sound its words to yourself. If you care to work out exactly what a poet is doing, you scan a line of a poem by indicating the stresses in it. Scansion, the art of so doing, is not just a matter of pointing to syllables; it is also a matter of listening to a poem and ma~ing sense of it (Jacobus 341 ). To scan a poem is one way to indicate how to read it aloud; in order to see where stresses fall; you have to see the places where the poet wishes to put emphasis. That is why, when scanning a poem, you may find yourself suddenly understanding it. To scan a poem is to make a diagram of the stress (and absences of stress) found in it (Kirszner 200). Various marks are used in scansion; here, I use g for a stressed syllable' and 0 for an unstressed syllable.

i. FOOT A foot is a unit of meter. A metric foot c~n have two or three syllables. A foot consists generally of one stressed and one or more unstressed syllables. A line may have one foot, two feet, etc. Poetic lines are classified according to the number of feet in a line. A number of basic

\

_,__

Devices of Sound

metric feet determinoo unstressed. syllables are

a. Iambic foot b. Trochaic foot c. Anapaestic foo

a.IAMB The iambic foot is a syllable. In other wo--an unstressed syllable • measure is the most co , . , such as Robert Frost, f~ rhythms of English spee.-._

"When 'I I "have

Exercise: Scan the foll

1. Ifwe had world er:~~ ... This coy ness, lad:

3. A book of verses A jug of wine, a

b. TROCHEE The trochaic foot is the

· made up primarily of unstressed syllable,' 0

•


while others are - - syllables established

' ) is also called the le is also called the

"" eter, the importance the metrical pattern

- rs are considered. In -"'d number of feet are,

-· knowledge of meter -- •o stresses and where

There is nothing - d they can master its

- .:. omplicated ganie as · -e pleasure of knowing

em (Barnet 245). -·en to a poem, or sound -~ "xactly what a poet is • - - g the stresses in it. ·

matter of pointing to and ma~ing sense of ·

- ; dicate how to read it ve to see the places

• - -hy, when scanning a ~ding it. To scan a

sences of stress) found - - scansion; here, I use g

able.

e two or three syllables. e or more unstressed etc. Poetic lines are e. A number of basic

Devices of Sound . 131

metric feet determined by the arrangement pattern of stressed and unstressed syllables are:

a. Iambic foot b. Trochaic foot c. Anapaestic foot

a. IAMB

( d) Dactylic foot ( e) Spondaic foot (f) Pyrrhic foot

The iambic foot is a two syllable foot with the stress on the second syllable. In other words, iambic is a line made up primarily of iambs, an unstressed syllable followed by a stressed syllable, • .' The iambic measure is the most common meter in English poetry. Many writers, such as Robert Frost, feel iambs most easily capture the natural rhythms of English speech.

0

But 'soft,f 0

what 'light I 0 through 'yon I • der 'win I • dow'breaks? William Shakespeare

0 When 'I I 0 have 'fears I 0 that 'I I 0 may 'cease I :to 'be - John Keats

Exercise: Scan the following lines into iambic feet.

1. If we had world enough and time This coyness, lady, were no crime

-Andrew Marvell

2. My life had stood a loaded Gun Emily Dickinson

3. A book of verses underneath the bough A jug of wine, a loaf of bread and thou

b. TROCHEE The trochaic foot is the opposite of the iambic foot. Trochaic is a line

· made up primarily of trochees, a stressed syllable followed by an unstressed syllable,'

0

• The trochaic meter is often associated with

a.1tr1D.ti11l7 01 uo113npo.Quf ZE'f


songs, chants, and magic spells in English (Kennedy 838). Trochees make a strong, emphatic meter that is often very mnemonic. Shakespeare and Blake used trochaic meter to exploit its musical associations. Notice how Blake drops the unstressed syllable at the end of these lines from 'The Tyger.' The location of a missing syllable in a metrical foot is usually marked with a caret sign, ".

"Dou 0 ble I "dou 0 ble I "toil 0 and l"trou 0 ble "Fi

0

re I "bum 0

and I "caul 0

dron l"hub 0

ble. -Shakespeare

"Ty.0 ger, I ty. 0 ger, I oum.0 ing I "bright.., "In °the I "for. 0 est I "of°the I "night v

-William Blake

Exercise: Scan the following line by John Donne into a trochaic meter. Go and catch a falling star

c.ANAPEST The anapaestic foot consists of three syllables with the stress on the final syllable.Put differently, anapaestic is a line made up primarily of anapests, two unstressed syllables followed by a stressed syllable, 0 0

.'

Anapestic meter resembles iambic but contains an extra unstressed syllable. Anapaestic lines often start to gallop, so poets sometimes slow by substituting an iambic foot as Poe does in 'Annabel Lee.'

0 The "As. 'syr I 0 ian°came 'down I 0 like 0 a 'wolf I 0 on °the 'fold 0 And

0

his 'co I 0 horts0 were 'gleam I 0 ing0 in 'pur I 0 ple0 and 'gold. 0

And "the 'sheen I 0 of 0 their 'spears I 0 was 0

like 'stars I 0 on °the 'sea 0 When °the 'blue I 0 wave 0 rolls 'night I 0 ly 0 on 'deep I 0 Gal .0 i. 'lee.

-Lord Bryon

0

Now 'this I 0 is 0

the 'law I 0 of 0

the 'Jun I 0 gle - 0 as 'old I 0 and 0 as

'true I

.~

~

Devices a/Sound

Oas 0 the 'sky 0 And "the 0

the 'wolf ! 0 that "shall

I. It was many

2.

In a kingdom . That a maiden By the name o~.

ti.DACTYL The dactylic foot is line made up primaril two unstressed syllab English than in classi dactylic meter can so also easily becomes a in comic verse. Poets o dactylic line, the omissi "This "is "the I "for. 0 est • "and

0

the I "hem.1ock

lake "Lift 11· • "Fash.•' "Young ·

.. ~ ........ edy 838). Trochees very mnemonic.

exploit its musical ts:i:sst:xi syllable at the end

~ a missing syllable in a

into a trochaic meter.

olf I 0 on °the 'fold - 'pur I 0 ple0 and 'gold.

·like 'stars I 0 on °the

y ·on 'deep I 0 Gal .0 i.

-Lord Bryon

"gle - 0 as 'old I 0 and 0 as


0 as 0the 'sky 0 And 0the 'Wolf I 0that 0shall 'keep I 0it 0may 'pros I 0per,"' I 0but 0the 'wolf I 0that 0shall 'break I 0 1t ·must 'die.

- Rudyard Kipling

Exercise: Scan the following line into anapestic feet.

1. It was many and many a year ago In a kingdom by the sea That a maiden there lived whom you may know By the name of Annabel Lee.

-Edgar Allan Poe

2. With the sheep in the field and the cows in their stalls

ti.DACTYL The dactylic foot is the opposite of the anapestic foot. Dactylic is a line made up primarily of dactyls, one stressed syllable · followed by two unstressed syllables, ' • •. The dactyl meter is less common in English than in classical languages like Greek or Latin. Used carefully, dactylic meter can sound stately, as in Longfellow's Evangeline, but it also easily becomes a prancing, propulsive measure and is often used in comic verse. Poets often drop the unstressed syllables at the end of a dactylic line, the omission usually being noted with a caret sign, ". "'This 0is 0 the I "for.°est 0 pri I "me.°val. 0 The I "mur.°mur.°ing I "pines 0 and 0 the I "'hem. "lock

-Henry Wadsworth Longfellow

"Take 0 her •up I "'ten.0 der. 0 ly "'Lift 0 her 0with I "care " "Fash.°ioned ·so I "slen.°der.°ly "Young 0 and ·so "fair".

- Thomas Hood


Exercise: Scan these words and phrases as dactylic:

1. Pussy.cat, pussy.cat, where have you been? v

-Mother Goose. 2. Happiness, merrily, and murmuring

Love again sing again nest again young again

e.SPONDEE The spondaic foot consists of two stressed syllables. Two lexical items adjacent to each other are examples of spondees. Spohdees are used for variation. The followingwords C1fe examples of spondees: 'heart 'break I 'child 'hood I 'foot 'ball.

/.PYRRHIC The pyrrhic foot consists of two unstressed syllables. This type of foot is rare and is found interspersed with other feet. Iambic and anapestic meters are called rising meters because their movement rises from an unstressed-syllable (or syllables) to stress; trochaic and dactylic meters are called falling. In the 201

h century, the bouncing meters - anapestic and dactylic - were . used more often for comic verse than for serious poetry. Called feet, though they contain no . unaccented syllables, are the monosyllabic foot ( ' ) and the spondee ( ' ' ). Meters are not ordinarily made up of them; ·if one were, it would be like the steady impact of nails being hammered into a board- no pleasure to hear or to dance to. But. inserted now and then, they can lend emphasis and variety to a meter, as Yeats well knew when he broke up the predominantly iambic rhythm of 'Who Goes with Fergus? ' with the line: •And 0 the 'white 'breast ·of 0 the 'dim 'sea, in which two spondees occur. Meters are classified also by line lengths: trochaic monometer, for instance, is a line one trochee long, as in this anonymous brief comment on microbes:

Adam Had'em

Devices of Sound

A frequently heard five iambs, a meter ,,.,._~_.

verse (such as Sha.k..~..r.::;

couplets, and sonnets. follow:

a. Monomete.r b. Dimeter c. Trimeter d. Tetramete e. Pentameter f. Hexameter g. Heptameter h. Octameter

a. Monometer Robert Herric,

Upon Thus I Pass by And die: As one Unkno And Go~e I'mmaC.e A shade And laic I' th' gra-:-"' There My cave Where te I dwell Farewe


' .,

es. Two lexical items Spondees are used for

: spondees: 'heart 'break

les. This type of foot Iambic and anapestic vement rises from an ·c and dactylic meters

- ing meters - anapestic -- · c verse than for serious ~ented syllables, are

< ' ' ). Meters are not ould be like the steady

- no pleasure to hear or to . can lend emphasis and

... en he broke up the ith Fergus?' with the

in which two spondees : trochaic manometer, this anonymous brief

Devices Qf Sound 135

A frequently heard metrical description is iambic pentameter: a line of five iambs, a meter especially familiar because it occurs in all blank verse (such as Shakespeare's plays and Milton's Paradise Lost) heroic couplets, and sonnets. The commonly used names for line lengths follow:

a. Monometer one foot · b. Dimeter two foot c. Trimeter three· foot d. Tetrameter four foot · e. Pentameter five foot f. Hexameter six foot g. Heptameter seven foot h. Octameter eight foot

a. Monometer Robert Herrick's poem is an example of iambic monometer.

Upon His Departure Thus I Pass by And die: As one, Unknow And Gone: I'm made A shade And laid I' th' grave: There have My cave Where tell I dwell Farewell


b.Dimeter Richard Armour's poem below is an example of a poem in

trochaic dimeter.

c. Trimeter

Money Workers earn it, Spendthrifts bum it, Bankers lend it, Women spend it, Forgers fake it, Taxes take it, Dying leave it, Heirs receive it, Misers crave it, Robbers seize it, Gamblers lose it.

Robert Bridges' poem is an example of iambic trimeter.

THE IDLE LIFE I LEAD The idle life I lead Is like a pleasant sleep, Wherein I rest and heed The dreams that by rrie sweep.

And still of all my dreams I tum so swiftly past, Each in its fancy seems A nobler than the last.

And every eve I say, Nothing my step in bliss, That I have known no day In all ~life like this.

Devices of Sound

d. Tetrameter Henry Leigh's poem ·

e. Pentameter Alexander Pope's

f. Hexameter A line of six iambi. • alexandrine. The _; __ . and is referred to as

g. Heptameter

from To thi/ and

Ernest Thayer's poem


example of a poem in

· trimeter.

Devices of Sound

ti. Tetrameter Henry Leigh's poem is an example of iambic tetrameter. ,

e. Pentameter

from NOT QUITE FAIR The hills, /the meal dows, and/ the lakes Enchant not for their own sweet sakes They cannot know, they cannot care To know what they are thought so fair.

Alexander Pope's poem illustrates iambic pentameter.

To err/ is hu/ man to/ for give I divine True wit is nature to advantage dress' d

; .

What oft was thought, but ne'er so well express'd. The beautiful blockhead, ignorantly read, With loads of learned lumber in his ~ead.

f. Hexameter

137

A line of six iambic foot (iambic hexameter) is sometimes called an alexandrine. The ninth line of a Spenserian stanza is iambic hexameter and is referred to as an alexandrine.

g. Heptameter

from THE EVE OF ST. AGNES To think I how they I may ache I in I I cy hoods I and mails from FIFINE AT THE FAIR If hunger, proverbs say, allures the wolf from wood Much more the bird must dare a dash at something good.

Ernest Thayer's poem evinces the iambic heptameter.

from CASEY AT THE BAT It looked extremely rocky for the Mudville nine that day The score stood four to six with but an inning left to play-


h. Octameter Edgar Allan Poe's poem illustrates the trochaic octameter.

from THE RA VEN Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary.

2. VERSE FORMS There are certain types of verse forms that are based on meter and rhym~.· These are rhymed verse, blank verse and free verse.

i. Rhymed Verse Rhymed verse consists of verse with end rhyme and usually with a regular meter. Richard Armour's poem Horses exemplifies it.

HORSES They head the list Of bid to bet on, But I insist They're worse to get on.

ii. Blank Verse Shakespeare's Julius Caesar is an example of iambic pentameter without end rhyme, written in blank verse.

Cowards die many times before their deaths; The valiant never taste of death but once Of all the wonders that I yet have heard, It seems to me most strange that men should fear Seeing that death, a necessary end, Will come when it will come.

c. Free Verse Carl Sandburg's Splinter is written in free verse which consists of lines that do not have a regular meter and do not contain rhyme.

1

Devices of Sound

The voice of tt!"'

Across the Is one kind of .... It is so thin a spli=::::li

3.RHYME Rhyme, also spelled between two words. _ stressed syllables and ~-~ different. Linguisti A good example of a vowels are identical described using their oosraot

and internal rhyme.

i. End Rhyme End rime, as its name -Burgess's poem entitle occurring at the end of

ii. Internal Rhyme Internal rhyme consists more words in the san:e Jesse James exemplify ·

Once upon a midnight Over many a quaint an1

ered,

based on meter and

: ...,...e and usually with a emplifies it.

of iambic pentameter

.. which consists of lines - · rhyme.

., . '.

Devices 'of Sound

SPLINTER The voice of the last cricket Across the first frost Is one kind of good-bye It is so thin a splinter of singing.

3.RHYME

139

Rhyme, also spelled rime, is the similarity of likeness of sound existing between two words. A· true rhyme consists of identical sounding stressed syllables and the consonants preceding the vowel sounds are different. Linguistically, these lexical items are called minimal pairs. A good example of a perfect rhyme is fun and run. This is because the vowels are identical ["] but the consonants differ. Rhymes are described using their positions in a line of a poem; there are end rhyme and internal rhyme.

i. End Rhyme End rime, as its name indicates, comes at the end of lines. Gelett Burgess's poem entitle 'I wish' illustrates end rhyme. It is a similarity occurring at the end of two or more lines of verse.

I WISH I wish that my room had a floor; I don't so much care for a door, But this walking around Without touching the ground Is getting to be quite a bore

ii. Internal Rhyme

a a b b a

Internal rhyme consists of the similarity occurring between two or more words in the same line of verse. Poems from The Raven and Jesse James exemplify it.

THE RAVEN Once upon a midnight dreary, while I pondered, weak and weary. Over many a quaint and curious volume of forgotten lore-


While I nodded nearly napping, suddenly there came a tapping As of someone gently rapping, rapping at my chamber door-' Tis some visitor,' I muttered, 'Tapping at my_ chamber door Only this and nothing more.'

JESSE JAMES It was on a Wedn,esday night; the moon was shining bright They robbed the . old dale train, And the people they did say, for many miles away,

· 'Twas the outlaws Frank and Jesse James. Jesse had~a wife, to mourn all her life, The children they are brave 'T was a dirty coward shot Mister Howard, And laid Jesse James in his grave. (Howard was the name Jesse was using.)

b. Types of Rhyme

Anonymous

Here, rhyme is discussed based on the number of syllables that sounds similar in a line of a poem. There are three of such rhymes: masculine rhyme, feminine or double rhyme and triple rhyme

i. Masculine Rhyme Masculine rhyme occurs when one syllable of a word rhymes with <lnother word, as in: band I sand; brightJ light.

Fading light a Dims the sight a

And the star gem the sky b Gleaming bright, a

From afar crawling night, b Falls the night. a

ii. Femine or Double Rhyme Arthur Guitennan's poem "How Are You" evinces feminine or double rhyme. Feminine rhyme occurs when the penultimate and ultimate

Devices of Sound

syJlables of a word lawful I awful; lightin6

Don't tell your iT'

'How are you:· -

iii. Triple Rhyme Hilaire Belloc' s "Ht ~ rhyme occurs when rhyme. The follo¥ting I glorious; ascend.am._, battering/shattering

c. Rhyme Scheme Rhyme scheme is the The first sound is ......,.._.,.,,.,,. designated as b, etc. as a. I will use Roy A Sons to demonstrate the

For each micro Has a different And in time th_ ~ There are germs In any food that _


ea tapping ber doorber door

Anonymous

of syllables that sounds : such rhymes: masculine

f a word rhymes with

a a b a b a

ces feminine or double -oenultimate and ultimate


syllables of a word rhyme (sounds alike) w_ith another word as in lawful I awful; lighting I fighting; rattling I battling.·

HOW ARE YOU Don't tell your friends about your indigestion: · 'How are you!' is a greeting, not a question.

iii. Triple Rhyme Hilaire Belloc's "Hippopotamus" is written in triple rhyme. Triple rhyme occurs when the last three syllables of a word in a poetic line rhyme. The following words are in themselves triple rhyme: victorious I glorious; ascendancy /descendancy; quivering r shivering and battering I shattering

THE HIPOPOTAMUS I shot the Hippopotamus With bullets made of platinum Because if I use leaden ones His hide is sure to flatten 'em

c. Rhyme Scheme

a b c d

Rhyme scheme is the pattern or sequence in which the rhyme occurs. The first sound is represented or designated as a, · the second is designated as b, etc. When the first sound is repeated, it is designated as a. I will use Roy Atwell's Some Little Bug and Browning's Pippa's Sons to demonstrate the concept.

SOME LITTLE BUG In these days of indigestion It is often times a question As to what to eat and what to leave alone For each microbe and bacillus Has a different way to kill us; And in time they always claim us for their own,. There are germs of every kind In any food that you can find

a a b c c b d d


In the market or upon the bill of fare. Drinking water's just as risky As the so-called deadly whisky And it's often a mistake to breathe the air

PIPPA'S SONS The year's at the spring And day's at the mom Morning's at seven The hillside's dew-peered; The lark's on the wing The snail's on the thorn God's in his heaven .All's right with the world!

4. ALLITERATION

e f ~f

e

a ,b c d a b c d

Like musical compositions, poems have patterns of sounds. One of such patterns is alliteration, which has been defined as a succession of similar sounds. Alliteration occurs in the repetition of ·the same consonant sound at the beginning of successive words, as in 'How much dew could a dewdrop drop if a dewdrop did drop dew?' 'Round and round the rugged rocks the ragged rascal ran.' The repetition of the voiced alveolar plosive and the alveolar approximant, are eyecatching and appealing to ear. Consider the poem below by Walter Parke written using the bilabial nasal to give it force and effect.

MY MADELINE My Madeline! my Madeline! Mark my melodious midnight moans; Much may my melting music mean, My modulated monotones.

A TUTOR A Tutor who looted the flute Tried to teach two young tooters to toot; So said the two to the Tutor

Devices of Sound

There are two types - · alliteration or sound, not by spellin:.: In a line by E.E. Cn--;.. t

the sound of x with;... poets use alliterati Lear does: 'Far Jumblieslive.' With · two things placed · worth: 'The courtier's _, is a powerful aid to :-· as: 'Peter Piper piece expressions like 'gree:: stem.

Certain words ec onomatopoeia. The hiss are suggestive o: • poems The Coming o, ~

Hear the slede-Silver bells! What a world _: In the icy air oi u.c . .:

e f f e

a b

·C d a b c d


'is it harder to toot, or To tutor two toothersto toot?'

There are two types of alliterations, initial alliteration and internal alliteration or hidden alliteration. Alliteration is recognised by sound, not by spelling: know and nail alliterates, know and key do not. In a line by E.E. Cummings, 'colossal hoax of clocks and calendars,' the sound of x within hoax alliterates with the cks in clocks. Certain poets use alliteration for special effects, to give emphasis, as Edward Lear does: 'Far and few, far and few, I Are the /ands where the Jumb/ies/ive.' With its aid they can point out the relationship between two things placed side by side, as in Pope's line on things of little worth: 'The courtier's promises, and sick man's prayers.~ Alliteration is a powerful aid to memory. It is hard to forget such tongue twisters as: 'Peter Piper picked a peck of pickled peppers' or simple expressions like 'green and grass,' 'tried and true' and 'from stem to stem.

S. ONOMATOPOEIA Certain words echo or imitate natural sounds such words are onomatopoeia. The following words buzz, crunch, tinkle, gurgle, sizzle, hiss are suggestive of their meanings. A classic example is_ Tennyson's poems The Coming of Arthur and The Princess and Poe!s The Bells

THE COMING OF ARTHUR Clang battleaxe, and clash brandi! Let the King reign.

THE PRINCESS The moan of doves in immemorial elms, And murmuring of innumerable bees.

THE BELLS Hear the sledges with the bells, Silver bells! What a world of merriment their melody foretells! In the icy air of night!


6. ASSONANCE As we have seen in (4) above, to repeat the sound of a conson~t is to produce alliteration, ·but to repeat the sound of a vowel i_s to produce assonance. Like alliteration, assonance may qccur either initially - 'all the awful auguries' - or internally - Edmund Spencer's 'Her goodly eyes like sapphires shining bright, I Her forehead ivory white ... ' and it can help make common phrases unforgettable: 'eager beaver,' 'holly smoke.' Like alliteration, it slows the reader down and focuses attention. Assonance is sometimes called partial or near rhyme. For instance, lake and stake are rhymes but lake and fade are assonance. Base andface are rhymes, but base andfade assonance.

7. CONSONANCE Consonance, a kind of slant rime, occurs when the rimed words or phrases have the same beginning and ending consonant sounds but a different vowel, as in chitter and chatter. Owen rimes spoiled' and spilled in this way. Consonance is used in a traditional nonsense poem, 'The Cutty Wren': 'O where are you going?' says Milder to Malder. W.H. Auden writes a variation of it that begins, 'O where are you going?' said reader to rider.' In other . words, consonance is the repetition of consonant sounds within a line of verse. Consonance is similar to alliteration except that consonance doesn't limit the repeated sound to the initial consonant of a word. · ,

from CROSSING THE BAR But such a tide as moving seems asleep, Too full for sound and foam,

from IN MEMORIAM On yet trust that somehow good Will be the final goal of ill To pangs of nature, sins of will, Defects of doubt, and taints of blood;

from THE BUGLE.SONG The splendour falls on castles walls And snowy summits old in stodgy.

Devices of Sound

The long light Si"t?'m r

And the wild ~

8.REFRAIN A refrain is the repe · · a poem, usually at form of a chorus. C.L ii~

It satisfies no ..,,..._T

I like i It makes you It takes the hair ii"i:r..... It's the worst dar- ·

I like i

9. REPETITION Repetition is the reiterari _ Bodgson's71ie Hammers

of a consonant is to -owel i~ to produ,ce either initially - 'all

cer's 'Her goodly -.·ory white ... ' and it

ger beaver,' 'holly down and focuses or near rhyme. For

• J ooe are assonance.

e rimed words or onant sounds but a rimes spoiled; and . ·

• nal nonsense poem, Milder to Malder. 0 where are you

- consonance is the ·erse. Consonance is

' t limit the repeated

Devices of Sound

The long light shakes across the lakes, And the wild cataract leaps in glory.

8.REFRAIN

145

A refrain is the repetition of one or more phrases or lines at intervals in a poem, usually at the end of a stanza. The refrain usually takes the form of a chorus. C.L Hemminge's poem is a good example ofit.

THIS SMOKING WORLD Tobacco is a dirty weed;

I like it. It satisfies no normal need:

I like it. It makes you thin, it makes you lean It takes the hair right off your bean, It's the worst dam stuff I've ever seen:

Hike it.

9. REPETITION Repetition is the reiterating of a word or phrase within a poem. Ralph Bodgson'sThe Hammers illustrates this. ·

THE HAMMERS Noise of hammers once I heard Many hammers, busy hammers, Beating, shaping, night and day, To a place, saw it reared: Saw the hammers laid away.

And I listened, and I heard Hammers heating, night and day In a palace newly reared, Beating it to dust and clay Other hammers, muffled hammers, Silent hammers of decay.


Conclusion Mark Twain observes that "anybody can write the first line of a poem, but it is a very difficult task to make the second line rhyme with the first." Like musical compositions, poems have patterns of sounds. Among such patterns are the sound devices we have considered in this chapter. Reading poetry is like listening to a symphony in which themes are repeated throughout . each movement, we enjoy both their recurrence and their . variation. We take similar pleasure in the repetition of a phrase or a single chord. Something like this pleasure is afforded us frequently in poetry.

Works Cited

Abrams, M.H. and Geoffery Galt Harpman. A Glossary of Literary Terms8th ed. Thomas Higher Education, Boston, MA, USA. 2005. Print.

· Allison, A.W., Herbert Barrows, Caesar R. B., Arthur J.C., Arthur M. E., Hubert M. E. The Anthology of Poetry.3th ed. W.W. Norton & Company, Inc. 1983. Print.

Aniebo, i:N.C African Poetry Evolution, Unpublished University of Port Harcourt Monograph.

Barnet, S., William B., Morton B., William E£. An Introduction to Literature 12th ed .. Longman Publishers. 2000. Print.

Jacobus, Lee A. Literature: an introduction to Critical Reading Pearson Educational, Inc. 2002. Print.

Kennedy, X.J. and Dana Gioia. Literature: An introduction to Fiction, Poetry, Drama, and Writing. Pearson Custom Publishing, New York. USA, 2007. Print.

Kirszner, G. L., Stephen R. M. Literature Reading, Reacting and Writing. 6th ed. Thomas Higher Education, Boston, MA, USA, 2007. Print.

Kollin, Martha. Rhetorical Grammar: Grammatical Choices, Rhetorical Effects. 4th ed. Pearson Educational, 2003. Print.

Meyer, Michael. The Bedford Introduction to Literature Reading, Thinking Writing. 5thed. Bedford/St. Martin's Boston, New York,2008.Print.

Devices of Sound

Scholes, R., Nancy Literary Langua, 1995.Print.

duction to Literature

firs~ line of a poem, but it · _.me with the first." Like

ozv,_~.....,. Among such patterns ter. Reading poetry is

~ repeated throughout each - eir variation. We take

.:. single chord. Something

A Glossary of L<lucation, Boston,

B., Arthur J.C., ::o.. · of Poetry.3th ed.

:=:. .C. An Introduction --crs. 2000. Print.

·::; Critical Reading

· 'n introduction to Pearson Custom

ding, Reacting and -- ·on, Boston, MA,

matical Choices, - · onal, 2003. Print.

:.iterature Reading, ~ rtin's Boston, New

Devices of Sound

Scholes, R., Nancy R. C., Gregory L. U. An Introduction to Literary Language.2nd ed. St. Martin's Press, New York. 1995. Print.

147

Devices of Sound

Documents