-
Paki:mm Journal of Social and Clinical Psychology2010, Vol. 8,
No.2, 91 - 118
DEVELOPMENT OF TERRORISM IMPACTSCALE: INITIAL VALIDITY AND
RELIABILITY ANALYSES
Farah Malik, Rabia Khawar, Rabia Iftikhar;Saima Saeed and Rehana
Ilyas
Department of PsychologyGC University, L.ahore, Pakistan
This study describe.o:;the development and psychometric
properties of TerrorismImpact Scale (TIS). Items generated were
ba::;edon two focus groups withjournalists. personnel from security
forces and experts from diffcrent walk::;oflife, in-depth
interviews conductcd with religious scholars and a
preliminaryquestionnaire administered to the survivors of terrorist
attacks, witnesses andgeneral public in Lahore. Initially, a pool
of 200 items was generated tappingdifferent types of impact of
terrorism ill the society (e.g., emotional,psychOlogical. and
socia-cultural). An expert opinion based pool of 95 itemswas
retained for initial empirical evaluation on four groups (students,
generalpublic, terror attack survivors, and security forces, N =
280). The factor analyticstrategy generated 5 clusters with 64
items, labeled as State Affairs,Psychosocial Distress, Civic
Affairs. Governance h~ues, and Resilience. TISdemonstrated
significant conslfUct validity and reliability overall and for its
5subscale~. Item analysis and alpha coefficients revealed
significantly highinternal consistency for [he measure. Further
analysis of data rcvealedsignificant differences alllong
parlicipant groups for impact of terrorism.
Keywords: terrorism, Pakistan, impact of terrorism,
resilience
The impact of terrorism cannot belimited to any. one dimension
as actsof terrorism may affect the entire lifeand society.
Terrorism is an art withthe key aim to demoralize thecommunity and
undermine its sense ofsecurity; it leaves everlasting effects
Dr. Farah Malik, Department of Psychology,GC University,
KatchelY Road, Lahore. Ms.Rabia Khawar, Lecturer, GCU,
Faisalabad.Ms. Rehaml Ilyas, PhD Scholar, Ms. RahiaJftikhar,
Research Associate, Ms. Saima Saeed,Research Assistant, Department
ofPsychology, GC University, Kalchery Road,Lahore.Correspondence
concerning this article
should bc addressed to Dr. Farah Malik,...Chairperson,
Department of Psychology. GCUniversity, Kalchery Road, Lahore
.54000,Pakistan. Email:
[email protected];[email protected]
.on the masses. There is no officiallyagreed upon definition of
terrorism; itdepends on who is defining and whichtype of event is
being defined, e.g.,terrorism as both a tactic and strategy;a crime
and a holy duty; a justifiedreaction to oppression and
aninexcusable abomination. But it doesnot mean that no one has
tried todefine terrorism. Different states havecoined different
terms to distinguishterrorism from war and other types ofviolence.
Initially, terrorism had beendefined as criminal acts
directedagainst a state and intended orcalculated to create a state
of terror inthe minds of particular persons, agroup of persons or
the general public(Saul, 2006).
The US Department of Defense's
,,
mailto:[email protected];mailto:[email protected]
-
92 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFTIKHAR, SAEED & ILYAS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE
J Dictionary of Military (2009) hasrecently defined terrorism as
thecalculated use of unlawful violence orthreat of unlawful
violence toinculcate fear; and is intended tocoerce or to
intimidate governments orsocieties in the pursuit of goalsgenerally
political, religious, orideological (as cited in Zalman,2010a).
Three key elements discus~edhere arc fear, violence
andintimidallon. International Terrorismand Security Research
(2001) hasidentified that terrorist groups commitacts of violence
to produce wide-spread fear and to obtainworldwide/national/local
recognitionfor their cause by attracting theattention of the media.
Terrorism isintended to harass, weaken, orembarrass the government
andsecurity forces. It may resort tostealing or extorting money
andequipment, especially weapons andammunition vital to the
operation oftheir group. It may destroy facilities ordisrupt lines
of communication inorder to create doubts about capabilityof
government to provide for andprotect its citizens. This results
indiscouragement of foreigninvestments, tourists and
otherassistance programs that can affect thetarget country's
economy and supportof ' the government in power. It alsoinfluences
government decisions,legislation, or other critical decisions.Also,
the terrorists strategically forcethe government and security
forces toconcentrate their efforts in urbanareas, thereby
establishing themselvesamong the local populace in ruralareas
meanwhile.
Pakistan has played a key role inthe 'global scenario of
terrorism.
Political leaders in different eras havetaken up this issue in
varying ways.Even when Pakistan has become a USally in this war,
she is still blamed forhaving Taliban, Mujahidin, and AlQaeda in
its Northern Areas. In fact,Pakistan has very complexrelationship
with terrorism, During80's, government under militarydictatorship
servcd as a primaryincubator for the Mujahidins (nowTaliban) by
adopting a diplomatic tiewith the group. The government
laterdecided to join forces with US after9/11 for global war on
terrorism.However, Pakistanis as a nation didnot agree to this.
They considered thenominatcd terrorists as 'holy warriorswho went
against US in Kashmir. In2002, government of Pakistan,
undermilitary dictatorship, decided not tosupport madrassas and
took morecounter-terrorism actions, Thisresulted in more reaction
fromterrorists in Pakistan. The US forceswere allowed for the,
militaryoperation in Pakistan northern tribalareas so that the war
could be cnded.But the war continued for the next twoyears which
nurtured and strengthcnedTaliban in the country. In 2008,civilian
rule again replaced themilitary as the latter was unable todeal
with the issue of extremism incertain areas (Zalman, 20 lOb).
Thispermission to US armed forces tooperate from our, land has
created anegative perception of US amongpublic in Pakistan.
Although US andPakistan are close allies in war againstterrorism
now, but Pakistani nation isfaced with increasing terror attacks
onits security 'forces and public.Therefore, Pakistani people
carrynegative perceptions about America in
terms of the latter's negative anddominant inlluence behind
thecountry's situation and interference atall levels. (Tarar &
Rubina, 2010).
Although the whole world isfacing the problem of
terroristactivities in one or some other form,these activities and
attacks arcspreading like cancer in Pakistan.Viewing the history,
terrorist attacksmovement started on November 6,2002 when a lady
blew herself in frontof a newspaper office in Karachi,injuring 6
other people. Since then,there have been countless
incidentsclaiming lives in hundreds and injuriesin thousands. There
has been a steadyrise in the incidents since 2006 withits peak in
August 2007. NWFP is themost affected province followed byFederally
Administered Tribal Areas(FATA). The security personnel havebeen
the main target of suicidebombing, followed by religious
sects(Yousafzai & Siddiqui, 2007). Thewave of attacks is going
on and everymonth, and sometimes every weekthere are attacks
throughout thecountry. Big cities as Karachi,Peshawar and Lahorc
are at thehighest risk. Security forces andpolice appear to be
helpless to stopsuch kind of terrorism. In 2010,during the month of
Ramadan, therewere three attacks in Peshawar,Karachi and Lahore;
the most recentone is on Shin's procession in Karachiand in the
same cvening three suicideattacks were carried out in Lahore
atKarbla Game Shah.
According to Southern Associa-tion for Institutional Research
(SAIR,2010), Pakistan has been a place offatalities augmented
significantly eachinstability and widespread strife with
year since 2003 but 2009 migcalled the fatal year in its
historyat least 11,585 fatalities in a ye'lactual numbers could
besignificantly higher). At leastmajor incidents (involving thnmore
fatalities every time)reported through 2009 (SATP, ;Unsurprisingly,
suicide attacks wthe forefront. Compared to 893 (in 59 suicide
attacks in 2008, tht2009 recorded a total of 76 SIattacks, in which
949 personskilled. In the year 2010, total 34blasts were observed
in Pa'killing 775 people and 1359 if(South Asia Terrorism Portal,
;Tables I and 2 show this alaipicture regarding SuicideAttacks in
Pakistan as well afatalities resulting from the telviolence in
Pakistan over the yeaIn Pakistan, some of these telactivities are
attributed to the poinstability, economic condit-ion Istandard of
life of the massesothers look at this as reliextremism of a portion
of the ITof Pakistan. Another school of thsays that the injustice
done by wsuperpowers towards the thirdcountries and especially
Mcountries, have led the world tlsituation. Yct there is another
sof thought that attributes CIterrorism activities like
blastssuicide attacks as the game of pogains by world's super-
powers;others have termed this confusiclash of civilization between
WeiIslam.
Whatever might be the realthe ultimate affectsmultidimensional
and much hOI
-
".h --'",;1
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 93
lveys.USforAllCt,
lexmglrylfYJW
tieter'term.jid:he)fS
InJertolrehis1m
:es"y,al~d.NO
ed)8,hetomlistoa
ngnd1st
isonIC.
.•.yIn
terms of the latter's negative anddominant influence behind
thecountry's situation and interference atall levels. (Tarar &
Rubina, 20JO).
Although the whole world isfacing the problem of
terroristactivities in one or some other form,these activities and
attacks arespreading like cancer in Pakistan.Viewing the history,
terrorist attacksmovement started on November' 6,2002 when a lady
blew herself in frontof a newspaper office in Karachi,injuring 6
other people. Since then,there have been countless
incidentsclaiming lives in hundreds and injuriesin thousands. There
has been a steadyrise in the incidents since 2006 withits peak in
August 2007. NWFP is themost affected province followed byFederally
Administered Tribal Areas(FATA). The security personnel havebeen
the main target of suicidebombing, followed by religiolls
sects(Yousafzai & Siddiqui, 2007). Thewave of attacks is going
on and everymonth, and sometimes every weekthere are attacks
throughout thecountry. Big cities as Karachi,Peshawar and Lahore
are at thehighest risk. Security forces andpolice appear to be
helpless to stopsuch kind of terrorism. In 2010,during the month of
Ramadan, therewere three attacks in Peshawar,Karachi and Lahore;
the most recentone is on Shia's procession in Karachiand in the
same evening three suicideattacks were carried alit in Lahore
atKarbla Game Shah.
According to Southern Associa-tion for Institutional Research
(SAIR,20 I0), Pakistan has been a place offatalities augmented
significantly eachinstability and widespread strife with
year since 2003 but 2009 might becalled the fatal year in its
history, withat least 11,585 fatalities in a year (theactual
numbers could be evensignifieantly higher). At least 723major
incidents (involving three ormore fatalities every time)
werereported through 2009 (SATP, 2010).Unsurprisingly, suicide
attacks were atthe forefront. Compared to 893 deathsin 59 suicide
attacks in 2008, the year2009 recorded a total of 76
suicideattacks, in which 949 persons werekilled. In the year 2010,
total 34 bombblasts were observed in Pakistankilling 775 people and
1359 injured(South Asia Terrorism Portal, 2010).Tables I and 2 show
this alarmingpicture regarding Suicide SquadAttacks in Pakistan as
well as thefatalities resulting from the terroristviolence in
Pakistan over the years.In Pakistan, some of these
terroristactivities are attributed to the politicalinstability,
economic condit-ions, andstandard of life of the masses whileothers
look at this as religiousextremism of a portion of the massesof
Pakistan. Another school of thoughtsays that the injustice done by
world'ssuperpowers towards the third worldcountries and especially
Muslimcountries, have led the world to thissituation. Yet there is
another schoolof thought that attributes currentterrorism
activities like blasts andsuicide attacks as the game of
politicalgains by world's super- powers; someothers have termed
this confusion asclash of civilization between West andIslam.
Whatever might be the reason,the ultimate affects
aremultidimensional and much horrible,
-
\ Year Total incidents Killed Injured,!
34 775 135920102009 76 949 23562008 59 893 18462007 54 765
16772006 7 161 3522005 4 84 2192004 7 89 3212003 2 69 1032002 1 15
34
Source: Southern Association for Institutional Research,
2010
Table 2Fatalities in Terrorist Violence in Pakistan from
2003-2010
Table 1Terrorist Attacks and Fatalities in Pakistan from
2002-2010
* Data till September 5,2010* Source: Figures are compiled from
news reports and are provisional information.
experience some symptoms, i.e,and anxiety, crying,
whimpscreaming, excessive clinging, fidarkness or animals,
confldisobedience, depression, nightl!irritability, fear of being
left isleep disturbances, alcohol anddrug use, sensitivity to loud
netc, Children might face problempoor academic
performancebehavioral problems in senvironment, etc. The research
Ihas focused on the shortconsequences but long-term pro!also need
to be studied. Alttterrorism has posed severe prolfor Pakistan, not
much rcsearclbeen done in this area except ~researchers who have
takeninitiative. However, literatureother cultures shows a
danglpicture of its aftermath on farrindividuals, and nation at
large. Isecond person in Pakistan is sufffrom psychological stress
and Idue to upheavals in the COtSevere economic crisis, lawles:and
terrorism are deteriotpeople's mental health, There inational data
present onpsychological effects of terrorislgeneral population in
Pakistanstudies carried out in other COUlshow that the direct
victimlterrorism develop acute Sdisorder, their risk of serious
millness increases, development oftraumatic "Stress disorder can go
lthe range of 12-16 % as reported.a meta analysis and substance
abuanother complication, Children bmore vulnerable may develop
amand depressive disorders. There isan evidence of physical
prob11Resilience factors are also enhal
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE
there is less evidence about the. intermediate . and
long-termpsychological consequences ofterrorism and other risk
factors
. (Desivilya, Gal, & Ayalon, 1996;Jehel, Duchet, Patemiti,
Consoli, &Gue1fi, 2001; Shalev, 1992). A large
. scale telephonic survey in Israel with905 adult Jewish and
Palestiniancitizens indicated that exposure to
I terrorism was significantly related to. ,greater loss of
psycho-social resources'., and to greater PTSD and depressive
-
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 95
\
there is less evidence about theintermediate and
long-termpsychological consequences ofterrorism and other risk
factors(Oesivilya, Gal, & Ayalon, 1996;Jehel, Ouchet, Patemiti,
Consoli, &Guelfi, 2001; Shalev, 1992). A largescale telephonic
survey in Israel with905 adult Jewish and Palestiniancitizens
indicated that exposure talterrorism was significantly related
togreater loss of psycho-social resourcesand to greater PTSO and
depressivesymptoms and this relationship wasreciprocal. Palestinian
citizens hadsignificantly higher levels of PTSOand depression than
Jews' (HobfolI,Canetti-Nisim, Johnson, & Robert,2006).
Similarly, Verger et al. (2004)found high prevalence of
PTSOsymptoms over a period of 2.6 yearson the average after the
terrorist attackof 1995-96 in France. After reviewingthe literature
on the psychologicalimpact of terrorism on children andfamilies in
the US of the 1993 andSeptember 11 attacks, Pfefferbaum etai,
(2005) repOited the impact ofvarious forms and degrees of
exposureto terrorism on children, whileemphasizing the need to look
intochildren's adaptation to mass trauma.Also they noted that
studies so farprovide critical information regardingthe
relationship between exposure tomass trauma and outcomcs but
morerefined approaches are needed toaddress developmental, family
andsocia-cultural factors in the globalcontext of terrorism.
No one can remain untouchedby thc after effects after having
seen aterrorist attack. In both types ofdisaster trauma, whether
individual orcommunity based, the persons
experience some symptoms, i.e., fearand anxiety, crymg,
whimpering.screaming, excessive clinging, fear ofdarkness or
animals, confusion,disobedience, depression,
nightmares,irritability, fear of being left alone,sleep
disturbances, alcohol and otherdrug use, sensitivity to loud
noises,etc. Children might face problems likepoor academic
performance andbehavioral problems in schoolenvironment, etc. The
research so farhas focused on the short-termconsequences but
long-term problemsalso need to be studied. Althoughterrorism has
posed severe problemsfor Pakistan, not much research hasbeen done
in this area except a fewresearchers who have taken theinitiative.
However, literature fromother cultures shows a dangerouspicture of
its aftermath on families,individuals, and nation at large.
Everysecond person in Pakistan is sufferingfrom psychological
stress and straindue to upheavals in the country.Severe economic
crisis, lawlessnessand terrorism are deterioratingpeople's mental
health. There is nonational data present on thepsychological
effects of terrorism ongeneral population in Pakistan butstudies
carried out in other countriesshow that the direct victims
ofterrorism develop acute stressdisorder, their risk of serious
mentalillness increases, development of posttraumatic stress
disorder can go up tothe range of 12-16 % as reported froma meta
analysis and substance abuse isanother complication. Children
beingmore vulnerable may develop anxietyand depressive disorders.
There is alsoan evidence of physical problems.Resilience factors
are also enhanced
-
96 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFTIKHAR, SAEED & ILY AS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE 97
by the social support and pcriodicscreening of mental health and
theservices provided (Gadith, 2009).Terrorism is significantly
related toboth greater PTSD and depressivesymptoms. PTSD can lead
todefensivc coping ultimately (Hobfollet aI., 2006). The
psychologicalimpact of tcrrorism is not limited tothe way people
behave during attacks,rather fear for having terror attacks
infuturc might be extremelyincapacitating in terms ofpsychological
functioning (Somer,Tamir, Maguen, & Litz, 2005). Thishas becn
explored by manyresearchers in terms of cognitivedistortions
predisposing psycho-pathology especially anxiety disordersin terms
of uncertainty and threat offuture harm (Beck, 1976, Clark,
1986;Schniering & Rapee, 2004, Sinclair &LoCicero,
2006).
For the people of Pakistan,psychological impact is not the
onlystory; rather, terror attack is amultidimcnsional phenomenon
thatneeds to be explored from theperspective of people of Pakistan
who.are facing this situation and aresurviving under this threat
for lastdecade. It might have adverse impacton their mental and
psychologicalhealth, the economic and socialinfrastructure of the
society. There is amassive need to understand andexplore the impact
of the currentsituation from the indigenousperspective of the
people of Pakistanwho are the real victims of thisdevastating
situation. As far asperception of people in Pakistanregarding
September 11 attacks in USis concerned, in a study carried outright
after that incident, Rehman and
Malik (2003) found a - sympatheticattitude of Pakistani public
towardsUS nation for having innocent peopletargeted by the
attackers which cannotbe justitied on both religious
andantagonistic grounds. Recently manyresearchers have taken
initiatives tounderstand the impact of terror attackson the mental
health of differentsegments of Pakistani population e.g.,Malik,
Hassan, and Perveen (2010)investigated the impact of the
suicideattacks on the mental health ofadolescents in Pakistan
through anindigenously developed Mental HealthQuestionnaire and
found 58% of themscored well above the cut off score ofMHQ
depicting mental healthconcerns as an outcome of suicideterrorism.
Qualitative analysisrevcaled major themes of disruptiveroutine,
fear and psychologicalconcerns of fear, low
psychologicalwell-being, and emotional disturb-ances. Haq and
Kausar (2010) in astudy on male traffic police wardens(being the
easy target for terrorattacks among security forces) inLahore found
a significant relation-ship among resilience, cognitiveappraisal
and coping strategies;however, traffic police wardens scoredhigher
on state resilience and perceiveit as having personal
significance.Mostly, they use coping strategiesincluded avoidance
focused copingfollowed by active practical andreligious coping.
Nayab and Kamal(2010) found that the people whowitness horrifying
terrorist attacksexperience more death anxiety andstress. Hence,
there is a need to lookinto the aftennath of this mass traumaand
this need to address family andsocio-cultural factors in the
context of
terrorism has also been highlighted inthe westcrn research
(Pfefferbaum etaI., 2005). As posed by Bongar (2006)that
"psychological science to provideeffective treatment to the victims
ofsuch horrendous events doesn't exist."It was later elaborated on
by Ruzek,Maguen, and Litz (2006) whilehighlighting the necd of
generatingparticular information which couldhelp these people to
cope with theongoing threat of terrorism. Ajmal(2010) has argued
that acomprehensive information andcommunication strategy is
required todeal with the situation in Pakistan.Therefore, the
critical scenario ofPakistan, where people are facing anincident
like 9111 every day and attimes even more than one incidents aday,
demands indigenous research andespecially the development of
theindigenous measures to understandthe effects of terrorism from
the pointof view of Pakistani people.Therefore, the current study
is aneffort to develop an indigenous self-report scale to measure
the impact ofterror attacks on the people ofPakistan who directly
or indirectly areinfluenced by the prevailing situationof
insecurity and risk. The mainobjecti ve of the current research
wasto look at terrorism by developing andvalidating a new measure,
theTerrorism Impact Scale (TIS) basedon the indigenously generated
dataregarding the perceived impact on thepeople of Pakistan with
regard to theirmental or psychological health, otherrelated aspects
of their life andPakistani socio-cultural context atlarge.
Moreover, investigatingpeople's perceptions about the issue
ofterrorism in peculiar context of
Pakistan to come up with its definitionin this particular
context was anotherimportant objcctive.
MethodPhase I: Item Generation
Participants
The participants for in-depthinterviews included two
religiousscholars (I Shia and 1 Sunni). Thesample for.the focus
groups included9 professionals/experts from differentwalks of life
as educationists,economists, psychologists, journalists,personnel
from security forces, mediaanchor persons and 10 MPhil and
PhDstudents of Psychology and otherdepartments at GC University,
La-hore.
Procedure
In step I, phenomenology ofterrorism and its impact on people
ofPakistan was explored with the help offocus groups,
semi-structured intcrv-iews with religious scholars andpublic
opinion pool. Semi-structuredinterviews were conducted with
tworeligious scholars, one each from Shiaand Sunni sects to collcct
in-depthinformation. These interviews wererecorded with their
permission toextract information. They were askedas to how they
defined ten"orism andsaw its impacts on general public andsociety
at large ..
Two focus. groups wereconducted; one with professionals
andexperts from different walks of lifeand second with 10 students
of MPhiland PhD from different departments inGC University
including Psychology.Content analysis of these two focus
-
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 97icis ,
\Ie)t,d
'y10[snt,,.,I)Ie)fIn
IhIn
)fIhIeISIealal)-
a1S)f
inn-,eS',~dIee.~sIgIdal10
ksId)klaIdof
terrorism has also been highlighted inthe western research
(Pfefferbaum etaI., 2005). As posed by Bongar (2006)that
"psychological science to provideeffective treatment to the victims
ofsuch horrendous events doesn't exist."It was later elaborated on
by Ruzek,Maguen, and Litz (2006) whilehighlighting the need of
generatingparticular information which couldhelp these people to
cope with thkongoing threat of terrorism. Aj mal(2010) has argued
that acomprehensive information andcommunication strategy is
required todeal with the situation in Pakistan.Therefore, the
critical scenario ofPakistan, where people are facing anincident
like 9/11 every day and attimes even more than one incidents aday,
demands indigenous research andespecially the development of
theindigenous measures to understandthe effects of terrorism from
the pointof view of Pakistani people.Therefore, the current study
is aneffort to develop an indigenous self-report scale to measure
the impact ofterror attacks on the people ofPakistan who directly
or indirectly areinfluenced by the prevailing situationof
insecurity and risk. The mainobjective of the current research
wasto look at terrorism by developing andvalidating a new measure,
theTerrorism Impact Scale (TIS) basedon the indigenously generated
dataregarding the perceived impact on thepeople of Pakistan with
regard tei theirmental or psychological health, otherrelated
aspects of their life andPakistani socio-cultural context atlarge.
Moreover, investigatingpeople: s perceptions about the issue
ofterrorism in peculiar context of
Pakistan to come up with its definitionin this particular
context was anotherimportant objective.
MethodPhase I: Item Generation
Participants
The participants for in-depthinterviews included two
religiousscholars (I Shia and I Sunni). Thesample for the focus
groups included9 professionals/experts from differentwalks of life
as educationists,economists, psychologists, journalists,personnel
from security forces, mediaanchor persons and 10 MPhil and
PhDstudents of Psychology and otherdepartments at GC University,
La-hore.
Procedure
In step I, phenomenology ofterrorism and its impact on people
ofPakistan was explored with the help offocus groups,
semi-structured interv-iews with religious scholars andpublic
opinion pool. Semi-structuredinterviews were conducted with
tworeligious scholars, one each from Shiaand Sunni sects to collect
in-depthinformation. These interviews wererecorded with their
permission toextract information. They were askedas to how they
defined terrorism andsaw its impacts on general public andsociety
at large.
Two focus. groups wereconducted; one with professionals
andexperts from different walks of lifeand second with 10 students
of MPhiland PhD from different departments inGC University
including Psychology.Content analysis of these two focus
-
98 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFTIKHAR, SAEED &
ILYASTERRO~SMIMPACTSCALE
groups revealed different aspects ofterrorism like its defining
character-istics, potential factors, impact onvarious aspects of
people's life anddifferent coping strategies etc,
To develop a larger opinion pool,a preliminary questionnaire
wasconstructed which was administeredto the students (n = 30),
gencral public(n = 30) and survivors and ey!"witnesses of terrorist
attacks (n = 30)at different places in Lahore being themost recent
targets of terror attacks;Moon Market, FIA building andsurrounding
area in Regal Chowk, andsurrounding areas of Rescue 15building in
China Chowk.
As a result of this exercise, a poolof 200 items was derived out
of thecontcnt analysis of the focus groups,in-depth interviews and
itemsmentioned by the general public. Theimpacts of terrorism
mentioned by theparticipants included in Phase I mostlyindicated
negative or adverse impactsbut some positive perceptions werealso
identified, Perceived negativeimpact was related to the
cognitive,behavioral and affective turrnoil,social paralyses and
prejudices,religious detachment and misinterpret-ation, declined
cducational standards,and lack of coping mechanisms,Positive impact
indicated by allparticipants included determination,increasing
sense of patriotism andunity etc,
This pool was then subjected tothe expert opinion (research team
and2 experts in the field of Psychology)for the clarity of the
items and toavoid any overlap which ended up atthe selection of 95
items. These itemswere then transformed into statementsof a
self-report question-
naire/measure to be rated on 4-pointLikert scale with response
categoriesof "Strongly Disagree, Disagree,Agree, Strongly Agree"
scored from I- 4 and reverse for the items indicatingpositive
impact.
A try out study was carried outwith 10 students at GC
University,Lahore and 10 individuals fromgeneral public to confirrn
the compre-hension level for the sample whichindicated problems of
distinguishing afew statemcnts being as positive ornegative. These
statements weremodified accordingly,
Phase II: Item Evaluation
SampleA stratified sample of 300 adults
with age of 18 to 65 years was drawnfrom 4 segments of the
targetpopulation but final analysis wascarried out with 280 total
participantsdue to 20 dropouts. Sample included100 students (50
men, 50 women) ofBAiBSc Hons, MAIM Sc, M Phil andPhD from different
institutions ofLahore, i,e" GC University, LahoreCollege for Women
University,COMSATS and University of thePunjab with age range from
18 - 24years (M = 21.24, SD = 3,3); 100individuals from general
public, withan equal number of men and women,included professionals
from differentwalks of life such as doctors, lawyers,educationists,
businessmen, traders,shopkeepers, drivers, clerks etc, andalso
working and non-workingwomen, Third group included 50survivors of
terrorist/suicide attacks (n= 50) in Lahore drawn from the
RegalChowk, Moon Market, RA Bazaar,being the most recent affected
areas in
Lahore for the incidents of theterrorist attacks at the time of
thecurrent study (age M = 34,68, SD =12,5). Fifty officials from
securityforces were approached from Rescue1122, Punjab Police,
Traffic wardensand Elite Force (age M= 31.13, SD =3,6) but their
turn out rate was 30, Allthe survivors and security officialswere
males?
Matriculation (lOth grade) was theminimum education required for
theparticipants of the current study,
Procedure
The questionnaire compnsmg of95 items/statements was subjected
toempirical evaluation on a sample of280 participants drawn from
fourgroups; students, public, survivors ofsuicide attacks .and
security forces fordetermining . the psychometriccharacteristics of
the measure.
The respondents were approachedindividually at their respective
places,offices, shops, or universities andcolleges after seeking
formalpermission and inforrned consent toparticipate, They were
ensuredconfidentiality of the information. Theparticipants were
more than willing togive their opinion on this crucial issue.The
data were then subjected tostatistical evaluation for
determiningthe construct validity,' reliability andinternal
consistency of the measure.
The. data were then' subjected tothe Principal' Component
Analysiswith Varimax rotation and itemanalysis to finalize the
measure (seeTables 1 & 2), The commonconstructs identified
through factoranalysis and item analysis were
labeled according to the emergthemes reflecting items
cluste,together and the measure was nanas Terrorism Impact Scale
(TITherefore, the final version of the 1comprised 64 items divided
intosubscales named as State Affairs Iitems), Psychosocial Distress
Iitems), Governance Issues (l3 itenCivic Affairs (9 items), and
Resiliel(6 items), Out of 64 total items of ~6 positive items
needed revesconng,
Phase III: Reliability Data
Test-retest reliability for TIS \determined while administering
itthe available samples of gempublic (n = 52), students (11 = 58)
alsecurity forces personnel (n = 30) 0a period of 6-8 weeks,
ResultsItem Analysis
Item analysis was conducted.computing item-total
corrclattechnique on a sample almost 3 tilgreater (N = 280) than
numberitems (95) which is an accept~condition although ideal ratio
i!times (Comrey & Lee, 1991; Gom1983). The item analysis in
Tabl,shows that all the selected items"significantly c'orrelated
with tlTerrorism Impact Scale score excelitems retained for the
final scale; ilnumbers 83, 90, and 92, The m;criteria for retaining
items in the fimeasure was correlation "-whereas items 83, 90, and
92 shmcorrelation slightly :s .20. It is USUirecommended to
'exclude such itt
-
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 99
Lahore for the incidents of theterrorist attacks at the time of
thecurrent study (age M = 34.68, SD =12.5). Fifty officials from
securityforces were approached from Rescue1122, Punjab Police,
Traffic wardensand Elite Force (age M = 31.13, SD =3.6) but their
turn out rate was 30. Allthe survivors and security officialswere
males,
Matriculation (lO'h grade) was thdminimum education required for
theparticipal1ls of the current study.
Procedure
The questionnaire compnsmg of95 items/statements was subjected
toempirical evaluation on a sample of280 participants drawn from
fourgroups; students, public, survivors ofsuicide attacks and
security forces fordetermining the psychometriccharacteristics of
the measure.
The respondents were approachedindividually at their respective
places,offices, shops, or universities andcolleges after seeking
formalpermission and informed consent toparticipate. They were
ensuredconfidentiality of the information. Theparticipants were
more than willing togive their opinion on this crucial issue.The
data were then subjected tostatistical evaluation for
determiningthe construct validity, reliability andinternal
consistency of the measure.
The data were then subjected tothe Principal Component
Analysiswith Varimax rotation and itemanalysis to finalize the
measure (seeTables I & 2). The commonconstructs identified
through factoranalysis and item analysis were
labeled according to - the emergingthemes reflecting items
clusteredtogether and the measure was namedas Terrorism Impact
Scale (TIS).Therefore, the final version of the TIScomprised 64
items divided into 5subscales named as State Affairs (17items),
Psychosocial Distress (l9items), Governance Issues (13 items),Civic
Affairs (9 items), and Resilience(6 items). Out of 64 total items
of TIS6 positive items needed reversescoring.
Phase III: Reliability Data
Test-retest reliability for TIS wasdetermined while
administering it tothe available samples of generalpublic (n = 52),
students (n = 58) andsecurity forces personnel (n = 30) overa
period of 6-8 weeks.
ResultsItem Analysis
Item analysis was conducted bycomputing item-total
correlationtechnique on a sample almost 3 timesgreater (N = 280)
than number ofitems (95) which is an acceptablecondition although
ideal ratio is 5times (Comrey & Lee, 1991; Gorsuch,1983). The
item analysis in Table Ishows that all the selected items
weresignificantly correlated with totalTerrorism Impact Scale score
except 3items retained for the final scale; itemnumbers 83, 90, and
92. The majorcriteria for retaining items in the finalmeasure was
correlation 2: .20,whereas items 83, 90, and 92 showedcorrelation
slightly :s .20. It is usuallyrecommended to exclude such items
-
100 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFfIKHAR, SAEED & ILYAS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE
especially if they affect the totalreliability of the seale; but
in certaineases these can be retained withappropriate rationale and
if they donot affect the overall reliability of themeasure (George
& Mallery, 2006).Hence, these items not only showedhigh
loadings on Factor 5 (Resilienceas shown in Table 2) but also they
didnot affect the overall reliability of themeasure which was above
.80 a it'item was deleted. It is also importantto note that these
items had reversescoring having depieted positiveimpact of
terrorism, whieh eould alsobe the reason of showing
lowercorrelation coefficients. Moreover,overall reliabi lity of the
sealeremained significantly high (r = .93)even after retaining
these items.
Construct Validity
Terrorism Impaet Scale was final-ized on the basis of the
exploratoryPrinciple Component Analysis withVarimax rotation whieh
ended up 5faetors solution based on a criterion offactor loadings
of .35. and aboveexclusively on one faetor. Total 64 outof 95 items
were clearly clustered into5 separate eategories measuringdifferent
dimensions of impact ofterrorism, whieh were named as:
Factor I: State Affairs (17 items)Factor2:Psychosocial Distress
(l9items)Factor3: Governance Issues (13 items)Factor4: Civic
Affairs (9 items)Factor5: Resilience (6 items)
Therefore TIS finally contained64 items; 58 items
mentioningnegative and 6 items indicatingpositive impact (reverse
scoring). Theresults depicted that Factor I had an
Eigen value of 13.63 and it explained9.05% of the total
variance. Factor 2had an Eigen value of 3.52 andFactors 3, 4 and 5
had Eigen values of2.94, 2.72 and 2.32 respectively withcumulative
variance ranging from8.95 to 4.45. The overall varianceexplained by
five factors was 34.4%(Table 2). Interestingly, most of thefactors
emerged mainly depicted theadverse and negative impacts of
theterrorism simation in the countryexcept factor 5 which
measuredpositive impacts of terrorism.
Factors identified through factoranalysis were named keeping in
viewthe common theme depicted by theitems under each category.
Factor Iwas labeled as State Affairs (17 items)because it clustered
all the itemsmentioning adverse impact on thecountry affairs as a
state, Factor 2grouped items measuring psychosocialdistress (19
items) of the generalpublic m the society, Factor 3clustered the 13
items related to thegovernance issues and mis-managem-ent at the
part of the government tohandle the problem of terrorism in
thecountry, so it was labeled asGovernance Issues, Factor 4
clusteredoverall impact on the society so it wasnamed as Civic
Affairs (9 items) andFactor 5 clustered items showingpositive
outcome at the part of thepublic out of the negative situation
inthe society so it was named asResilience (6 items). Total score
on. the scale was sum of scores on all 64items which ranged from
64-320;higher the score higher would be theadverse impact of the
situation ofterrorism. The scores on each of thesubscales was sum
of the items of thescale which varied in number. In order
to make scores on different subscalescomparable, scaled scores
werecomputed by using scaled scoreformula: scaled score = (XII)
I(Option) x 10 where, X= Total scoreon a category, 1= Number of
items inspecific category, and Option= No. ofresponse options for
each category.The computed scale scores were thenused for further
analysis (Mckinlay,Brooks, Bond, Martinage, & Marshal,1981 as
cited in Kausar & Saghir,2010).
Construct validity was furtherendorsed by computing
correlationmatrix for scores of five subscales andtotal TIS score.
It depicted significantinter-correlations among factorsexcept for
factor 5 i.e. Resilience,which showed significant correlationonly
with factor 3 i.e., GovernanceIssues (r = .22, p < .01). All the
fivefactors were' also significantlycorrelated with the total TIS
score(Table 3).
Reliability Analyses
Terrorism Impact Scale demonstrated excellent internal
consistency for64 items, determined by computingCronbach's alpha.
which was highlysignificant (a = .93). The coefficient afor its
five subscales ranged from .76 -.87 as depicted in Table 4.
The split-half reliability was alsosignificant; pat1 I (r = .90)
and part 2
(r = .86) and correlation between thalves (r = .76) with
Spearman Bwn coefficient of .79 and Gullm,split-half coefficient of
.78.
Test-retest reliability for TIS valso computed with the
availasamples of adults (n = 52), stude(n= 58) and security forces
person(n = 30) over a period of 6-8 weeks.
Alpha coefficient for the Phasesample was .89. Correlations
w,computed between their scoresPhase II and Phase III and were
higlsignificant for total TIS (r = .88)well as its subscales; State
Affairs (,.85), Psychosocial Distress (r = .8Governance Issues (r =
.86), Ci'Affairs (r= .84) and Resilience (r.73).
Determining Cut-off Scores
Total score on TIS would be the SIof the scores on all 64 items,
higlthe score higher would be the advelimpact of terrorism. The
mediscore computed for the sample \\221 with a mean of 217.45
(SD20.84), SE = 1.25) (TableFrequency and percentage for tsample
was computed by takimedian score as a baseline whidepicted that
almost half of the samlwas well above itif= 141,49.7%). Median
score mi!be taken as cut-off point for timpact of terrorism.
-
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE !OJ
to make scores on different subscalescomparable, scaled scores
werecomputed by using scaled scoreformula: scaled score = (XII)
I(Option) x 10 where, X= Total scoreon a category, 1= Number of
items inspecific category, and Option= No. ofresponse options for
each category,The computed scale scores were thenused for further
analysis (Mckinlay;,,Brooks, Bond, Martinage, & Marshal,1981 as
cited in Kausar & Saghir,2010),
Construct validity was furtherendorsed by computing
correlationmatrix for scores of five subs cales andtotal TIS score.
It depicted significantinter-correlations among factorsexcept for
factor 5 i,e, Resilience,which showed significant correlationonly
with factor 3 i,e" GovernanceIssucs (r = .22, p < .0 I), All the
fivefactors werc also significantlycorrelated with the total TIS
score(Table 3),
Reliability Analyses
Terrorism Impact Scale demonstrated excellent internal
consistency for64 items, determined by computingCronbach's alpha
which was highlysignificant (a = ,93), The coefficient afor its
five subscales ranged from ,76 -.87 as depicted in Table 4,
The split-half reliability was alsosignificant; part I (r = .90)
and part 2
(r = ,86) and correlation between twohalves (r = ,76) with
Spearman Bro-wn coefficient of ,79 and Guttmannsplit-half
coefficient of ,78,
Test-retest reliability for TIS wasalso computed with the
availablesamples of adults (n = 52), students(n= 58) and security
forces personnel(n = 30) over a period of 6-8 weeks,
Alpha coefficient for the Phase III'sample was ,89, Correlations
werecomputed between their scores inPhase II and Phase III and werc
highlysignificant for total TIS (r = ,88) aswell as its subscales;
State Affairs (r =,85), Psychosocial Distress (r = ,82),Governance
Issues (r = ,86), CivicAffairs (r= ,84) and Resiliencc (r
=.73).
Determining Cut-off Scores
Total score on TIS would bc the sumof the scores on all 64
items, higherthe score highcr would be the adverseimpact of
terrorism. Thc medianscore computed for thc sample was221 with a
mean of 217.45 (SD =20.84), SE = 1.25) (Tablc 5).Frequency and
pcrcentage for thcsample' was computed by takingmedian score as a
baseline whichdepicted that almost half of the samplewas well above
it(j= 141,49.7%). Median score mightbe taken as cut-off point for
theimpact of terrorism,
-
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Table2
Factor
Loadingsfor
theItemsSelectedIor
TISohrained/rom
PrincipalCom
ponent
Factor
Analysis
(N=280)
(Ilems=58)
1
Item
No.
2] 26 27 32 33 34 36 37 38 40 4] 42 47 49 50 51 81 2 ]6 17
20
Stat
emen
ts
Selfi
shne
ssha
sbe
enin
crea
sed
inth
eco
untr
y..
Neg
ativ
ityin
thou
ghts
and
attit
udes
has
emer
ged
..
Paki
stan
has
beco
me
isol
ated
ataglobal
leveL.
Med
iais
exer
ting
nega
tive
impa
cton
imm
atur
e..
Cou
ntry
has
beco
me
econ
omic
ally
depe
nden
t.
The
reis
prev
ailin
ga
com
mon
unre
stin
the
coun
try.
Neg
ativ
eef
fect
son
daily
rout
ine
life.
"..
Chi
ldre
nar
cge
tting
awar
eof
dest
ruct
ive
wea
pons
..N
atio
nha
sde
velo
ped
infe
rior
ityco
mpl
ex...
..
Pcop
le's
relig
ious
feel
ings
have
unde
rmin
ed...
.
The
reis
anin
crea
sed
susp
icio
usne
ssin
the
coun
try.
Dev
elop
men
tal
proj
ects
have
adve
rsel
ybe
en...
Incr
ease
dlT
I.istr
ustfo
rth
elea
ders
and
state
..Do
ubts
abou
tre
ligio
usm
adra
sas
insti
tutio
ns...
.H
opele
ssne
ssab
out
the
curr
ent
situa
tion
...M
any
inno
cent
peop
lear
epu
tbe
hind
the
bars
.....
Our
child
ren
are
learn
ing
inap
prop
riate
socia
lva
lues
..N
erve
sof
the
peop
leha
vebe
ensh
atte
red
..
Incr
ease
dso
cial
segr
egat
ion
inth
eso
ciet
y..
Peop
lear
cbe
com
ing
anxi
ous
for
losi
ngth
eir
lovc
d.
Cog
niliv
cfu
nctio
ning
ofth
epe
ople
isde
teri
orat
ing
...
FIF2
F3F4
F5
SAPD
GI
CA
RSM
Item
s(Items
,IItems
(Items
(Items
=17)
=16)
=10)
=9)
=6)
.4]
3.39
.39
3.42
.39
3.]4
.66
3.66
693.55
.54
3.45
.59
3.53
.48
3.44
.58
3.35
.5]
3.33
.49
3.44
.43
3.65
.44
3.45
.52
3.32
.49
3.49
.44
3.46
.49
3.63
.47
3.18
.38
3.36
.39
3.20
.56
3.26
.SD .80
.76
.89
.61
.69
.71
.65
.82
.85
.85
.77
,56
.72
.85
.65
.72
.61
.92
.83
.85
.78
..., m ;>;l ;>;l o Cl (/J ;::: ~ '";l> (l ..., en (l
;l> f;;
-
Table 2
FaclOr Loadingsfor the Itellls Selectedfor TIS obtainedfrOln
Principal COlllpollent FaclOr Analysis (N = 280) (Items =58)
Fl F2 F3 F4 F5Item No. Statements SA PD GI CA RS M SD
Items (Itellls (Items (Itellls (Items=17) =16) =10) = 9) =
6)
21 Selfishness has been increased in the country .... AI - - -
3.39 .8026 Negativity in thoughts and attitudes has emerged .. .39
- - - - 3042 .7627 Pnkistan has become isolated at a glob31Ievel..
.. .39 - - - - 3.14 .8932 Media is exerting negative impact on
immature .. .66 - - - - 3.66 .6133 Country has become economically
dependent. .69 - - - - 3.55 .6934 There is prevailing a common
unrest in the country .. .54 - - - -- - 3.45 .7136 Negative effects
on d
-
FI F2 F3 F4 F5 I 0""ItemNo. Statements
SA PD GI CA RS M SD
48 Increased suicidal trends in the society .....41 3.05 .98
58 Increased sense of deprivation in the society .... ' .523.57
.60
60 People are apprehensive to join hands in sociaL ... ,..57
3.30 .87
64 Complaints of physical ailment are on increase ..AO 3.31
.83
=:::>-66 Society is losing its human grounds ....
Al 3.34 .83 c::67 People have become more obsessive." ....
.37 3.51 .64~
68 People are restricted in all spheres of life ..... Al3.27 .80
?;j
76 Death anxiety is increasing in personal.A9 3A1 .79 >-
84 Collective activities are decreasing in the society .... ,.39
3.26 .83
::;:>-
86 People are being victim oftcrror. ... .383.51 .52 ?"
88 Employees in the security agencies are giving up .....58 -
2.84 .95 Sj
91 Relationships llnd social gatherings have badly .......45
2.81 .96
~
59 Financial resources of the country are getting ......A7 3.65
.64 ?;j
61 There is a general sense of insecurity prevailing .. .493.55
.64 >-?"
62 People want to be more aw
78 Government in itself is confused ....39 3.54 .86
~
79 Security measures have been forces in all institution.Al 3.55
.72
S;>-
87 Mental and psychological problems in the society ....38 3.62
.60
en
89 Security measures are creating hindrances for .......37 3.50
.70
4 Aggression in the society is OJ1 increase ...39 3.34 .79
5 Society is suffering from uncertainty ....A7 3.65 .60
6 Rigidity in the society is increasingA8 3.34 .72
Continued
"
Fl F2 F3 F4 F5ItemNo. Statements SA PD GI CA RS M SD
Items (Items (Items (Items (Items. =17) =19) =13) = 9) = 6)
7 Decision power of the people has adversely been .... - - - .49
- 3.31 .708 Our future generation is at risk ........ - - - .63 -
3.57 .7011 Academic activities in the institutions have been .... -
- - .54 - 3.57 .6512 People are being deprived of their loved ones
........ - - - .56 - 3.66 .6413 The reputation of Islam at global
level has .. ""'. - - - .52 - 3.68 .6515 Collective ego of the
society is getting hurt .... - - - .54 - 3.69 .6157 People have
developed the passion to eliminate ... - - - - .58 3.30 .9283
Patriotism has been increased among police. - - - - .62 3.04 .9890
People have become more patriotic ..... - - - - .66 2.97 .9692
People's attitude towards security agencies ..... - - - - .64 2.61
.0793 People are actively participating in social welfare .. - - -
- .71 2.73 .9494 People have become more caring and concerned .....
- - - - .57 2.92 .91Eigen Value: 13.63 3.52 2.94 2.72 2.32%
Variance 9.05 8.59 6.46 5.86 4A7Cum. % 9.05 17.6 24.1 29.9 34.4
Affairs. PD = Psychosocial Distress, Gl = Governance Issues, CA
= Civic Affairs, RS = Resilience*Urdu version is available with
corresponding author
Ic:ens::~
~en
~~
-
FI F2 F3 F4 F5Item No. Statements SA PD GJ CA RS M SD
Items (Items (Items (Items (Items=17) =19) =13) = 9) =6)
7 Decision power of the people has adversely been ... - - - .49
- 3.31 .708 Our future generation is at risk ........ - - - .63 -
3.57 .7011 Academic activities in the institutions have been .... -
- - .54 - 3.57 .6512 People are being deprived of their loved ones
....... - - - .56 - 3.66 .6413 The reputation of Islam at global
level has ...... - - - .52 - 3.68 .6515 Collective ego of the
society is getting hlHt .. _, - - - .54 - 3.69 .6157 People have
developed the passion to eliminate .... - - - - .58 3.30 .9283
Patriotism has been increased among police ... - - - - .62 3.04
.9890 People have become morc patriotic ..... - - - - .66 2.97
.96-92 People's attitude towards security agencies ... ". - - - -
.64 2.61 .0793 People arc actively participating in social welfare
... - - - - .71 2.73 .9494 People have become morc caring and
concerned ..... - - - - .57 2.92 .91Eigen Value; 13.63 3.52 2.94
2.72 2.32% Variance 9.05 8.59 6.46 5.86 4.47Cum. % 9.05 17.6 24.1
29.9 34.4
Note: SA = State Affairs. PD = Psycho,wcial Distress, Gl::;;
Govemana Issues, CA::;; Civic Affairs. RS::;; Resilience"'Urdu
versinn is available with correspnllding author
__ ~ ~r_~_~ __ ~ __ • .____ _._._'._._______________ __. _
--- -
~o'"til;s:~~qenn;"f;;
ou.
-
106 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFTIKHAR, SAEED & ILYAS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE
Table 3Correlation Matrix of the Five Sabseales and Total Score
of Terrorism ImpactSeale (N = 280)
However, the cut-off scores for TISwere determined based on
theperccntile analysis of thc scale scores;the frequency
distribution of thescores indicated that almost 49.6% ofrespondents
obtained a score of 205and 74.6% gained a score of 232 sothese were
taken as the lower andupper ranges for measuring impactof
terrorism. The percentil\,
analysis for 25th, 50th and 75'hquartiles indicated a score of
206 atthe 25th percentile, 221 and 233 at50th and 75th percentiles
respectively(Table 6).Therefore the score of below-206 wastaken as
indicative. of mild impact ofterrorism; 207-221 could be taken
asindicators of moderate and 222-256for high impact of
terrorism.
Table 5Means and Sll1ndard Deviations for Participant Groups and
Total Samples forTIS Scores
Groups M(SD) ,\n
Students 100 209.Q2 (24.68) 2.4~
General Public 100 218.22 (18.39) 1.8'
Security Forces 30 221.73 (9.14) 1.6~
Survivors 50 230.04 (13.94) 1.9~
Total Sample 280 217.45 (20.84) 1.2'
Table 6Quartilesfor Terrorism Impact Subseales (N = 280)
Subscales 25'" % 50Lh % 75Lh %
State Affairs , 55 60 64
Psychosocial Distress 57.25 64 69
Governance Issues 45 48 50
Civic Affairs 30 33 34
Resilience 15 18 20
Total TIS 206 221 233
Subscales 2 3 4 5 6
I. SA .68** .55** .49** .06 .85**
2. I'D .59** .54** .09 .89**
3. GI .40* .22* .76**
4.CA .02 .66**
5. RS .31*6. TIS
*p < .01. **p < .001.Note: SA = State Affairs, PD =
Psychosocial Distress, GT = Governance Issues, CA = CivicAffairs,
RS = Resilience
Table 4Reliability Analysis and Descriptive Statistics for TIS
(N = 280)
Subscales Items Range Mdn M 3D "State Affairs 17 68 60 58.7 7.18
,87
Psychosocial Distress 19 76 64 62.6 8,71 .87
Governance Issues 13 52 48 46.9 4.55 .78
Civic Affairs 9 36 33 31.8 3.59 .76
Resilience 6 24 18 17.6 4.05 .79
Total TIS 64 256 221 217.4 20.8 .93
Mean score of the cun'ent samplefell in the range of moderate
impactoverall which was different for fourgroups; for students it
was 209.02(24.68), general public 218.22(18.396), security services
221.73(9.14) and for survivors' group it was230.04 (13,94) (Figure
I; Table 5).
Figure l shows significant differe-nce for four participant
groups fortotal score on Terrorism Impact Scale.
Figure 2 indicates differences amOlthe four participant groups
for tlsubscales of TIS.
Gender-wise cut off scores wenot computed for the scale
:differences were non-significarFigure 3 indicates no gender
differe-nce apparently except for a sligdifference between men and
wom(for one subscale of Civic Affairs.
The data were further subjected t
-
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 107
.t
.tY
sfs5
Table 5Means and Standard DeFlations for Participant Groups and
Total Samples forTIS Scores
Groups M(SD) SEn
Students 100 209.02 (24.68) 2.480
General Public 100 218.22 (18.39) 1.840
Security Forces 30 221.73 (9.14) 1.670
Survivors 50 230.04 (13.94) 1.972
Total Sample 280 217.45 (20.84) 1.248
Table 6Quartilesfor Terror;sm Impact Subseales (N = 280)
Subscales 251h % 50lh % 751h %
State Affairs S5 60 64
Psychosocial Distress 57.25 64 69
Governance Issues 4S 48 50
Civic Affairs 30 33 34
Resilience 15 18 20
Total TIS 206 221 233
Mean score of the current samplefell in the range of moderate
impactoverall which was different for fourgroups; for students it
was 209.02(24.68), general public 218.22(18.396), security services
221.73(9.14) and for survivors' group it was230.04 (13.94) (Figure
I; Table S).
Figure I shows significant differe-nce for four partic'ipant
groups forIOtal score on Terrorism Impact Scale.
Figure 2 indicates differences amongthe four participant groups
for thesubscales of TIS.
Gender-wise cut off scores werenot computed for the scale
asdifferences were non-significant.Figure 3 indicates no gender
differe-nce apparently except for a slightdifference between men
and womenfor one subscale of Civic Affairs.
The data were further subjected to
-
108 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFTIKHAR, SAEED & ILYAS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE
blicnlsvors!y Forces
RS
RS
CA
CAGI
GITIS Subseales
POSA
IF""
~ r-'I -I-~
-l-I~I I aG.pu" I ~-, .. - a Stude
r
II DSurviI
i I o SecuriI
I II I - •••. 1-.j, Ii LI
i,I -If
I i~ I;, •
o ' - -----,-- --,-SA PD
10
Figure 3Gender Differellces for TIS Subscales
Figure 2Mean Scores of Participant Groups all TIS Subscales80170
~
30
20
60
50v,
"h 400"V)"~" 30::E
20
10
0
•
1+ TIS Talal I
Security Forces
•
Survivors
3. J 8, I' < .05, whereas~ no significantdifference was found
for sub-scale ofCivic Affairs, F (3, 271) = 1.84, I' =ns. Impact of
terrorism was alsoinvestigated for among men andwomen but no
significant genderdifferences were found for total TISscore and
four sub-scales, F (3, 271) =1.15, P = ns. Interactions of
partici-pant groups and gender were also nonsignificant except for
the StateAffairs, F (3, 271) = 2.96, I' < .05.State Affairs
subscale was alsoseparately treated for genderdifferences by
breaking the analysisdown to t.test and the result washigWy
significant, t (278) = 2.58, I'< .0 I, showing that women
scored"higher (M = 60.11, SD = 5.86) onState Affairs as compared to
men (M= 57.83, SD = 7.74). LSD Post-Hocanalysis indicated specific
differences
•
StudentsG. Public195 +------
Multivariate Analysis of Variance todetermine the significance
of thesedifferences among different particip-ant groups and gender
for overallTerrorism Impact Scale scores and itssub-scales (Table
7). There weresignificant differences amongparticipant groups for
overall TISscores, F (3, 271) = 5.67, I' < .01.Participants'
perception about StateAffair was also significantly different,'F
(3, 271) = 4.74, 1'< .01. Diversitywas also found out for
psycho-socialdistress, showing highly significantdifferences among
participants, F (3,271) = 4.24, I' < .01. Impact ofterrorism in
terms of GovernanceIssues, again showed significantdifference for
sample, F (3, 271) =6.18, I' < .0 I. Palticipants also
showedsignificant differences for theexperience of Resilience, F
(3, 271) =
225
230
Figure JMean Scores of Participant Groups for Total TIS
Scores235
205
200
220~8215(fJc::l210::;
GroupsTIS Subseales
-
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 109
".- - ",•••••• ~I-'.
..
RS
DG. PublieII Students10 Survivors10 Security Forces
CA
", ,~.40 j : I"
,30
'. 1~•20 ..II
10
0 I L':SA PD or
TIS Subseales
Figure 2Mean Scores of Participant Groups on TIS Subseales
80 170 i'" j '"'_~c-50 I
Figure 3Gender Differences for TIS Subseales
50
40"0•,
30 j,'"0 ...•0:E 20
10
O.SA
...
PD GI CA RSTIS Subscales
-
110 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFfIKHAR, SAEED & II.YAS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE
Table 7MANOVA of Terrorism Impact Scale Scaresior4 Participant
Groups
SourceDependent SS df MS FVariables
Participant Groups State Affairs 645,32 3 215.11 4,74*'
Psychosocial 808.97 3 269.65 4.25**Distress
Governance 329.28 3 109.76 6.18**Issues I
Resilience 152.40 3 50.80 3.18'
Total TIS 6153,16 3 2051.05 5.67 **
Groups x Gender Stale Affajrs 402.65 3 134,21 2,96*
Error State Affairs 12289.29 271 45.34
Psychosocial 17216.70 271 63,53DistressGovernance 4809.01 271
17,74
Issues
Resilience 4331.61 271 15.98
Total TIS 98007.l2 271 361.65
*p < ,05, **p < Ot.Note: All ltoll-si!?llijicalff resulls
are excluded.
among participant groups (Table 8).Impact of terrorism was worst
for
the groups of terrorism attacksurvivors and securily forces for
totalscore of the scale as compared tolaypersons and students.
Overall,students' group appeared to be theleast affected group of
all theparticipants on the total TIS score andthe subscales,
whereas survivors andsecurity forces were almost equallyinfluenced
by terrorism.
Discussion
The main objective of the currentstudy was to develop an
indigenous
measure to assess the impact of thecurrent prevailing negative
scenario inPakistan on its people. Many westernstudies have been
carried out to lookinto the impact of terrorist attacks andsuicidal
bombing, especially after 9/11and most of them included survivorsof
terrorist attacks. Some of theresearches have been done in
Israeland Palestine. Now, many of theAsian countries have become
thevictims of terrorist attacks andPakistan amongst them is on the
hitlist due to its strategic and geographicvalue, certain foreign
affairs policies,especially, being a US ally in the waragainst
terror. Therefore the aim was
Table 8Pair-wise Comparisons among Participant Groups Using LSD
Post hoc for TISand its Subseales '. .
Pairs M.diff SE pTIS Total
1&2 -9.20 2.70 .0011&3 -12.71 3.96 .0011&4 -21.02
3.30 .0012&4 -11.82 3.29 .001
Sate Affairs1&2 -2.24 .95 ,051&4 -4,89 1.17 ,0012&4
-2.56 1.17 .053&4 -4.31 1.56 .01
Psychosocial Distress1&2 -2.43 1.13 .051&3 -7.47 1.66
.0011&4 -8,27 1.38 .0012&3 -5.05 1.67 .012&4 -5.84 1.38
.001
Governance Issues1&2 -2.15 60 .0011&3 -4.44 .88
.011&4 -3.65 .73 .0012&3 -2,29 .88 .012&4 -1.50 .73
.05
Civic Affairs1&4 -2.51 .60 ,00]2&4 -1.84 .60 .013&4
-2.99 .80 .001
Resilience1&2 -1.71 .57 .011&4 -1.70 .69 .01
Note: / - students. 2 - general public, 3 = security/orees. 4 =
survivorsAll }lO'H'ignijicanl results are excluded.
-
MALIK, KHAWAR, TFTIKHAR, SAEED & ILYAS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE112
to develop a valid and reliable self-report measure to identify
the impactof terrorism on the people of Pakistanin this specific
socia-cultural context.Tn the item generation phase,participants
from diverse fields wererecruited to have broader pool ofitems.
Finally for empirical evaluationof the items' pool, four adult
groupswere drawn with ages 18 years an~above. Basic purpose of
thiscategorization of participant groupsinto students, general
public, securityforces personnel and survivors was toinvestigate
the nature of the effects ofterrorism on those who havewitnessed or
experienced such eventseither directly or through media andmight be
at risk in future. Followingthe lengthy scale developmentprocedure,
64 items were retainedwhich included 58 items showingadverse
impacts of terrorism and only6 items depicting positive after
effectsin terms of resilience. Empiricallygenerated constructs for
impact ofterrorism represented different aspectsof life being
affected by the wave ofterrorist attacks, both at individuallevel
and on society at large. As theitems for TIS were generated
purelyon the basis of public and expertopinion, it embodied
people's graveconcern about this horrifying act of.brutality
against humanity in the nameof religion.
The results of the principalcomponent analysis with
varimaxrotation followed by item analysisrevealed five distinct
factors coveringthe relevant constructs expressingdifferent aspects
regarding the impactsof terrorism as recommended byNunnally (1978).
Items showing item-total correlation r ::: .20 were retained
for the final version of the scale.Factor ] clustered items with
highloadings on the items reflectingsimilar concerns about the
issuesfaced by thc country as a state. Itemsincluded in this factor
named as StateAffairs depicted people's concernabout the worldwide
negativeinterpretation of their religion,country's standing and
position in theworld, inferiority complex as a nationdue to stigma
of being terrorists,development of negative attitudeswithin
society. This factor showedhigh reliability and
internalconsistency.
The second factor clustered itemsshowing a vivid picture of
mentalwear and tear and social sufferings ofpeople, increasing
intolerance,irritability, uncertainty of the situat-ion, increasing
hopelessness, sleepproblems, apprehension for beingattacked by a
suicide bomber alongwith people's concern for increasingthreats for
their social life anddisturbances in their daily routinework. It
was therefore named asPsychosocial Distress. These socialand
psychological effects had beendiscussed by many rc£earchers
whofound terrorism to be significantlyrelated to PTSD and
depressivesymptoms. PTSD can lead todefensive coping ultimately
(Hobfollet aI., 2006) as well as, in terms ofincapacitating
psychological function-ning (Somer, Tamir, Maguen, &
Litz,2005). Nayab and Kamal (2010) hadfound in a study in Pakistani
contextthat the people witnessing horrifyingten'orist attacks
experienced moredeath anxiety and stress.
Third factor represented itemsrelated to the impact of terrorism
on
.overall administrative mismanage-ment at government. level.
ItemsClustered here were related to the roleand 'image of
politicians, misuse ofr~source and power, role of mediasensation
and need for ethicalstandards, confusing state affairs andP.2licies
related to foreign affairs.People were concerned about the~astage
of the economic resources top?ovide security to the leaders and
tot~ke other security measures. Reasont6:, this perception might be
theinability of the security agencies tostop terrorist attacks
despite securitya!'rangements which end up asunproductive exercises
and result inC1estabilization of the socia-economicsystem in thc
society; hence this factorwas named as Governancc Issucs.,. Ninc
itcms loaded high on factor 4which shared thematic similarities
forcivic affairs. These items were relatedto people's concern about
socialnloral and cmotional consequences o~the society at large such
as increasingindecisiveness, inflexible attitudes,t"reats for
academic activities, future'insccurity, loss of loved ones, lack
of:self reliance as a civil institution,identity as a nation etc.
It was
-
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 113
ale.ligh:ingues~mstate:emlivelOTI,
the:lOnsts,des"ed:nal
:msntal; oflee,It -
up'lOgenglingandtineascialeen"hontlylive
tofall, ofon-.hz,hadtextringlore
~mson
overall administrative mismanage-ment at government level.
Itemsclustered here were related to the roleand image of
politicians, misuse ofresource and power, role of mediasensation
and need for ethicalstandards, confusing state affairs andpolicies
related to foreign affairs.People were concerned about thewastage
of the economic resources toprovide security to the leaders and
Itotake other security measures. Reasonto this perception might be
theinability of the security agencies tostop terrorist attacks
despite securityarrangements which end up asunproductive exercises
and result indestabilization of the socia-economicsystem in the
society; hence this factorwas named as Governance Issues.
Nine items loaded high on factor 4which shared thematic
similarities forcivic affairs. These items were relatedto people's
concern about social,moral and emotional consequences onthe society
at large such as increasingindecisiveness, inflexible
attitudes,threats for academic activities, futureinsecurity, loss
of loved ones, lack ofself reliance as a civil institution,identity
as a nation etc. It wastherefore labeled as Civic Affairs.
Factor 5 which was finally labeledas Resilience clustered 6
items whichrepresented few positive outcomes of
. the widespread negative situation inthe country. Many items
which loadedhigh on certain factors were excludeddue to lower
reliability coefficients initem. analysis except three
itemsincluded in Resilience subscale whichloaded high on Factor 5,
e.g., items83, 90 and 92. Item analysis didn'tshow high correlation
coefficients forsome of these items. Although items
showing item-total correlation r 2: .20were' retained for the
final TIS butthere is evidence that in certain casesitems with
slightly low reliabilities r =:s .20 can be retained with
appropriaterationale (Gray & Wilson, 2006). Thepurpose of
retaining these items was10giGaI, i.e., to measnre the
positiveoutcomes of a negative situation.Moreover, together these
itemsreflected high reliability of .80 andexclusion of these items
did not seemto affect the overall internalconsistency of the scale.
These itemsreflected themes such as people'ssympathetic attitude
towards theirbrothers and sisters as a nation,positive attitude
towards securityforces and agencies, helping behavior,patriotism
among public, and adetermination to fight againstterrorism. Many
researches carried outin the disaster situations provideevidence
for this construct ofresilience; studies after earthquake
ofSeptember 2005 in Pakistan had alsorevealed the importance of
resilienceof Pakistani people (e.g., Suhail et aI.,2009). Bonanno,
Galea, Bucciarelliand Vlahov (2006) also posed in theirstudy
carried out 6 months followingthe 9-11 terrorist attacks in New
York,that frequency of resilience, defined asabsence of PTSD, was
surprisinglyhigh even among people who were inthe World Trade
Center or in thosewho were physically wounded in theattack (53.5%
and 32.8%, respecti-vely). In the situations whereterrorism becomes
customary, acollective habituation is commonamong people (Vazquez,
Perez-Sales,Hervas, 2005).
Item-total correlation and internalconsistency reliability
measure of the
-
114 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFTIKHAR, SAEED & ILYAS TERRORISM IMPACT
SCALE II
/
scale were highly significant. Someresearchers, e,g., Cronbach
and Meehl(1955) have suggeste.d that internalconsistency measures
may be taken asan evidence of validity and if theunderlying theory
of attitude beingmeasured suggests high item inter-correlations,
tbe measure of internalconsistency may be intcrpreted as anevidence
of construct validity (Wright& Shaw, 1967). The
inter-correlations Iamong the sub-scales were
highlysignificant,
The correlation matrix depictedhighly significant
inter-correlationsfor all sub-scales/factors with eachother cxcept
Resilience which wasonly correlated with factor 3
depictingGovernance Issues. The reason mightbc that this factor did
not represent thenegative impact of terrorism as allother four
factors did; rather, it wasdepicting some positive outcome ofthe
situation. However, resilience wassignificantly correlated with the
totalTIS score. It is important to note thatsubscale of Resilience
was not foundto be significantly correlated with therest of the
subscales except forGovernance Issues. There wassignificanl
positive associationbetween the two which might beexplained again
in psychologicalcontext that perhaps beingdisappointed from others
sources suchas government and administrationcontributes to
hardincss and helps inbecoming self-reliant and determined,. Gender
differences were not
found significant for the TIS and itssubscales depicting similar
genderperception of the prevailing situationin the society.
However, MultivariateAnalysis of Variance revealedsignificant
differences among
participant groups, not -only for totalTIS but for all the
subscales exceptCivic Affairs. Gender, when treatedseparately with
(-test showedsignificant differences for StateAffairs, as women
tended to perceivethe situation more adverse ascompared to men.
Post-Hoc resultsindicated that students were leastaffected group on
almost all thesubscales and on overall TIS score.The reason could
be the lack of senseof responsibility in young age, whichis
peculiar to our society as our youthis dependent on their parents
tillcompletion of their studies so theymight be less worried about
the long-term consequences of terrorism.Moreover, they have a lot
of academicand co-curricular activities to indulgein as compared to
general public whoare responsible for looking after theirfamilies
and managing resources forthem, thus more influenced byterrorist
attacks. Survivors andofficials of security forces were themost
adversely affected group asbeing at risk directly and
witnessingterrorist attacks frequently; yet aninteresting finding
was that they wereequally resilient. '
The results also indicated aserious concern of people
aboutattitudes and values. Elderly groupswere more concerned with
the currentscenario and situation after terroristattacks and
equally more hopefulabout the future as compared to thestudents
.
There are certain strengths of thestudy which should be
highlightedhere; one is the inclusion of peoplefrom diversified
walks of life in thedevelopment of the scale from itemgeneration
till its empirical evaluation.
Moreover, for determining itsreliability and validity, people at
highand low risks of terrorist attacks wereincluded in the sample.
The seale maybe taken as the first step towardsdeveloping an
indigenous self-reportmeasure to assess impacts of
terrorismspecifically in Pakistani socia-culturaland economic
context. Finally, TISwith 64 items based on five factorsolution
showed significant internalconsistency (Cronbach's ct = .93)
andconstruct validity; the emergedfaetors/subscales/eomponents
werenamed as State Affairs (17 items),Psychosocial Distress (19
items),Governance Issues (13 items), CivicAffairs (9 items) and
Resilience (6items). The study also indicatedsignificant
differences amongparticipant groups regarding the'impact of
terrorist attacks. Survivorsand oftlcials from'seeurity forces
werefound to, be the most adverselyaffected by current wave of
terrorism.Psychological problems should beaddressed with the help
of appropriateinlervention plans especially for' thisgroup which
could help in raisingtheir morale and reduce death anxiety;however
the psychological concernsof other than these groups also need tobe
addressed in future research.
Limitations & Suggestions
AIthough different representativegroups were included, data for
thecurrent study were mainly drawn fromonly one city in Punjab,
Lahore, thatmight limit its generalizability. Thisinitial attempt
to develop a self- reportmeasure for the assessment of theimpact of
the unending wave ofterrorist attacks in Pakistan needsadditional
studies to replicate its
psychometric characteristics, especialHy, the factorial stmeture
and the cuoff scores with much larger samplincluding different
groups drawn frondifferent ciiies throughout Pakistanwhich is the
future plan for thiresearch project. The group 0adolescents needs
to be included ilthe sample as well. This would add tlthe
sensitivity of the measure tlidentify the intensity of the
adverslimpacts of terrorism in the largecontext.
Implications
This study was designed to fulfilthe need to have a self-report
measurein order to assess the psychological a:well as
socio-cultural effects of theever increasing wave of terrorism
orthe mental health and sociafunctioning of the people of
PakistanTerrorism Impact Scale (TIS) with 6'items based on five
categories mighbe taken as a measure to asses~people's perception
about the advemimpact on the ongoing state affairsgovernance
issues, civic affairs a~well as threat to their mental health
ifterms of psychosocial distress alon~with positive effect in terms
01resilience. The findings of the studyindicated significant
differencesacross participant groups regardingthe impacts of
terrorist attacks,Survivors, eye witnesses andpersonnel from
security forces werefound to be most adversely affected.Mental
health of people' appears to beat risk due to" overall
increasinginsecurity and threat in the socialenvironment.
Psychological problemsof people need to be addressed whi
Ielaunching some appropriate trauma
-
. ,
TERRORISM IMPACT SCALE 115
nlpt~d~dteIeastsstIee.;e:hlhII'Y,.,~.Ie
:eoIrIr
yd
IS
gn'e
a11IS
11;t
11
ed
enI.
Moreover, for determining itsreliability and validity, people at
highand low risks of terrorist attacks wercincluded in the sample.
The scale maybe taken as the first step towardsdeveloping an
indigenous self-reportmeasure to assess impacts of
terrorismspecifically in Pakistani socia-culturaland economic
context. Finally, TISwith 64 items based on five factorsolution
showed significant interdalconsistency (Cronbach's ct = .93)
andconstruct validity; the emergedfactors/subscales/components
werenamed as State Affairs (17 items),Psychosocial Distress (19
items),Governance Issues (13 items), CivicAffairs (9 items) and
Resilience (6items). The study also indicatedsignificant
differences among.participant groups regarding theimpact of
terrorist attacks. Survivorsand officials from security forces
werefound to be the most adverselyaffected by current wave of
terrorism.Psychological problems should beaddressed with the help
of appropriateintervention plans especially for thisgroup which
could help in raisingtheir morale and reduce death anxiety;hDwever
the psychDlogical CDncernsDfDther than these groups also need tDbe
addressed in future research.
Limitations & Suggestions
Although different representativegroups were included, data fDr
thecurrent study were mainly drawn fromonly Dne city in Punjab,
Lahore, thatmight limit its generalizability. Thisinitial attempt
to develop a self- repDrtmeasure fDr the assessment of theimpact Df
the unending wave ofterrorist attacks in Pakistan needsadditiDnal
studies to replicate its
psychDmetric characteristics, especial-lly, the factorial
structure and the cutoff SCDres with much larger sampleincluding
different groups drawn frDmdifferent cities throughDut
Pakistan,which is the future .plan fDr thisresearch project. The
group ofadDlescents needs tD be. included inthe sample as well.
This WDuid add tothe sensitivity Df the measure tDidentify the
intensity of the adverseimpacts of terrorism in the
largercontext.
Implications
This study was designed to fulfillthe need tD have a self-repDrt
measurein order to assess the psychDlogical aswell as
socia-cultural effects of theever increasing wave of terrorism
onthe mental health and socialfunctiDning of the peDple Df
Pakistan.TerrDrism Impact Scale (TIS) with 64items based on five
categDries mightbe taken as a measure to assesspeople's perception
abDut the adverseimpact on the Dngoing state affairs,governance
issues, civic affairs aswell as threat to their mental health
interms of psychosDcial distress alDngwith positive effect in terms
ofresilience. The findings Df the studyindicated significant
differencesacross participant groups regardingthe impacts Df
terrorist attacks.Survivors, eye witnesses andpersonnel from
security forces werefDund tD be mDst adversely affected.Mental
health of peDple appears to beat risk due tD' overall
increasinginsecurity and threat in the sDcialenvironment.
PsychDlogical problemsDf peDple need to be addressed whilelaunching
SDme appropriate trauma
-
116 MALIK, KHAWAR, IFTIKHAR, SAEED & ILY AS TERRORJSM IMPACT
SCALE I
counseling strategies and psychoeducational programs for
thesurvivors, security forces personneland public at large.
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