Development of Nuclear Materials Jamal Graham. Nuclear Medications The history of nuclear medicine is from scientists across different trained in physics,

Development of Nuclear Materials

Jamal Graham

Nuclear Medications

• The history of nuclear medicine is from scientists across different trained in physics, chemistry, engineering, and medicine. The multidisciplinary nature of Nuclear Medicine makes it difficult for historians to determine when Nuclear Medicine was developed. This can probably be best placed between 1934 and 1946. Many historians consider the discovery of artificially produced radioisotopes by Frederic Joliot-Curie and Irene Joliot-Curie in 1934 as the most significant milestone in Nuclear Medicine.

• Although, the earliest use of I-131 was devoted to therapy of thyroid cancer, its use was later expanded to include imaging of the thyroid gland and therapy for hyperthyroidism. Widespread clinical use of Nuclear Medicine began in the early 1950s, as knowledge expanded about radio nuclides and using them to trace biochemical processes.

• Benedict Cassen helped develop the first rectilinear scanner and Hal O. Anger's scintillation camera (Anger camera) broadened the young discipline of Nuclear Medicine into a full-fledged medical imaging specialty. Society of Nuclear Medicine was formed in 1954 in Spokane, Washington, USA, from this great discovery. In 1960, the Society began publication of the Journal of Nuclear Medicine, the premier scientific journal for the discipline in America

• . Among many radio nuclides that were discovered for medical-use, none were as important as the discovery and development of Technetium-99m. It was first discovered in 1937 by Carlos Perrier and Emilio Segre as an artificial element to fill space number 43 in the Periodic Table. The development of generator system to produce Technetium-99m in the 1960s became a practical method for medical use. Today, Technetium-99m is the most utilized element in Nuclear Medicine and is employed in a wide variety of Nuclear Medicine imaging studies.

Nuclear Power Plants

• Nuclear energy is the world's largest source of emission-free energy. Nuclear power plants produce no controlled air pollutants, such as sulfur and particulates, or greenhouse gases. The use of nuclear energy in place of other energy sources helps to keep the air clean, preserve the Earth's climate, avoid ground-level ozone formation and prevent acid rain. Of all energy sources, nuclear energy has perhaps the lowest impact on the environment, including water, land, habitat, species, and air resources. Nuclear energy is the most eco-efficient of all energy sources because it produces the most electricity relative to its environmental impact.

• Emission reductions from nuclear energy usage reported by the electric power sector increased by 43 percent from an estimated 70 million metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent for 1997 to 100 million metric tons carbon dioxide equivalent for 1998. That 100 million metric tons equals 47 percent of the 212 million metric tons of carbon emissions reductions reported nationwide, according to EIA. Between 1973 and 2000, nuclear establishments avoided the emission of 66.1 million tons of sulfur dioxide and 33.6 million tons of nitrogen oxides.

• The U.S. Clean Air Act of 1970, and related regulations, set federally mandated limits on the emission of certain pollutants for states and regions of the country. Both nuclear and fossil power plants operate in those states and regions.

• Air quality standards established under the Clean Air Act have been calculated, in truth, presuming that 20 percent of the nation's electricity will continue to be produced by non-emitting nuclear energy, and that 30 percent total will be non-emitting generation. This is on a national basis. The percent actually varies from state to state, with many states in "non-attainment" areas that have been unable to achieve air quality standards being more heavily dependent on nuclear energy.

Environmental Benefits

• Of all energy sources, nuclear energy has perhaps the lowest impact on the environment especially in relation to kilowatts produced because nuclear plants do not emit harmful gases, require a relatively small area, and effectively minimize or negate other impacts. In other words, nuclear energy is the most "ecologically efficient" of all energy sources because it produces the most electricity in relation to its minimal environmental impact. There are no significant adverse effects to water, land, habitat, species, and air resources.

• Nuclear energy is an emission-free energy source because it does not burn anything to produce electricity. Nuclear power plants produce no gases such as nitrogen oxide or sulfur dioxide that could threaten our atmosphere by causing ground-level ozone formation, smog, and acid rain. Nor does nuclear energy produce carbon dioxide or other greenhouse gases suspected to cause global warming.

• Throughout the nuclear fuel cycle, the small volume of waste byproducts actually created is carefully contained, packaged and safely stored. As a result, the nuclear energy industry is the only industry established since the industrial revolution that has managed and accounted for all of its waste, preventing adverse impacts to the environment.

• Nuclear power also provides water quality and aquatic life conservation. Water discharged from a nuclear power plant contains no harmful pollutants and meets regulatory standards for temperature designed to protect aquatic life. This water, used for cooling, never comes in contact with radioactive materials. If the water from the plant is so warm that it may harm marine life, it is cooled before it is discharged to its source river, lake, or bay as it is either mixed with water in a cooling pond or pumped through a cooling tower.

• Because the areas around nuclear power plants and their cooling ponds are so clean, they are often developed as wetlands that provide nesting areas for waterfowl and other birds, new habitats for fish, and the preservation of other wildlife as well as trees, flowers, and grasses. Many energy companies have created special nature parks or wildlife sanctuaries on plant sites.

• Nuclear power plants provide land and habitat preservation. Because nuclear power plants produce a large amount of electricity in a relatively small space, they require significantly less land for operation than all other energy sources. For instance, solar and wind farms must occupy substantially more land, and must be sited in geographically unpopulated areas far from energy demand.

• To build the equivalent of a 1,000-megawatt nuclear plant, a solar park would have to be larger than 35,000 acres, and a wind farm would have to be 150,000 acres or larger. By contrast, the Millstone Units 2 and 3 nuclear power plants in Connecticut have an installed capacity of over 1,900 megawatts of power on a 500-acre site designed for three nuclear plants. Also, uranium is a concentrated, low-volume fuel source requiring few incursions into the land for extraction or transport.

Economical Benefits of Nuclear Power

• Nuclear power plants provide low-cost, predictable power at stable prices and are essential in maintaining the reliability of the U.S. electric power system. Nuclear power is a major national energy source. Nuclear energy is our nation's largest source of emission-free electricity and our second largest source of power. The 103 U.S. nuclear units supply about 20 percent of the electricity produced in the United States. The only fuel source that produced more electricity was coal.

• Nuclear plants also contribute to national energy security and ensure stable nationwide electricity supply. As an integral part of the U.S. energy mix, nuclear energy is a secure energy source that the nation can depend on. Unlike some other energy sources, nuclear energy is not subject to unreliable weather or climate conditions, unpredictable cost fluctuations, or dependence on foreign suppliers.

• In fact, nuclear energy is a strong domestic as well as international industry, with extensive fuel supply sources. Nuclear power plants are large units that run for extended periods. They help supply the necessary level of electricity, or "base load generation," for the electricity transmission network, or "grid," to operate. U.S. nuclear power plants are a key element in the stability of our country's electrical grid.

• Nuclear power plants have long periods of operation. Nuclear power plants are designed to operate continuously for long periods of time. They can run about 540 days before they are shut down for refueling. The longest continuous run by a light water reactor is Three Mile Island, Unit 1, in Pennsylvania, which completed a 688-day run.

• The longest run of any type of reactor is 894 days, achieved by the Pickering 7 plant, a heavy-water reactor in Ontario, Canada (Canadian CANDU reactors can be refueled while operating).

Availability of Nuclear Energy

• Abundant fuel are low cost and have stable price. US nuclear power plants use an enriched form of uranium for fuel. Uranium is a relatively abundant element that occurs naturally in the earth's crust. Uranium oxide is about as common as tin. In 1998, 16 countries produced over 99 percent of the world's total uranium production. Canada's and Australia's uranium mines account for 46 percent.

• Compared to natural gas, a fuel also used to generate electricity, uranium is already relatively low in cost and less sensitive to fuel price increases. And a little goes a long way: one uranium fuel pellet-the size of the tip of your little finger-is the equivalent of 17,000 cubic feet of natural gas, 1,780 pounds of coal, or 149 gallons of oil.