-
Research ArticleDetermination of Chromium in Natural Water by
AdsorptiveStripping Voltammetry Using In Situ Bismuth Film
Electrode
Nguyen Thị Hue ,1 Nguyen Van Hop,1 Hoang Thai Long ,1 Nguyen Hai
Phong ,1Tran Ha Uyen,1 Le Quoc Hung,2 and Nguyen Nhi Phuong1,3
1University of Sciences, Hue University, Hue 530000,
Vietnam2Institute of Chemistry, Vietnam Academy of Science and
Technology, Ha Noi 100000, Vietnam3Pham Van Dong University, Quảng
Ngãi 570000, Vietnam
Correspondence should be addressed to Nguyen �ị Hue;
[email protected] and Hoang �ai Long;
[email protected]
Received 2 August 2019; Revised 7 January 2020; Accepted 10
April 2020; Published 14 May 2020
Academic Editor: Evelyn O. Talbott
Copyright © 2020 Nguyen �ị Hue et al. �is is an open access
article distributed under the Creative Commons AttributionLicense,
which permits unrestricted use, distribution, and reproduction in
any medium, provided the original work is properlycited.
Development of adsorptive stripping voltammetry (AdSV) combined
with in situ prepared bismuth film electrode (in situ BiFE)on
glassy carbon disk surface using diethylenetriamine pentaacetic
acid (DTPA) as a complexing agent and NO−3 as a catalyst
todetermine the trace amount of chromium (VI) is demonstrated.
According to this method, in the preconcentration step atEdep �
−800mV, the bismuth film is coated on the surface of glassy carbon
electrodes simultaneously with the adsorption ofcomplexes
Cr(III)-DTPA. In addition to the influencing factors, the stripping
voltammetry performance factors such as de-position potential,
deposition time, equilibration time, cleaning potential, cleaning
time, and technical parameters of differentialpulse and square wave
voltammetries have been investigated, and the influence of Cr(III),
Co(II), Ni(II), Ca(II), Fe(III), SO2−4 , Cl
−,and Triton X has also been investigated. �is method gained
good repeatability with RSD
-
chromium traces in different objects, and achieves very lowLOD,
size < 10−9–10−12M [10–20].
Another problem raised was the working electrode usedin the AdSV
method. Currently, most studies on the AdSVmethod use hanging
mercury drop electrodes (HMDEs)[21–34], or static mercury drop
electrodes (SMDE) [19, 35]which are expensive and very difficult to
fabricate. Researchon the use of mercury film electrode (MFE) and
bismuth filmelectrode on glassy carbon disk surface (BiFE), which
are lessexpensive and easier to fabricate, and
environmentallyfriendly BiFE has been improved.
AdSV has been applied in combination with differenttypes of
electrodes and stripping voltammetry signalingtechniques, and many
authors have been successful indetermining the amount of traces and
super chromiumtraces in complex objects. Most studies use
HMDEelectrodes, some use MFE electrodes, and there are alsomany ex
situ BiFE electrodes [10, 11, 14, 16, 17, 36] andgold film
electrodes (AuFE) [13, 15, 37–39], and the latermodified electrodes
[20, 36, 40–44] are applied more forchromium analysis in complex
objects. �e complex li-gands used are DTPA [1, 21, 22, 25, 26, 28,
32, 35, 45],triethylenetetramine hexaacetic acid (TTHA)[19, 29, 31,
37], diphenylcarbazide (DPCB) [23, 29],pyrocatechol violet [24,
30], pyrogallol [34], rubeanicacid [33], neo TT [40], and quercetin
[20], and thecommon base ingredients are CH3COONa, acetate
buffer(CH3COOH/CH3COONa), and CH3COONa/NaNO3; allstudies analyzed
chromium in river water, seawater,groundwater, tea water, and
wastewater, and almost noworks have analyzed chromium in sediments
by theadsorptive stripping voltammetry method and no authorhas used
in situ BiFE to analyze chromium in environ-mental objects.
Overall, studies have achieved very lowdetection limits from 10-9
to 10-10M (or from 0.05 ppb to0.005 ppb). Table 1 shows the summary
of publishedstudies on chromium determination by the
AdSVmethod.
When analyzing Cr(VI) by the AdSVmethod, Yong et al.[10] and Lin
et al. [11] proposed the adsorption mechanismas follows.
�e first stage of the adsorptive stripping voltammetrymethod is
the movement of Cr(VI) in the solution to theelectrode surface and
is reduced by the following reaction.
Cr(VI) + 3e⟶Cr(III); E1/2 � −0.2V in comparisonwith 3M
Ag/AgCl/KCl electrode; in the presence of DTPAions on the interface
between the electrode membrane andthe solution, Cr(III) ions form
complexes quickly andadsorbed onto the electrode surface. �e main
nature of thiscomplex is unknown, and some authors [21, 46] said
thatthis complex exists mainly as Cr(III)-DTPA2− and a little
inCr(III)-HDTPA−, or Khan [47] suggested that the complexof Cr(III)
with DTPA exists as [Cr(III) (H2O)HY]−, [Cr(III)-DTPA]2−, and so
on.
After complex adsorption, potential scan was conductedfrom −0.9V
to −1.35V [10], or from −0.8V to −1.4V [11]; asa result of this
process, the Cr(III)-DTPA complex is re-duced to the Cr(II)-DTPA
complex [10, 11]:
Cr(III) − DTPA + e⟶ Cr(II) − DTPA (1)
�e signal recorded with this reduction is at E1/2� −1.15V[10,
11] and at E1/2� −1.1V in comparison with 3MAg/AgCl/KCl
electrode.
�e role of NO−3 ions is to oxidize Cr(II)-DTPA com-plexes into
Cr(III)-DTPA complexes.
�anks to the oxidation of NO−3 , the peak is higher andthe
sensitivity of the method is increased.
Cr(II) − DTPA⟶N O−3 Cr(III) − DTPA (2)
In order to contribute to the development of the AdSVmethod, we
have conducted several studies to determinechromium by the AdSV
method using mercury film elec-trodes, ex situ bismuth film
electrode, and in situ bismuthfilm electrode. In this paper, we
present the results ofchromium determination by the AdSV method
using in situbismuth film electrode (in situ BiFE) in the presence
ofDTPA as a complexing agent and ion NO−3 as a catalyst.Literature
survey revealed that in situ BiFE has never beenused for chromium
determination by the adsorptive strip-ping voltammetry.
2. Experimental
2.1. Apparatus and Reagents. Square wave stripping vol-tammetric
measurements were conducted on Electro-chemical Analyzer 797 VA
Computrace (Metrohm,Switzerland) accompanied with three electrodes.
�eseelectrodes were inserted into the 80ml capacity
electro-chemical cell. �e working electrode was a glassy
carbonrotating disk electrode with d� 2.8± 0.1mm; the
referenceelectrode was a 3M Ag/AgCl/ KCl electrode and the
aux-iliary electrode was a platinum wire. All measurements
werecarried out at 25± 1°C.
DTPA (diethylenetriamine pentaacetic acid) is used as
acomplexing agent for chromium. 50.10−3M DTPA solutionwas prepared
by dissolving 4.916 g of DTPA in double-distilled water and then
adding 25% aqueous ammoniasolution until the pH reaches 6.0.
0.2M Cr(VI) stock solution was prepared by weighing7.35 g of
K2Cr2O7 (Merck, purity of 95–98%), dissolving,and making it up to
250ml with double-distilled water.Cr(VI) working solutions such as
Cr(VI) 10−6M and Cr(VI)10−7M are diluted daily from this stock
solution.
0.48.10−3M Bi(III) working solution was prepared from4.8 .10−3M
Bi(III) (the type used for analyzing atomic ab-sorption
spectrometry from Merck).
Acetate buffer (pH� 6) was prepared from NaCH3COO(Merck, purity
of 95–98%) and CH3COOH (Merck, purity97%). 2.5M NaNO3 solution was
prepared from NaNO3(Merck, purity of 95–98%).
Othermetal ionic solutions such as Co(II), Ni(II),
Zn(II),Cr(III), Fe(III), and Ca(II) are from the
corresponding1000mg/l stock solution (the type used for analyzing
atomicabsorption spectrometry from Merck). Triton X-100working
solution was prepared from Triton X-100 (Merck).
2 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
-
Tabl
e1:
Summaryof
publish
edworks
onstripp
ingvoltammetry
metho
dforchromium
determ
ination.
No.
Ligand
sBa
ckgrou
ndsolutio
nWorking
electrod
eMeasurement
techniqu
esLO
D(pbb
)Analytical
object
Determined
form
Timeof
publication
References
1DTP
ACH
3COONH
4,NaN
O3
(pH
�5.2)
HMDE
DP-AdS
V1.2
Fake
template
Total
chromium
1987
[21]
2Dipheny
lcarbazide
H2SO40.1M
GE
LSV
0.05
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
1988
[29]
3TT
HA
CH
3COONa,NaN
O3
(pH
�5.5)
HMDE
DP-CSV
1.04
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
1988
[29]
4TT
HA
CH
3COONa,NaN
O3
(pH
�5.5)
HMDE
SqW-A
V0.02
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
1988
[29]
5DTP
AKH
2PO
4,Na 2HPO
4(pH
�6–
7)HMDE
DP-CSV
0.01
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
1990
[32]
6Dipheny
lcarbazide
H2SO40.3M
HMDE
DP-AdS
V0.02
Groun
dwater
Cr(VI)
1992
[23]
7DTP
A2.5mM
Acetate
buffer(pH
5.2)
HMDE
SqW-A
dSV
0.05
Seaw
ater
Cr(VI),total
chromium
1992
[45]
8DTP
A0.01
MNaN
O30.5M,M
ES(m
orph
olinoethanesulfonic
acid)(pH
6.1)
HMDE
DP-AdS
V0.62
Riverwater,tap
water
Total
chromium
2000
[28]
9DTP
ANaN
O3,acetatebu
ffer(pH
5.7)
HMDE
DP-AdS
V
Cr(VI):
0.005
activ
ated
Cr(III):
0.52
Riverwater,
lake
water,
sewer
water
Cr(VI),
activ
ated
Cr(III),total
chromium
2001
[1]
10TT
HA
0.1M
(triethylenetetram
inhexaacetic
acid)
NaC
H3C
OO
1M,N
aNO35M
(pH
6.2–
6.5)
SMDE
SqW-A
dSV
0.52
Leaf
Cr(VI)
2003
[19]
11DTP
AAcetate
buffer(pH
�6),K
NO3
0.25
MHMDE
DP-AdS
V0.004
Wastewater
Cr(VI),total
chromium
2004
[22]
12Ru
beanic
acid
(dith
iooxam
ide)
Acetate
buffer(pH
6),K
NO3
0.20
MHMDE
DP-AdS
V1976
Riverwater,
seaw
ater,
sewage,vinegar
Cr(VI)
2012
[33]
13DTP
AAcetate
buffer(pH
6)NaN
O3
HMDE
AdS
V18.2
Hum
anurine
Cr(VI)
2005
[26]
14TT
HA
0.2M
NaC
H3C
OO0.1M,N
aNO35M
(pH
6.2)
HMDE
CV-A
dSV
0.3
Cr(VI)
1997
[31]
15DTP
ANaC
H3C
OO
0.01
M,N
aNO3
0.5M
(pH
8.5)
SMDE
156.10
−5
Riverwater,tap
water
Cr(VI)
1999
[35]
16DTP
A5mM
NaC
H3C
OO
0.15
M,N
aNO3
0.7M
(pH
6)HMDE
SqW-A
dSV
0.05
Cem
ent
Cr(VI)
2011
[25]
17Py
rogallo
lred
0.4M
acetatebu
ffer(pH
4.5)
HMDE
SqW-A
dSV
0.05
Seaw
ater
Cr(VI),
Cr(III),total
chromium
2012
[34]
18DTP
A0.05
MNaC
H3C
OO
0.2M
(pH
6.2)
HMDE
DP-AdS
V1.04
Electrop
latin
gwaste
water
Cr(VI)
2004
[27]
19Py
rocatechol
violet
Acetate
buffer
HMDE
DP-AdS
VCr(VI)
1997
[24]
20
HED
TA(N
-2-hydroxyethyl
ethylenediam
ine-N,N′,N″-triacetic
acid)andPC
V(pyrocatecho
lviolet)
0.1M
acetatebu
ffer(pH
6)KNO
32M
HMDE
DP-AdS
VCr(III),
Cr(VI)
2002
[30]
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 3
-
Tabl
e1:
Con
tinued.
No.
Ligand
sBa
ckgrou
ndsolutio
nWorking
electrod
eMeasurement
techniqu
esLO
D(pbb
)Analytical
object
Determined
form
Timeof
publication
References
21Cup
ferron
0.01
MPIPE
S0.2M
(pH
�7)
BiFE
exsitu
SqW-A
dSV
0.1
Labo
ratory
water,
cigarette
s,soil
sample
Total
chromium
2004
[14]
22DTP
A5mM
Acetate
0.1M
(pH
�6.0)
BiFE
exsitu
SqW-A
dSV
0.015
Riverwater
Total
chromium
2005
[11]
23DTP
A5mM
NaO
Ac0.1M
(pH
�6.0)
BiFE
exsitu
SqW-A
dSV
0.015
Bloo
dsample
Total
chromium
2006
[10]
24DTP
A5mM
Acetate
0.1M
(pH
�6.0)
BiFE
exsitu
SqW-A
dSV
0.017
(CrV
I );0.022(C
rtotal)
Riverwater
Cr(VI);
Cr(III)
2010
[16]
25PA
R(4-(2-pyridylazo)resorcinol)
CH
3COOH–C
H3C
OONa,
triso
dium
citrate
BiFE
exsitu
SqW-A
dSV
0.01
Tapwater,lake
water,soil
sample
Total
chromium
2013
[17]
26DTP
ACH
3COONH
4,NaN
O3
(pH
�5.2)
Bifilm
wrapp
edsin
glewalled
carbon
nano
tubes
DP-AdS
V0.12.10−
3Fake
template
Total
chromium
2013
[18]
27DTP
A0.01
M0.1M
acetatebu
ffer(pH
�6.0)
Hg(A
g)FE
DP-AdS
V0.004
Natural
water,
drinking
water
Cr(VI)
2006
[12]
28TT
HA
CH
3COONa,NaN
O3
(pH
�5.5)
Goldfilm
mod
ified
carbon
compo
site
electrod
eDP-CSV
4.0
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
2014
[37]
29PE
T(4pyridine-ethanethiol)
NaF
0.15
M(pH
�4.5)
PET/nano
-Au/Pt-
RDelectrod
eDP-AdS
V0.001
Seaw
ater
Cr(VI)
2015
[13]
30DTP
AKH
2PO
4,Na 2HPO
4(pH
�6–
7)
(Flower-like
self-
assemblyof
gold
nano
particles)
AuN
Ps/G
CE
DP–
CSV
0.001
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
2012
[38]
31HCl(pH
�2)
AuN
Ps/nano-TiC/
GCE
DP-AdS
V2.08
Seaw
ater
Cr(VI)
2015
[15]
32HClO
40.06
MAuN
Ps/SPC
EASV
0.002
Tapwater,
seaw
ater
Cr(VI)
2015
[39]
33QH2(quercetin)
Acetate
buffer(pH
�6),K
NO3
0.7M
QH2/MWCNT-
SPCE(quercetin/
multiw
alledcarbon
nano
tubesscreen-
printedcarbon
electrod
e)
DP-AdS
V15.9
Drink
ingwater
Cr(VI)
2013
[20]
34-
Acetate
buffer(pH
�5)
μNPs/G
CE
DP-SV
0.01
Electrop
latin
gwaste
water
Cr(III)
2015
[44]
35DTP
A0.1M
Acetate
buffer(pH
6),K
NO3
0.25
MμNPs/BiFE
DP-AdS
V0.12.10−
3Fake
template
Cr(VI)
2011
[36]
4 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
-
Tabl
e1:
Con
tinued.
No.
Ligand
sBa
ckgrou
ndsolutio
nWorking
electrod
eMeasurement
techniqu
esLO
D(pbb
)Analytical
object
Determined
form
Timeof
publication
References
36Po
lyviny
lbutyral/SPE
s+4.7%
DTP
AH
2SO4(pH
1)SP
Es(screen-
printedelectrod
e)CV-A
dSV
52.0
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
2014
[42]
372,5,8,11,14-Pentaaza-15,16,29-
phenanthrolin
ophane
(NeoTT
)1,6-Dichloro-hexane
(DCH),
LiCl1
0mM,H
Cl1
mM
Liqu
id/liqu
idinterface
SqW-A
dSV
250.0
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
2005
[40]
38
Silver:A
gClO
40.1mM,b
riton
robinson
(pH
2)gold:
HAuC
lO40.1mM,H
2SO4
0.5mM.
Carbo
nscreen-
printedelectrod
e(C
SPEs)
DPV
Silver:4
4.2
gold:2
0.8
Fake
template
Cr(VI)
2008
[43]
39Septon
ex10
−6 M
(1-
pentadecyltrim
ethylamon
ium
brom
ide)
HCl0
.25M,N
aCl0
.1M
(pH<2)
Carbo
npaste
DP-CSV
2.6
Tea
CrO
2− 42004
[41]
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 5
-
2.2. -e Working Electrode and Adsorptive Stripping Vol-tammetric
Procedure. In this method, the working electrodeis bismuth film
electrode created in in situ on glassy carbonrotating disk (in situ
BiFE) and it is formed during thedeposition process in the
following way: �e glassy carbondisk electrode was inserted into the
electrochemical cellcontaining the reference electrode, platinum
auxiliaryelectrode, and analysis solution (0.4.10−3M DTPA,
28.8.10−5M Bi(III), 5.0.10−6M KBr, 0.4M NaNO3, 0.4M acetatebuffer
solution, and Cr(VI)).�e glassy carbon electrode wasrotated with
constant speed and deposition at −800mV wasobserved (deposition
voltage, Edep) at a definite time (de-position time, tdep); in the
process, Bi(III) is reduced to Bi0which adheres to the surface of
glassy carbon plate formingin situ BiFE; at the same time, Cr(VI)
is reduced to Cr(III),and then new Cr(III) forms complexes with
DTPA in thesolution layer close to the electrode surface and
Cr(III)-DTPA complex adsorbed onto the surface of in situ BiFE,
sochromium is enriched on the surface of the in situ BiFE [10].At
the end of this period, the electrode stops rotating for30–60
seconds (equilibration time, tequal). Subsequently, thepotential
scan was carried out in a negative potential di-rection from −800mV
to −1450mV, and at the same time,the stripping voltammogram was
recorded using a certainstripping voltammetry technique,
differential pulse ad-sorptive stripping voltammetry (DP-AdSV), or
square waveadsorptive stripping voltammetry (SqW-AdSV). During
thisperiod, Cr(III) in the Cr(III)-DTPA complexes is reduced
toCr(II) forming Cr(II)-DTPA complexes and generating thestripping
peak current of chromium (Ip) [10]. If NO−3 is notpresent in
solution, Ip will be very small, NO−3 present in thesolution will
oxidize Cr(II)-DTPA to Cr(III)-DTPA andthen Cr(III)-DTPA is
electrochemically reduced to Cr(II)-DTPA, and the repeated cycle
increases the height of Ip [10].In other words, the NO−3 ion acts
as a catalyst. After dis-solving, the electrode was cleaned by
electrolysis at +400mVfor 30 seconds to dissolve Bio and other
metals that may bepresent into the solution. Ip is proportional to
the con-centration of Cr(VI) in the solution.
In all experiments, for Cr(VI) with trace, the firstmeasurement
result must be discarded because it is unstable.�e stripping
voltammogram was recorded 3 times (n� 3),and the peak current (Ip)
and peak potential (Ep) values areaveraged from three
repetitions.
�e glassy carbon electrodes were cleaned by polishingthe surface
with fine Al2O3 powder (particle size 0.6 μm) andthen washed with
distilled water and then with 1MNaOH toremove all Al2O3 particles
on the glassy carbon surface, andthen the electrodes were dipped
into 1M HCl solution andfinally washed with distilled water and the
electrodes weredried with soft filter paper.
3. Results and Discussion
3.1. Differential Pulse Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry
(DP-AdSV) Using In Situ BiFE. In order to select the
appropriateconditions for themethod, the experimental conditions
werefixed as shown in Table S1. A univariate method is applied
toexamine the effect of factors. �e magnitude of the stripping
peak current (Ip) and the relative standard deviation of the
Ip(RSD) are used for selecting the appropriate test conditions.
3.1.1. Effect of Acetate Buffer Concentration. Acetate bufferis
chosen to stabilize the pH of the solution. Acetate bufferis one of
the factors that strongly influence the complex ofCr(III) and DTPA
[10]. �e complex formation betweenCr(III) and DTPA usually occurs
at pH� 6 [10, 11]. Atchromium concentration CCr(VI) � 3.8.10−8M,
ligand con-centration CDTPA � 0.4.10−3M, and bismuth
concentrationCBi(III) � 24.10−5M, the survey results of the effect
of acetatebuffer concentration (CAc) in the range of 0.1M–0.6M(pH �
6) showed that CAc � 0.4M was appropriate. Withthis condition, the
peak current is 31.36 μA and the re-peatability is relatively good
(RSD� 1.6% with n� 3)(Figure 1(a)).
3.1.2. Effect of Bi(III) Concentration and DTPAConcentration.
Previous studies with ex situ BiFE electrodeshave suggested that
the presence of KBr in the solutionincreases the bismuth’s
sustainability on the glassy disksurface and at the same time
improves the conductivity ofthe solution [48]. In the acetate
buffer with CAc � 0.4M andthe presence of KBr at a concentration of
5.0.10−6M,CDTPA � 0.4.10−3M, and CCr(VI) � 3.8.10−8M, a Bi(III)
con-centration of 28.8.10−5M is appropriate. At those
concen-trations, the peak current is 37.6 μA and the repeatability
isgood (RSD� 1.7% with n� 3) (Figure 1(b)). �e surveyresults of the
effect of DTPA concentrations in the range of0.1 to 1.0.10−3M to Cr
peak current show that DTPAconcentration of 0.4.10−3M was
appropriate (Figure 1(f)).
3.1.3. Effect of NaNO3 Concentration. In the presence ofNO−3 ,
peak current of chromium (Ip) was enhanced sig-nificantly. Many
authors argue that NO−3 ions act as oxi-dizing agents that convert
Cr(II)-DTPA complexes toCr(III)-DTPA complexes and thus increase
the concentra-tion of Cr(III) on the electrode surface, and this
leads to anincrease in Ip [10, 11, 21]. At CAc � 0.4M, CKBr �
5.0.10−6M,CDTPA � 0.4.10−3M, CBi(III) � 28.8 .10−5M, andCCr(VI) �
3.8.10−8M, Ip increased when the NaNO3 con-centration increased
from 0.1M to 0.4M (Figures 1(e) and2(c)). However, when the NaNO3
concentration is greaterthan 0.4M, it increases the baseline and
may contaminatethe analysis solution. When the NaNO3 concentration
isequal to 0.4M, the peak current is 17.6 µA and the re-peatability
is quite good (RSD� 3.7% with n� 2). NaNO3concentration value of
0.4M was selected for furtherinvestigation.
3.1.4. Effect of Deposition Potential (Edep) and Deposition
Time(tdep). When CAc � 0.4M, CKBr � 5.0.10−6M, CCr(VI) � 2
ppb,CDTPA � 0.4.10−3M, and CBi(III) � 28.8.10−5M, the surveyresults
of the effect of the deposition potential in the rangefrom −700mV
to −1000mV are shown in Figure 1(c) andthe stripping voltammetry is
shown in Figure 2(a).
6 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
-
From this result, it shows that when Edep is equal to−800mV, the
peak current is 42.1 µA and the repeatability isgood (RSD� 1.3%
with n� 3). Edep of −800mV was selectedfor further studies.
With the above conditions and when Edep is equal to−800mV, Ip is
almost unchanged when the deposition time(tdep) is greater than 80
s, which means that it tends to reach
saturation (Figure 1(d)). tdep of 50 s is selected for the
nextexperiment (the stripping voltammetry at tdep � 50 s isshown in
Figure 2(b)).
3.1.5. Effect of Rotating Rate of Electrode (ω) and
Equili-bration Time (tequal). By increasing the rotation speed of
the
IpRSD
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35I p
(μA
)
0.25 0.5 0.750CAc (M)
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
RSD
(%)
(a)
0
10
20
30
40
I p (μ
A)
148 248 34848CBi(III) (10–4M)
0
2
4
6
8
RSD
(%)
IpRSD
(b)
IpRSD
34
36
38
40
42
44
I p (μ
A)
–1.0 –0.9 –0.8 –0.7 –0.6–1.1Edep (V)
0
1
2
3
4
5
RSD
(%)
(c)
IpRSD
0
10
20
30
40
I p (μ
A)
40 50 60 70 80 90 100 11030tdep (s)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
RSD
(%)
(d)
IpRSD
0
5
10
15
20
I p (μ
A)
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.50CNaNO3 (M)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
RSD
(%)
(e)
IpRSD
0
2
4
6
8
I p (μ
A)
0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.20CDTPA (10–3M)
0
1
2
3
4
5
RSD
(%)
(f )
Figure 1: Effect of acetate buffer concentration (a), Bi(III)
concentration (b), deposition potential (c), deposition time (d),
NaNO3concentration (e), and DTPA concentration (f) on the Ip of
chromium in DP-AdSV using in situ BiFE. Experimental conditions are
asmentioned in Sections 3.1.1 to 3.1.4, and other conditions are as
shown in Table S1.
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 7
-
electrode to a specified value, it will increase the
masstransfer and the efficiency of the enrichment will be better.�e
survey results of the rotating rate of the electrode in therange
from 800 rpm to 2400 rpm showed that ω of 2000 rpmwas appropriate.
At the end of the enrichment phase, theelectrode should not be
rotated for a specified period of timeto keep the solution quiet
and the electrode surface is sta-bilized (this time is also called
equilibration time, symbol-ized as tequal). Ip survey results
according to tequal showed thattequal of 50 s was appropriate.
3.1.6. Effect of Cleaning Potential (Eclean) and Cleaning
Time(tclean). �e cleaning of the surface of the carbon glassy
discelectrode at the end of each stripping voltammetry is
es-sential, as it will create repeating electrode surfaces for
subsequent measurements. In terms of experimental con-ditions as
in Section 3.1.3, the survey results of the influenceof Eclean in
the range of 200mV to 500mV and tclean in therange of 60 s to 120 s
showed that Eclean is equal to 300mVand tclean is equal to 110 s
which are appropriate.
3.2. Square Wave Adsorptive Stripping Voltammetry (SqW-AdSV)
Using In Situ BiFE. Some authors argue that, inaddition to
differential pulse stripping voltammetry tech-niques, square wave
stripping voltammetry can be used torecord the signal (at this
time, the method is called squarewave adsorptive stripping
voltammetry (SqW-AdSV)) andalso allow the determination of very
sensitive chromium.Based on the experimental conditions initially
fixed asshown in Table S1, the effects of the factors were
investigated
Cr
–70.0u
–80.0u
–90.0u
–100u
–110u
–120uI (
A)
–1100 –1300 –1400–1200–900 –1000–800E (mV)
(a)
Cr
–60.0u
–70.0u
–80.0u
–90.0u
I (A
)
–900 –1000 –1100 –1200 –1300 –1400–800E (mV)
(b)
Cr
0.4 M
0.3 M
0.2 M
0.1 M
Baseline–30.0u
–40.0u
–50.0u
–60.0u
–70.0u
I (A
)
–900 –1000 –1100 –1200 –1300 –1400–800E (mV)
(c)
Figure 2: �e stripping voltammetry DP-AdSV using in situ BiFE of
chromium is recorded for (a) Edep � −800mV and (b) tdep � 50 s.(c)
NaNO3 concentrations are changed: the bottom line is the baseline,
followed by concentration of NaNO3 increasing from 0.1 to
0.4M.Other experimental conditions are as shown in Figure 1.
8 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
-
in a similar way to the DP-AdSV method, and we obtainedthe
appropriate conditions for SqW-AdSV (using in situBiFE) to
determine Cr(VI) as shown in Table S2.
3.3. Interferences. Interferences for the determination ofCr(VI)
consist of metallic cations that have the strippingpeak current
near the stripping peak current of chromiumand anions that can form
complexes or make conjugateswith the forms of chromium and Bi(III)
which can beadsorbed onto the surface of the in situ BiFE, and
surfactantscan be adsorbed onto the working surface of the
electrode.
�e influence of interferences can be estimated by rel-ative
error values of stripping peak current (RE). Considerthat RE for Ip
was equal to RE for C (because Ip � kC). RE forIp (or C) was
accepted when it was equal to ½ Horwitzfunction RSD (RE Ip(Cr)≤½
RSDHorwitz �½.2(1−0.5lgC) � 32%with C� 0.2 ppb). RE was calculated
as follows:
RE Ip(Cr)(%) �Ip(Cr) − Ip(Cr)
0
Ip(Cr)0∗100, (3)
where RE is the relative error values of stripping peakcurrent,
Ip (Cr)0 is the stripping peak current without addinginterferences
and Ip(Cr) is the stripping peak current withadding
interferences.
3.3.1. Interference Studies. When the chromium(III)
con-centration is about 100 times higher than the
chromium(VI)concentration, the Ip does not change
significantly(RE< 18%). In fact, rarely encountered CCr(III)
case is 300times higher than CCr(VI), so it can be assumed that
Cr(III)does not affect the Cr(VI) determination. �is
investigationagain confirms that Cr(III) does not affect the
determinationof Cr(VI) (Table S3 and Figure S3).
In the acetate buffer (pH� 5–6), Zn(II), Co(II),and Ni(II) can
affect the determination of Cr(VI) because ithas a stripping peak
current close to the stripping peakcurrent of Cr(VI). Ep
(Zn)≈−1040÷−1050mV, Ep (Co)≈−1290÷−1300mV, Ep (Ni)≈−1080÷−1100mV,
and Ep(Cr)≈−1180÷−1240mV.
From the experimental results at approximately 3.810−9M (0.2
ppb) chromium concentration, 120 s depositiontime, and the suitable
conditions as in Table 2, we have seenthat Zn has not influenced
the determination of chromiumwhen Zn(II) concentration is 800 times
larger than Cr(VI)concentration (REIp(Cr)≤ 16%) (Table 2), and in
conse-quence, we can determine chromium in the natural waterwith
attendance of Zn(II) because ordinarily Zn(II) con-centration is
500 times smaller than Cr(VI) concentration innatural water (Table
2). Co and Ni have not influenced thedetermination of chromium when
Co(II) and Ni(II) con-centrations are 90 times larger than Cr(VI)
concentration(RE Ip(Cr) � 1.7–8.0% for Co(II) and 3.9–19.4% for
Ni(II)(Table 2).
In natural water, Fe(III) and Ca(II) usually exist at
highconcentrations of mM; in seawater, Ca(II) exists at quitehigh
concentration, about 10−2÷10−3M, so it is necessary toexamine the
effect of Fe(III) and Ca(II) on the stripping peak
current of Cr(VI).�e results in Table S4 show that when
theconcentration of Fe(III) and Ca(II) increases to 36.10−6Mand
50.10−6M, respectively, meaning that the concentrationsof Fe(III)
and Ca(II) are about 10,000 times greater than theconcentration of
Cr(VI), the determination of Cr(VI) is notaffected. RE is less than
17%.
In natural water, Cl− and SO2−4 ions have
significantconcentrations (mM and larger), and they can form
com-plexes with metals present in the study solution and
maytherefore affect the determination of Cr(VI). To investigatethe
effects of Cl− and SO2−4 , a series of experiments wereconducted
with Cl− concentrations ranging from 0 to281.7.10−3M and SO2−4
concentrations ranging from 0 to10.4.10−3M. �e results in Table S5
show that Cl− does notaffect the determination of Cr(VI) when CCl−
is in the rangeof 0 to 14.09. 10−3M.When CCl− is greater than
28.17.10−3M(nearly equivalent to Cl− concentration in brackish
water),Cl− affects the determination of Cr(VI) with RE>
32%.�erefore, when analyzing Cr(VI) in samples with
highCl−concentration, it is necessary to take Cl− removal
methodfrom the sample. SO2−4 did not affect the determination
ofCr(VI) by SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE method with RE< 27%.
In the adsorption stripping voltammetry method, thesurfactant
can be adsorptive on the surface of the workingelectrode, and this
can affect the adsorption process of themetallic complexes on the
working electrode. Triton X-100(polyethylene glycol) is a typical
nonionic surfactant andusually is used in order to observe the
influence of thesurfactant on the adsorption stripping voltammetry
method.�e effects of Triton X-100 are investigated at
concentrationsbetween 0 and 93. 10−9M, and the results in Table S6
showthat, when increasing the concentration of Triton X-100 to25
times higher than the concentration of Cr(VI), it still didnot
affect the determination of Cr(VI) with RE< 8%.
In fact, the concentration of natural surfactants is
rarelygreater than 77.10−9M, and therefore, it can be assumed
thatthey do not affect the Cr(VI) determination. �us,
whendetermining Cr(VI) by the adsorption stripping voltam-metry
method, it is not necessary to remove the surfactantfrom the
analytical solution.
In some cases, natural water and wastewater contain manyorganic
substances including surfactants. It is necessary totreat the
sample to exclude organic substances before analysisusing UV
irradiation and decomposition in acid mixture.
3.4. Evaluation of Reliability of DP-AdSV and
SqW-AdSVMethods
3.4.1. Repeatability. Repeat recording of 7 stripping
vol-tammetry lines (n� 7) on the same in situ BiFE according tothe
DP-AdSV or SqW-AdSV method in Figure 3 shows thatIp in both
approaches has good repeatability with RSD< 4%(n� 9) and RSD<
3% (n� 7), respectively, for DP-AdSV andSqW-AdSV. �e stripping peak
of chromium (Ep) is neg-ligible, only about 20mV toward the
positive side.
3.4.2. Linear Range and Detection Limits. �e linear rangeand LOD
of the two methods SqW-AdSV and DP-AdSV
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 9
-
were investigated with the appropriate experimental con-ditions
as shown in Table S2 and the stripping voltammetryspecifications as
shown in Table S1, and the following resultswere obtained:
(1) -e Linear Range. For the SqW-AdSV method, Ip andCCr(VI) have
a good linear correlation in the rangeCCr(VI) � 0.3÷1.8 ppb with a
correlation coefficient (R) of 0.9994 (linear regression equation
is shown in Figure 4(a), andthe stripping voltammetry is shown in
Figure 4(b)).
For the DP-AdSV method, there is a good linear cor-relation in
the range CCr(VI) � 2÷12 ppb with R� 0.9989(linear regression
equation is shown in Figure 4(d)).
(2) Sensitivity.�e SqW-AdSVmethod achieved a sensitivity(23
µA/ppb) of about 34 times higher than the DP-AdSV(0.682 µA/ppb)
method.
(3) Detection Limits and Quantitative Limits. For SqW-AdSV (when
Edep � −800mV and tdep � 160 s):
LOD� 0.1 ppb; LOQ� 0.3 ppb. For DP-AdSV (whenEdep � −800mV and
tdep � 50 s): LOD� 0.6 ppb;LOQ� 2 ppb.
�us, the SqW-AdSVmethod achieves a narrower linearrange than the
DP-AdSV method, but it achieves highersensitivity than the
DP-AdSVmethod (due to its lower LODand greater slope linearity). It
can be said that with LOD asabove, DP-AdSV and SqW-AdSV methods can
be used within situ BiFE to determine the trace amount of
Cr(VI).
3.5. Determination of Chromium in Natural Water by theSqW-AdSV
Using In Situ BiFE. In natural water samples,chromium usually
exists in both Cr(VI) and Cr(III)forms. As investigated, the
SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFEmethod identifies Cr(VI) and also determines
the totalCr(VI) + Cr(III) if during the decomposition of thesample,
an additional oxidizer is added to oxidize Cr(III)to Cr(VI). �us,
we can determine chromium in indi-vidual forms by determining
Cr(VI) (∗) and total
Table 2: Influence of Zn(II), Co(II), and Ni(II) concentrations
on peak current.
Cation Zn(II) Co (II) Ni (II)No. CZn(II)(nM) Ip(Cr)(μA) RE
Ip(Cr)(%) CCo(II)(nM) Ip(Cr)(μA) REIp(Cr)(%) CNi(II)(nM) Ip(Cr)(μA)
RE Ip(Cr)(%)1 0 96.4 0 0 76.5 0 0 49.7 02 770 96.3 0.1 84 82.4 7.6
84 53.2 3.93 1540 94.6 1.9 168 82.5 7.9 168 58.3 10.44 2310 87.9
8.7 252 81.7 6.8 252 61.5 14.65 3080 80.9 16.0 336 77.8 1.7 336
62.4 19.4Conditions: CCr(VI) � 3.8.10−9M� 0.2 ppb; CBi(III) �
28.8.10−5M; tad � 120 s; Eclean � 400mV; tclean � 100 s; Ustep �
6mV; v � 210mV/s; ∆E� 30mV; f� 35Hz.;ω � 2000 rpm; CDTPA � 0.4mM;
CAc � 0.4M; CNaNO3 � 0.4M; Ead � −800mV.
Cr
–80.0u
–100u
–120u
–140u
–160u
–180u
I (A
)
–900 –1000 –1100 –1200 –1300 –1400–800E (mV)
(a)
Cr
–40.0u
–50.0u
–60.0u
I (A
)
–900 –1000 –1100 –1200 –1300 –1400–800E (mV)
(b)
Figure 3:�e stripping voltammetry lines were repeated: (a)
according to the SqW-AdSVmethod (n� 7) with CCr(VI) � 1 ppb; (b)
accordingto the DP-AdSV method (n� 9) with CCr(VI) � 2 ppb. Other
experimental conditions are as shown in Table S2.
10 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
-
Cr(VI) + (III) (∗∗). It follows that the Cr(III) content isthe
difference of (∗∗) and (∗).
Based on the above results, it is possible to apply
theSqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE to determine the trace of Cr(VI)
with LOD≈ 0.1 ppb. With that LOD, the SqW-AdSV/in situBiFE can
directly determine the amount of Cr(VI) in naturalwater, without
the stage of getting rich, and this is a greatadvantage of the
SqW-AdSV/BiFE method.
Ip = 44,50 + 23,19 [Cr(VI)]R = 0,9994
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100I p
(μA
)
0.4 0.8 1.2 1.6 20CCr(VI) (ppb)
(a)
1.8 ppb1.6 ppb1.4 ppb1.2 ppb1.0 ppb0.8 ppb0.6 ppb0.4 ppb0.2
ppb
nen
Cr
–50.0u
–75.0u
–100u
–125u
–150u
–175u
I (A
)
–900 –1000 –1100 –1200 –1300 –1400–800E (mv)
(b)
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
I P (μ
A)
2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 220CCr(VI) (ppb)
(c)
Ip = 0,89 + 0,68 [Cr(VI)]R = 0,9989
0
2
4
6
8
10
12
I p (μ
A)
2 4 6 8 10 12 140CCr(VI) (ppb)
(d)
Figure 4: (a) Linear regression line for the SqW-AdSV method;
(b) stripping voltammetry of SqW-AdSV method: the bottom line is
thebaseline, followed by nine additional standard lines, each
adding 0.2 ppb; (c) relation between Ip andCCr(VI) when examining
the linear rangeof the DP-AdSV method; (d) linear regression line
for the DP-AdSV method. Experimental conditions are as shown in
Table S2.
Table 3: Appropriate experimental conditions for the SqW-AdSV/in
situ BiFE for the determination of Cr(VI).
No. Parameter (unit of measure) Symbol SqW-AdSV/in situ BiE1
DTPA concentration (M) CDTPA 0.4. 10−3
2 Concentration of acetate buffer (pH� 6) (M) CAc 0.403 NaNO3
concentration (M) CNaNO3 0.404 KBr concentration (M) CKBr
5.10−6
5 Bi(III) concentration (M) CBi(III) 28.8. 10−5
6 Cleaning potential (mV) Eclean 3007 Cleaning time (s) tclean
1008 Rotating speed of working electrode (rpm) (ω) 2000 20009
Deposition potential (mV) Edep -80010 Deposition time (s) tdep
20011 Equilibration time (s) tequal 5012 Potential sweep range (mV)
Erange −800÷−1450
13
Technical parameters• Amplitude (mV) ∆E 30
• Voltage step (mV) Ustep 6• Sweep rate (mV/s) v 210
• Frequency (Hz) f 35
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 11
-
In order to answer the question of whether the analyticalmethod
used to analyze the amount of chromium in naturalwater samples can
be applied, we have conducted experi-ments to verify the
correctness (through the CertifiedReference Material (CRM)) and an
analysis of some naturalwater samples. On the basis of the
experiments mentionedabove, the analysis process of Cr(VI) and
total Cr(III, VI) innatural water by the SqW-AdSV method was
proposed.
3.5.1. Quality Control of Analytical Methods through Stan-dard
Sample Analysis. In order to confirm the practicalapplicability of
the SqW-AdSV method to analyze chro-mium traces using BiFE
electrodes, it is necessary to controlthe analytical method quality
by evaluating the accuracy andrepeatability when analyzing standard
samples.
(1) For Surface Water Samples. Surface water CertifiedMaterial
Reference (SPS-SW1 Batch 122) was selected toevaluate the accuracy
of the method. �e actual value of thechromium content of the sample
is 2.00± 0.02 ppb (95%confidence boundary e�± 0.02 ppb). Analysis
of standardSPS-SW1 surface water (CRM) samples by the SqW-AdSVusing
in situ BiFE with the appropriate experimental con-ditions is shown
in Table 3. �e analysis was repeated 3times. �e volume of the
solution to be charged to theelectrolyser is 2mL, and the volume of
solution in theelectrolyser is 10mL.
�e results in Table 4 show that the SqW-AdSV/in situBiFE has
good repeatability (the standard deviation is 4% for
the repetition of 3, and it is less than half the
standarddeviation based on the Horwitz function (RSDH �
2(1−0,5lgC);when the chromium concentration is 2 ppb, the
standarddeviation of the Horwitz equation is 41%) [49] and
themethod has good accuracy because the chromium content iswithin
the 95% confidence interval of the CRM sample.
(2) For Seawater Samples. Analysis of the standard seawaterCRM
coded NASS 6 by the SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE with theappropriate
experimental conditions as shown in Table 3.
Because the concentration of chromium in NASS 6seawater was too
small to be directly analyzed, only NASS 6standard sample was used
as the matrix for analysis andvalidity. �e actual value of the
chromium content in theNASS 6 sample is 0.116± 0.008 ppb (the 95%
confidencebound e�± 0.008 ppb). NAAS 6 standard sample was
addedwith standard Cr(VI) solution to attain 3 levels of 2 ppb,6
ppb, and 10 ppb and then analyzed with the standardadded samples to
determine recovery.
�e results showed that the SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE forchromium
analysis in seawater samples has a good accuracy(recoverability
from 94 to 109%). According to the AOAC(American Association of
Analytical Chemists) when ana-lyzing the levels of 1.0 to 10 ppb,
achieving a recovery rate of80 to 110% is acceptable [50].
�erefore, it is possible to usethis method to analyze chromium in
seawater samples(Table 5).
�e results of the linear range, sensitivity, limit ofdetection,
and accuracy showed that it is possible to use
Table 4: Accuracy of the SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE for the
determination of chromium in surface water.
Information [Cr(VI)](ppb) CCr (ppb)
Experiment1 0.38 1.902 0.40 2.003 0.40 2.00
Average± S (ppb) 1.97± 0.08Cr content in the CRM sample (ppb)
2.00± 0.02 (CCr � 1.98÷ 2.02 ppb)RSD (%), n� 3 4(a)[Cr(VI)] is the
concentration of Cr(VI) in the electrolyte minus the blank. White
sample has [Cr(VI)]� 0.034 ppb; CCr is the Cr content in the
sample(calculated by the formula: CCr � [Cr(VI)] .V2/V1). V1:
volume of solution taken into the electrolyser (V1 � 2ml), V2:
volume of solution in the electrolyser(V2 �10mL), S is the standard
deviation. Experimental conditions are as shown in Table 3.
Table 5: Determination of the accuracy of the SqW-AdSV/in situ
BiFE on the NASS 6a.
[NAAS6]
�e content of chromium in thesample (ppb) ×1
Chromium standard added(ppb)×o
�e content of chromium in standard addedsamples (ppb) ×2
Recovery(%)
2 ppb 0.116 1.8841.915 962.043 1021.941 97
Average± S 1.966± 0.054
6 ppb 0.116 5.8845.958 996.258 1045,655 94
Average± S 5.957± 0.213
10 ppb 0.116 9.88410.687 10710.125 10110.887 109
Average± S 10.566± 0.279aRecovery� (x2−x1).·100/x0; S is the
standard deviation; experimental conditions are as shown in Table
3.
12 Journal of Environmental and Public Health
-
SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE to determine chromium in surfacewater and
seawater.
3.5.2. Real Sample Analysis. For the purpose of testing
thepossibility of applying the SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE method forthe
analysis of chromium in water environment, well water, tapwater,
lagoon water, and seawater in some different areas in�ua �ien Hue
province were taken for analysis.
Water samples were taken in clean PET bottles and acidifiedwith
concentrated HCl (500μl HCl/500ml of sample). Sampleswere filtered
through 0.45μm porous fiberglass filter paper andanalyzed
immediately after filtration.
Collected and stored samples were analyzed directly(after
filtration through a 0.45 μm porous fiberglass filterpaper) to
determine the Cr(VI) content by the SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE; the
total chromium content of the sample wasdetermined after the
decomposition of the sample by themethod of (a) ((a): add 50 μl of
concentrated HCl, 25 μl ofH2O2 35% to 50ml of sample in the Teflon
cup, boil for 90minutes, let it cool, and adjust up to 25ml)
[51].
Samples were analyzed by SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFEaccording to the
process shown in Figure S2. �e results ofactual sample analysis are
presented in Table 6.
4. Conclusion
Using in situ BiFE electrodes with DTPA complexing ligands
inacetate buffer solution pH 6 with the presence of KBr and
NO−3ion, DP-AdSV and SqW-AdSV methods can determinechromium(VI)
concentrations of 0.3 ppb and 2.0 ppb, respec-tively. �e proposed
method has been successfully applied forchromium analysis in some
natural water samples such aslagoon water, well water, tap water,
and saltwater in some areas
of �ua�ien Hue province, Vietnam. �is CCr(VI+III).
analysisprocedure in water sample by SqW-AdSV/in situ BiFE
methodwas satisfactorily applied for the determination of chromium
inreal water such as tap water, river water, and well water
samplesin all countries of the world.�e determination of chromium
inthe above real water sample could be carried out within
60min.
Data Availability
�e data used to support the findings of this study areavailable
from the corresponding author upon request.
Conflicts of Interest
�e authors declare that they have no conflicts of interest.
Supplementary Materials
Table S1: for the DP-AdSV and SqW-AdSV using in situBiFE. Table
S2: suitable experimental conditions for DP-AdSV and SqW-AdSV
methods using in situ BiFE. Table S3:influence of chromium(III).
Figure S1: SqW-AdSV/BiFE insitu stripping voltammograms of
chromium(VI) when ex-amining the effects of chromium(III). Table
S4: influence ofFe(III) and Ca(II). Table S5: influence of Cl− and
SO42−.Table S6: influence of Triton X-100. Figure S2: diagram
ofCCr(VI + III) analysis procedure in water sample by SqW-AdSV/in
situ BiFE method. . (Supplementary Materials)
References
[1] Y. Li and H. Xue, “Determination of Cr (III) and Cr
(VI)species in natural waters by catalytic cathodic
strippingvoltammetry,” Analytica Chimica Acta, vol. 448, no.
1-2,pp. 121–134, 2001.
Table 6: Chromium content in lagoon water samples, tap water,
well water, and saltwater.
No Sample type Sample symbolChromium concentration
(Cmean± ε) ppb, n� 3, P� 0.95CCr(VI + III) CCr(VI)
1
Water sample of Cau Hai Lagoon
M1 13.8± 0.2 1.0± 0.12 M2 19.0± 1.0 1.0± 0.23 M3 7.3± 0.4 1.5±
0.24 M4 26.1± 5.8 1.6± 0.35 M5 14.1± 0.8 1.3± 0.76 M6 1.0± 0.1 0.7±
0.27 M7 11.1± 4.4 0.8± 0.38
Tap waterPTN 20.0± 2.3
9 GÐ 19.2± 3.310 GÐ1 18.1± 0.811
Well water
G1 28.6± 1.012 G1′ 24.6± 4.013 G2 22.3± 4.214 G2′ 12.5± 4.815 G3
6.4± 0.616 G3′ 14.4± 0.517 G4 13.6± 3.318 G4′ 21.2± 4.419 Saline
water B1 1.3± 0.3 1.0± 0.220 B2 16.1± 1.3 12.1± 1.4
Journal of Environmental and Public Health 13
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