Detailed Production Process of IPA

KKKR1034

FUNDAMENTAL OF CHEMICAL AND

BIOCHEMICAL ENGINEERING

Chemical and Biochemical Engineering Department

REPORT TITLE:

PFD study of the Production of Isopropyl Alcohol.

LECTURER’S NAME:

1. PROF. ABU BAKAR BIN MOHAMAD

2. DR. MANAL BINTI ISMAIL

Group Members Matric no.

CHONG KIN HOW A130043

MOHD AZIZAN BIN RAZAL @ ABD RAZI A130463

NORFATYHAH BINTI ABD. AZIZ A130473

NORASMANIRA BINTI MUSA A129780

NUR IZAYU BINTI BADARUDDIN A127653

DATE OF SUBMISSION:

1st JUNE 2010

ABSTRACT

The objective of the report is to study the process of production of isopropyl alcohol

by using indirect hydration method. An improved process for indirect hydration of propylene

to form Diisopropyl Ether and Isopropyl Alcohol is provided in which propylene is absorbed

in Sulphuric acid to form an extract. It is withdrawn from the absorbing zone; water in

carefully controlled amounts is mixed with the extract. While the resulting mixture is passed

to an ether generating zone to form a vaporous ether product and a bottoms product depleted

in Diisopropyl Ether containing Sulphuric acid in a concentration at least equal to the acid

concentration in the extract withdrawn from the absorbing zone. The withdrawn bottoms is

the divided into two portions: a first portion is recycled to the absorber; and the second such

portion is mixed with sufficient water to hydrate absorbed olefin values and the resulting

mixture is fed to an alcohol generator for formation of isopropyl alcohol as overhead product

and dilute Sulphuric acid as bottoms product.

TABLE OF CONTENT

No. Item Page

1 Introduction

1.1 Physical properties of IPA

1.2 Chemical properties of IPA

1.3 Production of IPA

1.4 Uses and application of IPA

1.5 Health and Safety Factor

1.6 Isopropyl Alcohol nowadays

2

2

3

5

7

7

2 Process Flow Diagram (PFD)

2.1 Block diagram of production of Isopropyl alcohol

2.2 Process Flow Diagram of production of IPA

2.3 Description of process flow diagram of production of IPA

8

9

11

3 Conclusions

15

4 References

17

INTRODUCTION

The IUPAC name for chemical compound with the molecular formula of C3H8O is

propan-2-ol. Other common names for this compound are isopropyl alcohol, isopropanol, 2-

propanol and rubbing alcohol. It is the simplest example of a secondary alcohol which the

hydroxyl group (OH-) is attached to a carbon atom that is also attached to two other carbon

atoms sometimes shown as (CH3)2CHOH. Besides, it is a structural isomer of propanol and in

industry, the isopropyl alcohol is well known as IPA.

1.1. Physical Properties of IPA

Some of the physical properties of isopropyl alcohol are it is colorless liquid at room

temperature, the molar mass is approximately 60.09 g mol−1

, have strong rubbing alcohol

odor, miscible in water, soluble in some organic solvent but insoluble in salt solution and it is

also fairly volatile (evaporates easily). The melting point of this chemical compound is -890C

whereas the boiling point is 82.50C. Anhydrous IPA has density about 0.7854g/cm

3 whereas

the 91% vol IPA have a density of 0.8173 g/cm3.

1.2. Chemical properties of IPA

Chemical properties of isopropyl alcohol are determined by its functional hydroxyl group

in the secondary position. Except for the production of acetone, most isopropyl alcohol

chemistry involves the introduction of the isopropyl or isopropoxy group into other organic

molecules by the breaking of the C–OH or the O–H bonding the isopropyl alcohol molecule.

Isopropyl alcohol undergoes reactions typical of an active secondary alcohol. Some of the

chemical property of this alcohol is it can be separated from its aqueous solutions by adding a

salt such as sodium chloride, potassium chloride, or any of several other inorganic salts. This

is due to solubility of this alcohol in saline which is less compared to its solubility in salt-free

water.

Besides, IPA may undergo dehydrogenation process. Dehydrogenation of isopropyl

alcohol to acetone was the most widely practiced production method in industry. This

reaction is endothermic reaction means it absorbs about 66.5kJ/mol of heat and occurs at

temperature range between 300-5000C. The most useful catalyst contains Cu, Zn, Cr, and Ni

as oxides can be used to increase the reaction rate. The balance chemical equation of the

dehydrogenation process:

(CH3)2CHOH → CH3COCH3 + H2

Chemically, secondary alcohol can be catalytically oxidized using air or oxygen at

high temperature (400−600◦C) to form respectively ketone and water. Here, when isopropyl

alcohol undergoes oxidation process, the product is acetone. The preferred catalyst for this

reaction is zinc chloride, ZnO. The oxidation process is highly exothermic which means this

reaction releases large amount of energy usually in the form of heat

(CH3)2CHOH + 0.5O2 → CH3COCH3 + H2O

Furthermore IPA reacts with active metal such as potassium to form alkoxides. Next,

isopropyl alcohol can be dehydrated in either the liquid phase over acidic catalysts, eg,

sulfuric acid, or in the vapor phase over acidic aluminas to give diisopropyl ether. This

reaction is known as etherification.

IPA also undergoes halogenation chemical reaction with halogen compound.

Normally, 2-halopropane derivatives are prepared from isopropyl alcohol most economically

by reaction with the corresponding acid halide. However, under appropriate conditions, other

reagents, eg, phosphorus halides and elemental halogen also react by replacement of the

hydroxyl group to give the halide. Normally, this reaction temperature is about 650C.

3(CH3)2CHOH + PBr3 → (CH3)2CHBr + H3PO3

1.3.Production of IPA

In industry, many methods can be carried out to produce isopropyl alcohol. The

hydrolysis of haloalkanes is one of the examples. Here, a secondary haloalkane is used for

instance 2-bromopropane. This haloalkane is than being reacted with an aqueous solution of

base or alkali (e.g: sodium hydroxide, NaOH). The product of this reaction is secondary

alcohol and halide ion in this case the isopropyl alcohol and bromide ion. Other technique is

by the addition of Grignard Reagent to carbonyl compound.

But chemically, the most beneficial way usually being performed to produce isopropyl

alcohol in large amount is by hydration process. In general, hydration reaction is a chemical

reaction in which a hydroxyl group (OH-) and a hydrogen cation are added to the

100-200kPa

acetone

2-halopropane

two carbon atoms bonded together in the carbon-carbon double bond which makes up

an alkene functional group. In order to obtain isopropyl alcohol as the major product, an

alkene called propene is used.

There are two processes to produce isopropyl alcohol by combining water and propene.

One is direct hydration by reacting propene-containing hydrocarbon stream with water either

in gas or liquid phases at high pressures with the presence of a strongly heterogeneous

polymeric acid, solid hydration catalyst, preferably a cation exchange resin catalyst. The

catalyst is used to increase the rate of reaction but the catalyst itself do not consumed in the

reaction. Since the addition of sulphuric acid or water to propene follow Markovnikov’s rule

which state that when a molecule HX is added across a carbon-carbon double bond, the

hydrogen ion from HX will joins to the carbon atom which is already has the more hydrogen

atoms attached to it, this process give propan-2-ol as the main product rather than 1-propanol

that will be the side product. This process requires high-quality propene than is represented

by simple chemical equation follow:

CH3CH=CH2 + H2O ↔ CH3CH(OH)CH3

Second method is indirect hydration with sulfuric acid. This is the most common

route to produce IPA. The alkene is hydrated to alcohols by a two stage process. First stage is

the process of reacting propene with sulphuric acid to form a mixture of sulphate esters

named isopropyl hydrogen sulphate and diisopropyl sulfate. It can be said that the sulphuric

acid will be functioning as catalyst. The esterification of propene with sulphuric acid is

conducted in apparatus called absorber and takes place at low temperature, usually below

70°C. This process is corrosive and is energy demanding for acid re-concentration and

aqueous waste treatment. The chemical reactions occur is represented by balanced chemical

equation:

CH3CH=CH2 + H2SO4 → (CH3)2CHOSO3H

(CH3)2CHOSO3 + CH3CH=CH2 → ((CH3)2CH)2SO2

And the final stage is the hydrolysis of these esters to produces isopropyl alcohol. The

hydrolysis process occurs in which a certain molecule is split into two parts by the addition of

diisopropyl sulfate

Isopropyl hydrogen

sulphate

a molecule of water. Here, the addition of water to the mixture of isopropyl sulphate and

diisopropyl sulfate yield IPA and sulphuric acids respectively. The machine in which the

hydrolysis process is conducted is known as hydrolyzers. As with the direct hydration

method, some byproducts are either being recycle or set aside.

CH3CH(OSO3H)CH3 + (CH3)2CH(OSO3)CH(CH3)2 + 2H2O → 3CH3CH(OH)CH3 +

2H2SO4

This complex process is known as ‘strong-acid processes’ and to obtain the product, low-

quality propene can be used.

Both direct and indirect hydration reaction processes require that the isopropyl alcohol be

separated from water and other side products by distillation. Isopropyl alcohol and water

form an azeotrope and simple distillation gives a material which is 87.9% by weight

isopropyl alcohol and 12.1% by weight water. Azeotrope is a mixture of two or more liquids

in such a ratio that its composition cannot be changed by simple distillation. Pure isopropyl

alcohol is made by azeotropic distillation of the "wet" isopropyl alcohol using either

diisopropyl ether or cyclohexane as azeotroping agents. Azeotropic distillation refers to the

specific technique of adding another component to generate a new, lower-boiling azeotrope

that is heterogeneous.

1.4.Uses and application of IPA

Light branched alcohols are produced by the addition of alkene or olefin and water under

an acid catalyst. Isopropyl alcohol is consumed as a direct solvent for half of its production in

the world. It has many applications in our daily lives. This alcohol is mainly use as antifreeze

or a solvent.

The use of isopropyl alcohol as a feedstock for the production of acetone is expected to

remain stable, as the dominant process for acetone is cumene oxidation. Isopropyl alcohol is

also consumed in the production of other chemicals such as methyl ketone, isopropylamine,

and isopropyl acetate. The use of diisopropyl ether as a fuel ether may become significant

outlet for isopropyl alcohol.

Additional valuable application is in pharmaceutical industry. IPA is widely use as an

antiseptic medication due to the quickly-evaporate properties of this compound. This alcohol

temporarily sterilizing wounds and the areas around it, once the isopropyl alcohol evaporates,

the wounded area is again open to infection and disease.

In building construction field as well as in agriculture, isopropyl alcohol also has its own

uses. In construction field, Isoproyl alcohol forms many important compounds used to create

wood finish, such as acetone, shellac solvent and drying inks. Shellacs give wood a smoother

and darker look, often more desirable than lighter colors. The actual shellac comes in flakes

that need to dissolve in a denatured alcohol such as isopropyl. The acetone formed from

isopropyl is commonly used to remove nail polish and other paints. In plantation industry, the

isopropyl alcohol is widely used as pesticides. Agricultural business uses IPA as a great

compound to kill unwanted insects and parasites by using it as an adjuvant. An adjuvant in

agricultural pesticides and herbicides is a solution added to help the pesticide spread evenly

across the plant or slow the uptake of the chemical this is because some plants may not be

able to absorb enough pure pesticide before it evaporates. The adjuvant mixes with pesticide

without changing any chemical properties.

Isopropyl alcohol is also employed widely as a solvent for cosmetics for examples

lotions, perfumes, shampoos, skin cleaners, nail polishes, makeup removers, deodorants and

body oils. In cosmetics applications, the acetone-like odor of IPA is masked by the addition

of fragrance. Aerosol that contain isopropyl alcohol solvent formulation include hair sprays,

floor detergents, shoe polishes, window cleaners, waxes and polishes, paints, automotive

products and fabric-wrinkle remover are commonly used every day.

Other daily uses of isopropyl alcohol is it works great at removing any sticky residue, such as

hair spray, from mirrors or glass, remove stain as a result from permanent marker and can be

use to wipe CDs or DVDs to remove stains and smudges without harming data.

1.5.Health and Safety Factor

Alcohols as a class have low toxicity. IPA is about twice as toxic as ethyl alcohol but less

toxic than methyl alcohol. Toxic doses of ingested IPA usually as rubbing alcohol may

produce narcosis, anesthesia, coma and death. Use of alcohol in industrial application does

not present a health hazard. The alcohol produces anesthetic in high vapor concentration.

There is some safety procedures should be take into consideration while working with

IPA. Since IPA is highly flammable with a wide range of combustibility, it should be kept

away from heat, open flame, ignition sources and incompatibles. Isopropyl alcohol can

explode if it is mixed with excessive air or other oxidizer through deflagration since these

agent support combustion.

Like many other organic solvents, when the isopropyl alcohol is in contact with human

skin for a long period, defatting can occur. Deffating is a skin condition similar to

inflammation of the skin resulting from the chronic exposure of human skin to alcohols,

detergents, chemical solvent and motor oil. Therefore, while handling the pure IPA in the

laboratory, appropriate protective clothing should be wear such as gloves, lab coats and

aprons.

1.6.Isopropyl Alcohol nowadays

Asian isopropanol (IPA) spot prices rose $10-20/tonne across the region, supported by the

rebound in upstream crude values and firm feedstock propylene values during the week. Price

targets for remaining November IPA shipments remained at $1,020-1,050/tonne Council of

Foreign Relation Asia although trade was limited particularly in China as sellers and buyers

kept to the sidelines. In early May 2010, the Asian Market review shows that the price of IPA

has rose by 5% compared to its price in mid-April. It is from $1200/tonne to $1240/tonne.

Operating with the brand name ‘Recycled IPA’, one of the companies that manufacture

and distribute isopropyl alcohol in Malaysia is Geo Chem Trading located in Penang Port,

Butterworth Penang. Other products available are recycled solvent, toluene, acetone, xylene

and many more.

PROCESS FLOW DIAGRAM

2.1.Block diagram of the production of Isopropyl Alcohol

The block diagram is the simplest form to show the production of some material. In

chemical or biochemical industries, the block diagram shows the first impression of the

production of some agent or products. The figure 1 below shows the block diagram of

production of Isopropyl Alcohol or IPA by indirect hydrolysis process.

REACTION OF

SULPHURIC ACID WITH

PROPYLENE

MIXER CHAMBER-

WATER FEED

FLASH ZONE

SEPARATION

MIXING CHAMBER-

WATER FEED

IPA

GENERATION

DISTILLATION COLUMN

-ETHER COLUMN

-DRIYING COLUMN

INPUT (RAW MATERIAL)

-SULPHURIC ACIDS

- PROPYLENE GAS

OUTPUT

-DIISOPROPYL ETHER

-ISOPROPYL ALCOHOL IN CDM

AND ANHYDROUS

ACID

RECONCENTRATION

-RECYCLED

UNABSORBED

PROPELYNE GAS-

RECYCLED

Figure 1-block diagram of isopropyl alcohol

Based on the figure1 above, it shows that the raw materials that will be used are the

Sulphuric acids and the propyelene gas. After that, it will react and producing and extract

mixture called Isopropyl Sulphuric Ester in certain condition. After that, it will face to

hydrolysis process with water to produce certain amount of IPA with the by-product of

Diiisopropyl Ether. The flash zone is called as the separator that will separate the product in

gases and liquids. The gas contains some concentration of IPA and Diisopropyl Ether while

the depleted liquid is consisting of some mixture of Propelyene and also Sulphuric Acids.

Next, it will undergo the second hydrolysis in the second mixing chamber with water to

produce some ratio of IPA and the by-product of Ether. Then, the IPA generation will

separate the mixture of liquid from the second mixing chamber. The acids that is separate will

be reconcentrated and recycled as raw materials. The product of IPA and Diisopropyl Ether

will be undergo a distillation process. In the distillation process, the crude IPA will be

distillate and produces the anhydrous IPA as the final product of process. The detail of the

production of IPA will be explain in the Process Flow Diagram.

2.2.Process flow diagram of production of Isopropyl Alcohol

The Process Flow Diagram (PFD) of the production of Isopropyl alcohol is shown in

figure 2. Noted that the process flow diagram is the indirect hydrolysis of Isopropyl Alcohol

production.

2.3.Description of Process flow diagram of Isopropyl Alcohol

In figure 1, it shows the summary of the production of Isopropyl Alcohol that be used

in some of other company nowadays. Next, in figure2 it shows the Process flow diagram of

production of IPA in the chemical or biochemical plant in the industries. Below are the

briefly explanation and description regarding the production of IPA by indirect hydrolysis

based on the process flow diagram.

1. Concentrated sulphuric acid from about 60 to 70 wt% feed stream 1 mixes with

stream 2 in the absorber C100. Stream 2 feed with 45 wt% of propylene gases (PP).

PP may be obtained from various sources such as destructive distillation of

carbonaceous materials, but particularly from the cracking of petroleum hydrocarbon.

Absorber C100 is operated at a pressure from about 150 to 300 psig and a temperature

within the range 85 to 1150C.

2. An extract liquid is formed in the absorber C100 comprising from about 40 to 65 wt%

of sulphuric acid, from about 10 to 40 wt% of absorbed propylene values and the

balance water. Absorbed propylene values refer to all molecules in the liquid which

contain propyl (C3H7), and propylene (C3H6) moieties such as propyl ester, isopropyl

alcohol from about 10 to 45 wt%, and diisopropyl ether from about 3 to 6 wt%. The

extract liquid is withdrawn from the bottom portion of absorber via Stream 3 to the

mixer M100.

3. Unabsorbed gases, propylene are withdrawn and being compressed by C100 from the

upper portion of the absorber to the propylene column C104 via stream 4. In the

propylene column C104, propylene is refined to get recovered propylene and send

back via stream 5 into stream 2 to be recirculated into the absorber. While at the lower

portion of column, propane is withdrawn through stream 6.

4. In the mixer M100, stream 3 mixes stream 7 which feed with water. Water is added in

an amount from about 1.5 to 6 wt% water, based on the weight of absorbed propylene

values in the extract liquid to provide the moles of water stoichiometrically required

to form the amount of diisopropyl ether and isopropyl alcohol withdrawn as vapor in

the flash vessel C101.

5. The resulting mixture in the M100 is piped to flash vessel C101 via stream 8. Flash

vessel C101 is operated at a temperature range between 80 to 1600C and a pressure

from about 5 to 10 psig. From flash vessel, the overhead vapor is withdrawn and

being compressed by C101 via stream 10 comprising diisipropyl ether from about 30

to 50 wt%, isopropyl alcohol from about 30 to 40 wt%, and propylene from about 10

to 20 wt%. Liquid which is withdrawn from the flash vessel via stream 9 comprises

the depleted extract contains absorbed propylene values from about 5 to 35 wt%,

sulphuric acid from about 45 to 65 wt% and balance water.

6. Depleted extract is divided into two portions. A first portion is send via stream 11 and

1 and through pump P100 to the absorber C100 as recycle. This portion comprises

from about 40 to 60 wt% of the total depleted extract. A control valve V100 is used to

increase or decrease the liquid split ratio of mass flow rate of liquid in stream 11 and

mass flow rate of liquid in stream 12. This valve is used to control diisopropyl ether

and isopropyl alcohol production. The second portion which is from the remaining

depleted extract is send via stream 12 to the second water mixing zone, mixer M101.

7. In the mixer M101, the depleted extract mixes stream 13 which feed with water. The

amount of water feed is from about 35 to 100 parts by weight of water per part by

weight of absorbed propylene values in the depleted extract. The liquid residence time

in water mixing zone ranges from about 1 to 30 minutes.

8. The resulting aqueous mixture in mixer is send through stream 14 to alcohol generator

C102 to be heated, as by means of direct injection of steam via stream 15. Alcohol

generator C102 generally operated at a bottoms temperature of from about 70 to

1300C and a bottoms pressure from about 1 to 50 psig. In this generator, alcohol

vapors are formed as overhead product and withdrawn, compressed via stream 17 into

scrubber C103.

The vapors in stream 17 comprise isopropyl alcohol, diisopropyl ether and minor

amount of propylene and water. Sulphuric acid from about 45 to 55 wt% is withdrawn

from the lower portion of alcohol generator through stream 16 to the acid

concentrator.

9. The product in the stream 17 and 10 mixes in scrubber C103 to be neutralized using

sodium hydroxide, NaOH at concentration 10 wt.% NaOH. NaOH is used to

neutralized the mixture of alcohol vapor and sulphuric acid and feed via stream 18.

Scrubber is operated at a temperature of 373 K and a pressure of 14.7 psi. The crude

alcohol product at 55% IPA is withdrawn from the lower part of scrubber C103 via

stream 19 to crude isopropyl alcohol tank F100. From this tank, the mixture is send to

the ether column C105 via stream 20 which is operated at a temperature of 362 K and

a pressure of 14.7 psi. In this column distillation process will take place to separate

diisopropyl ether and hexene. The overhead product, diisopropyl ether is withdrawn

via stream 21 to the diisopropyl column C109. Then, it is washed to produce washed

diisopropyl ether at 95 wt.%.

10. Wet isopropyl alcohol from lower part of ether column C105 is extract via stream 22

and feed into alcohol column C106 which is operated at a pressure from about 3 to 7

atmospheres. Azeotroping agent is fed near the top of column C106 via stream 23

which is produce in drying column C107. CBM or azeotropic isopropyl alcohol at 87

wt% is withdrawn from upper part of alcohol column via stream 24 as a product while

water is withdrawn from bottom of column via stream 25.

11. In drying column C107, which is operated at a pressure of 14.7 psi and a temperature

of 347 K, ternary azeotrope is formed. The latter concentrates at the head of column

in a concentration of about 60%, is piped via stream 26 into condenser, so that after

liquefaction of the vapots in condenser, it enter decanter F101 via stream 27 to

separate the layers into a virtually water-free upper layer and lower layer containing

the residual water. The upper layers in this tank which is mainly azeotroping agent

and alcohol, is return to the top of the column C107 as reflux via stream 28. While

anhydrous isopropyl alcohol at 99.8 wt% is removed from the lower part of column

C107 via stream 29.

12. The lower layer in the decanter is mostly water. It is fed into stripping column C108

which is operated at a temperature 466K and a pressure 155 psi via stream 30 for

recovery of isopropyl alcohol and azeotroping agent. This product is send back into

column C107 via stream 31 and waste the water at stream 32.

CONCLUSION

Isopropyl alcohol is a flammable, colorless liquid with a slightly pleasant odor. It is

used in manufacturing acetone, glycerol and isopropyl acetate. A solvent for many oils,

alkaloids, gums and resins, it also serves as a deicing agent for liquid fuels.

The chemical compound is used in extraction processes, as a dehydrating agent, a

preservative, in lotions and as a laboratory reagent. Common names for it include IPA,

rubbing alcohol, dimethyl carbinol, isopropanol, 2-propanol and sec-propyl alcohol.

The indirect process reacts propene with sulfuric acid to form a mixture of sulfate

esters. Subsequent hydrolysis of these esters produces isopropyl alcohol. Direct hydration

reacts propene and water, either in gas or liquid phases, at high pressures in the presence of

solid or supported acidic catalysts.

IPA is used in the extraction and purification of natural products such as vegetable

and animal oil and fats. Other applications include its use as a cleaning and drying agent in

the manufacture of electronic parts and metals, and as an aerosol solvent in medical and

veterinary products. It can also be used as a coolant in beer manufacture, a coupling agent, a

polymerization modifier, a de-icing agent and a preservative.

Use of IPA in direct solvent applications accounted for 62% of total IPA demand in

2008. IPA is also used in surface coatings, inks, pesticide formulations, electronic

applications, reagents and as a processing solvent in the production of resins.

Global IPA-based acetone production is expected to decrease with the increase of

phenol capacity (acetone is a coproduct of phenol by the cumene peroxidation process). It is

estimated that IPA-based acetone will no longer be produced in Western Europe after 2010.

Worldwide IPA consumption is forecast to grow at an average annual rate of 1.0–1.5%

during 2008–2013.

In 2008, global supply/demand was relatively balanced as demand decreased because

of the weakened global economy. As of late 2008/early 2009, the acetone market has been

tight as a result of its co product phenol’s decreased demand (and hence production).

This could lead to increased IPA consumption for competing applications, particularly

chemical intermediates. Supply/demand and feedstock (propylene) costs have had and will

continue to have the greatest effect on IPA pricing.

The future demand of IPA is expected to remain flat or to grow slightly. Its main

usage as a chemical intermediate is growing, and this should offset the pressure on use as a

solvent from tighter volatile organic chemicals (VOC) regulations.

REFERENCES

1. Anis Bt. Jaafar. (1992). Loji Penghasilan Isopropil Alkohol. Fakulti Kejuruteraan,

Universiti Kebangsaan Malaysia.

2. Paul E. Burton. (1984). Process for Producing Isopropyl Alcohol and Di-isopropyl Ether.

United States Patent Number 4471142.

3. Kirk-Othmer Encyclopedia of Chemical Technology. John Wiley & Sons, Inc.

4. Robert H. Perry. (1997). Perry’s Chemical Engineer’s Handbook. McGraw Hill, 7th

Edition

5. Isopropyl alcohol from Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia.

http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Isopropyl_alcohol

6. What is Isopropyl Alcohol?

http://www.wisegeek.com/what-is-isopropyl-alcohol.htm

7. Isopropanol general information.

http://chemicalland21.com/petrochemical/isopropanol.htm

8. Material Safety Data of Isopropyl Alcohol.

http://kinetronics.com/PLCMSDSData.pdf

9. Occupational Safety and Health Guideline for Isopropyl Alcohol

http://www.osha.gov/SLTC/healthguidelines/isopropylalcohol/recognition.html