xi Detailed Contents Critical Strategies: An Overview Inside Front Cover Preface for Instructors xxv The Possibilities of Literary Meaning 1 TOM WAYMAN, Did I Miss Anything? 1 1. Reading: How Meaning Is Made 3 Who Makes Meaning? 3 LEWIS CARROLL, Jabberwocky 4 Are Some Readings Wrong? 7 Your Right to Read and Write 10 The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution 10 2. Writing: How Invention Strategies Shape the Process 13 BRENDAN GILL, from Here at The New Yorker 14 New Criticism 15 Reader-Response Criticism 17 Deconstructive Criticism 19 Biographical, Historical, and New Historical Criticism 21 Psychological Criticism 23 Feminist Criticism 25 Other Approaches 27 3. Literature: Why It Matters 29 What Isn’t Literature? 29 What Is Literature? 32 ROBERT FROST, It Bids Pretty Fair 32 Critical Strategies at Work 37 4. Read Poetry Creatively: Reader-Response Criticism 39 Reflection: The Creative Reader 39 DAVID WAGONER, This Is a Wonderful Poem 40 Strategies: Using Reader-Response Criticism 41
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xi
Detailed Contents�
Critical Strategies: An Overview Inside Front CoverPreface for Instructors xxv
The Possibilities of Literary Meaning 1TOM WAYMAN, Did I Miss Anything? 1
1. Reading: How Meaning Is Made 3
Who Makes Meaning? 3
LEWIS CARROLL, Jabberwocky 4
Are Some Readings Wrong? 7
Your Right to Read and Write 10
The First Amendment to the U.S. Constitution 10
2. Writing: How Invention Strategies Shape the Process 13
BRENDAN GILL, from Here at The New Yorker 14
New Criticism 15Reader-Response Criticism 17Deconstructive Criticism 19Biographical, Historical, and New Historical Criticism 21Psychological Criticism 23
Reflection: The Creative Reader 39DAVID WAGONER, This Is a Wonderful Poem 40
Strategies: Using Reader-Response Criticism 41
JOHN BURNSIDE, The Sand Merchant’s Wife 42
Inventing 42
Shaping 46
Drafting 48
Useful Terms for Reader-Response Criticism 54
Elements: Symbol and Image; Personification, Allegory, and Allusion 54
GJERTRUD SCHNACKENBERG, Supernatural Love 56
MARGARET CAVENDISH, Earth’s Complaint 59
Practice: Environments 60
MARK STRAND, The Garden 60
JOY HARJO, For Anna Mae Aquash Whose Spirit Is Present Here and in the Dappled Stars 61
CAROLINE FRASER, All Bears 63
EMILY DICKINSON, Through the Dark Sod 64
ROBINSON JEFFERS, Carmel Point 65
Suggestions for Writing 66
5. Read Poetry Closely: New Criticism 67
Reflection: The Organic Text 67
ARCHIBALD MACLEISH, Ars Poetica 68
Strategies: Using New Criticism 71GWENDOLYN BROOKS, The Mother 71
Inventing 72
Shaping 74
Drafting 75
LUCILLE CLIFTON, forgiving my father 78
Elements: Voice, Speaker, Tone, Point of View, and Irony 78
STEPHEN SHU-NING LIU, My Father’s Martial Art 81
Useful Terms for New Criticism 83
SEAMUS HEANEY, Digging 85
Practice: Ties That Bind 85
RICHARD WILBUR, The Writer 85
FROM THE GOSPEL OF LUKE, The Prodigal Son 87
THEODORE ROETHKE, My Papa’s Waltz 88
GREGORY DJANIKIAN, Immigrant Picnic 88
Suggestions for Writing 90
6. Read Poetry Playfully: Deconstruction 91
Reflection: An Open Space 94
JOHN ASHBERRY, Paradoxes and Oxymorons 94
Strategies: Using Deconstructive Criticism 96
xii Detailed Contents
LANGSTON HUGHES, Cross 96
Useful Terms for Deconstruction 102
Elements: Figures and Forms 103
DEREK WALCOTT, Frederiksted, Dusk 104
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Sonnet 17 109
Practice: Good and Evil 112
LINDA PASTAN, Ethics 112
ROBERT LOWELL, For the Union Dead 113
ELI MANDEL, Houdini 115
JOHN DONNE, Death Be Not Proud 116
JOHANNES VERMEER, Woman Holding a Balance (painting) 117
LINDA PASTAN, Woman Holding a Balance, Vermeer, 1664 118
MARGARET ATWOOD, Spelling 119
Suggestions for Writing 121
7. Read Fiction Powerfully: Political Criticism 122Reflection: The Useful Text 122
ELIZABETH TALLENT, No One’s a Mystery 123
Strategies: Using Political Criticism 129
ERNEST HEMINGWAY, A Very Short Story 132
Inventing 137
Shaping 139
Drafting 139
Useful Terms for Political Criticism 143
Elements: Character, Setting, and Theme 144
WILLIAM FAULKNER, A Rose for Emily 144
AESOP, The Fox and the Grapes 155Practice: Idealisms 157
LANGSTON HUGHES, Thank You, M’am 157
TOBIAS WOLFF, Say Yes 160
JOHN UPDIKE, A & P 164
NATHANIEL HAWTHORNE, The Birthmark 168
Suggestions for Writing 180
8. Read Fiction Contextually: Biographical, Historical, and New Historical Criticism 181
Reflection: Real Life 181
CHARLES JOHNSON, Moving Pictures 182
Strategies: Using Biographical, Historical, and New Historical Criticism 188
JOHN CHEEVER, Reunion 188
A Biographical Essay 192
Detailed Contents xiii
Inventing 192
Shaping 195
Drafting 197
A New Historical Essay 200
Inventing 200
Shaping 201
Drafting 202
Useful Terms and Sources for Biographical, Historical, and New Historical Criticism 205
Sources for Biographical Research 208
Sources for Historical Research 209
Sources for New Historical Research 209
Elements: Plot and Structure 209ELLEN MALPHRUS, Thanksgiving on the Chicken Bone
Express 210Practice: Missing Persons 216
JOHN CHEEVER, The Swimmer 217JOHN CHEEVER, The Country Husband 225
Suggestions for Writing 242
9. Read Drama Thoughtfully: Psychological Criticism 243
Reflection: Someone’s Mind 243MICHAEL HAMBURGER, A Poet’s Progress 245
Strategies: Using Psychological Criticism 249
MATTHEW ARNOLD, Dover Beach 249
Inventing 251
Shaping 253
Drafting 257
Useful Terms for Psychological Cricitism 262
Elements: Scene, Set, Actor, and Director 263
From William Shakespeare, Hamlet 264Practice: Brainstorms 266
TERENCE McNALLY, Andre’s Mother 266
Suggestions for Writing 269
Fiction 271
10. Elements of Fiction 273
Engaging the Story 273
Suggestions for Reading Stories 279
T. CORAGHESSAN BOYLE, The Hit Man 279
JANETTE TURNER HOSPITAL, Morgan Morgan 286
xiv Detailed Contents
Recognizing Elements: Plot, Character, and Point of View 291Stories to Experience 296
JOHN EDGAR WIDEMAN, Weight 296
ZORA NEALE HURSTON, Sweat 305
11. Charlotte Perkins Gilman and Flannery O’Connor: Two Case Studies 315
Reading Gilman’s The Yellow Wallpaper 316
CHARLOTTE PERKINS GILMAN, The Yellow Wallpaper 316Writing about The Yellow Wallpaper: Critical Viewpoints 327
Elaine Hedges: The Initial Appearance and Early Reception 327
Charlotte Perkins Gilman: Autobiographical Insight 328
Barbara Ehrenreich and Deidre English: Historical and Political Stance 329
Loralee MacPike: New Critical, Psychological, Feminist Blend 332
Jean Kennard: Reader Response and Meta-Criticism 333
Judith Fetterley: Reader Response and Feminist Criticism 336
John Harvey Kellogg: Historical Materials 337
Janet Beer: Psychological Film Criticism 338
Richard Feldstein: Deconstruction 341
Douglas Tallack: Deconstructing Feminist Criticism 344Reading O’Connor’s Revelation 345
FLANNERY O’CONNOR, Revelation 346Writing about Revelation: Critical Viewpoints 360
C. Ralph Stevens: Biographical Sketch of O’Connor 360Margaret Earley Whitt: The Biographical Context
of Revelation 362Flannery O’Connor: On the Genre of the Short Story 363Margaret Turner: More Biographical Background 364Flannery O’Connor: On Her Motivation 365Anthony Di Renzo: Close Reading 366Marshall Bruce Gentry: Close Reading and Textual Evidence 370Richard Giannone: Historical and Biographical Materials 370
12. More Stories 373
HANAN AL-SHAYKH, The Keeper of the Virgins 374JAMES BALDWIN, Sonny’s Blues 379CLAUDIA SMITH BRINSON, Einstein’s Daughter 400RAYMOND CARVER, Cathedral 408
Detailed Contents xv
KATE CHOPIN, The Storm 418SANDRA CISNEROS, One Holy Night 422AMANDA DAVIS, Louisiana Loses Its Cricket Hum 426RITA DOVE, The Vibraphone 430LOUISE ERDRICH, Wild Geese 441F. SCOTT FITZGERALD, Babylon Revisited 444ERNEST GAINES, Just Like a Tree 458BRENDAN GILL, The Knife 475JAMES JOYCE, Araby 478GARRISON KEILLOR, Zeus the Lutheran 482DORIS LESSING, A Woman on a Roof 493ALICE MUNRO, How I Met My Husband 500LESLIE NORRIS, Blackberries 511JOYCE CAROL OATES, Nairobi 515FRANK O’CONNOR, My Oedipus Complex 519CYNTHIA OZICK, The Shawl 527GRACE PALEY, A Conversation with My Father 531KATHERINE ANNE PORTER, The Jilting of Granny
Weatherall 534JOHN STEINBECK, The Chrysanthemums 541AMY TAN, Two Kinds 548JAMES THURBER, The Catbird Seat 556JOHN UPDIKE, Deaths of Distant Friends 562
Poetry 567
13. Elements of Poetry 569
Dealing with Difficulty 569WILLIAM MERIDETH, A Major Work 570
The Nature of Poetry 571MARK STRAND, Eating Poetry 572Liechtenstein 573This Is Just to Say 574Poetry 574
How to Read a Poem 575Words 576EMILY DICKINSON, The Soul Selects Her Own Society 576Sentences 578ROBERT FRANCIS, Catch 578A Sonnet Unfolded 579WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Sonnet 93 579
Recognizing Kinds 582
xvi Detailed Contents
Stances: Apostrophe, Aubade, Carpe Diem, Elegy, Ode, and Pastoral 583
Forms: Narrative, Lyric, and Dramatic; Rhyme and Rhythm 584Closed Versus Open Form 585DENISE LEVERTOV, Advent 1966 586ROBERT SOUTHWELL, The Burning Babe 589
Poems for Making Sense 590WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Sonnet 138 590WILLIAM CARLOS WILLIAMS, The Red Wheelbarrow 591ROBERT GRAVES, Down, Wanton, Down! 591GARY SNYDER, Some Good Things to Be Said for the Iron Age 592RICHARD WILBUR, A Late Aubade 592
14. Poetic Conversations 594
Two Stars 597JOHN KEATS, Bright star! would I were steadfast as thou art 597ROBERT FROST, Choose Something Like a Star 598
An Odd Couple? 599BEN JONSON, Still To Be Neat 599ROBERT HERRICK, Delight in Disorder 599
The First Couple 600GENESIS 1:26–28, 2:7–10, 2:15–3:24 600WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS, Adam’s Curse 602STEVIE SMITH, How Cruel Is the Story of Eve 603TED HUGHES, Theology 604EDNA ST. VINCENT MILLAY, Never May the Fruit Be
Plucked 605LOUISE GLÜCK, The Apple Trees 606THOMAS CAMPION, There Is a Garden in Her Face 606JOHN MILTON, from Paradise Lost 607
Swine Songs 608GALWAY KINNELL, Saint Francis and the Sow 608SYLVIA PLATH, Sow 608THOM GUNN, Moly 610WILLIAM COWPER, The Love of the World Reproved 610CHARLES TOMLINSON, On a Pig’s Head 611RICHARD EBERHART, The Groundhog 612PAUL MULDOON, Hedgehog 613
A Bowl of Plums for Wordsworth 614WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, The World Is Too Much with Us 614KENNETH KOCH, Variations on a Theme by William Carlos
Williams 615HELEN CHASIN, The Word Plum 615
Detailed Contents xvii
DENISE LEVERTOV, O Taste and See 615AMY CLAMPITT, Nothing Stays Put 616
God? 617WILLIAM WORDSWORTH, Afterthought 617STEPHEN CRANE, A Man Said to the Universe 618THEODORE ROETHKE, Root Cellar 618PERCY BYSSHE SHELLEY, Ozymandias 618JAMES FENTON, God, A Poem 619THOMAS HARDY, The Oxen 619WALLACE STEVENS, Anecdote of the Jar 620MARK STRAND, Keeping Things Whole 620GERARD MANLEY HOPKINS, God’s Grandeur 621AMY CLAMPITT, Lindenbloom 621
Shorelines 622ANTHONY HECHT, The Dover Bitch: A Criticism of Life 622JOHN BREHM, Sea of Faith 623FRED DINGS, Chains of Change 624CATHY SONG, Waterwings 625WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Sonnet 60 626ALFRED, LORD TENNYSON, Ulysses 626
Love among the Sheep 628CHRISTOPHER MARLOWE, The Passionate Shepherd to
His Love 628SIR WALTER RALEIGH, The Nymph’s Reply to the Shepherd 628JOHN DONNE, The Bait 629ROBERT HERRICK, To Phillis to love, and live with him 630C. DAY LEWIS, Song 631WILLIAM CARLOS WILLIAMS, Raleigh Was Right 631JAMES DICKEY, The Sheep Child 632CARYN CRABB, The Passionate Businessman to a Foxy Chick 633
Revisions 634DIANE WOOD MIDDLEBROOK, February Afternoon,
In a Boat on the Seine (draft) 634DIANE WOOD MIDDLEBROOK, February Afternoon,
In a Boat on the Seine (published version) 635PATRICK ARMSTRONG, How I Wrote Kitty Hawk 635PATRICK ARMSTRONG, Kitty Hawk 638ROBERT FROST, In White (draft) 639ROBERT FROST, Design (published version) 639W. H. AUDEN, Musée des Beaux Arts 640DANNIE ABSE, Brueghel in Naples 640
xviii Detailed Contents
PETER BRUEGHEL THE ELDER, The Fall of Icarus (painting) 641
ALAN DEVENISH, Icarus Again 642
15. Robert Frost and Gwendolyn Brooks:Two Case Studies 643
Reading Robert Frost 645Mending Wall 645The Road Not Taken 646After Apple-Picking 646Birches 647Out, Out–– 648Fire and Ice 649Stopping by Woods on a Snowy Evening 649Desert Places 650Neither Out Far Nor In Deep 650Provide, Provide 650Nothing Gold Can Stay 651The Need of Being Versed in Country Things 651Sitting by a Bush in Broad Sunlight 652Once by the Pacific 652The Most of It 653
Writing about Robert Frost: Critical Viewpoints 653Donald Greiner on Frost’s Critical Reception 653Malcolm Cowley: New Critical Analysis 655H. A. Maxson: Survey of Various Approaches to Frost 656Karen Kilcup: Feminist View of Frost 660Mordecai Marcus: Biographical versus Formal Readings of
Two Poems 664Robert Frost: On Poetic Creativity 666
Reading Gwendolyn Brooks 668Sadie and Maude 668the ballad of chocolate Mabbie 668the preacher: ruminates behind the sermon 669A Bronzeville Mother Loiters in Mississippi. Meanwhile, a Mississippi
Mother Burns Bacon 669The Chicago Defender Sends a Man to Little Rock, Fall, 1957 672Langston Hughes 674The Sundays of Satin-Legs Smith 675gay chaps at the bar 678“God works in a mysterious way” 678“do not be afraid of no” 679
Detailed Contents xix
The Bean Eaters 679We Real Cool 680[What shall I give my children?] 680[And shall I prime my children?] 681[First fight. Then fiddle.] 681
Writing about Gwendolyn Brooks: Critical Viewpoints 681Paul Engle: New Critical and Biographical Stances 681Harvey Webster: Political Criticism 683Kenny Jackson Williams: Historical Influences 684Gertrude Reif Hughes: Feminist Criticism 684Brooke Kenton Horvath: New Criticism 686R. Baxter Miller: Reader-Response 689Joanne Gabbin: Political Criticism 691
16. More Poems 695
Suggestions for Reading Poetry 696DIANE ACKERMAN, Driving through Farm Country at
Sunset 698MAYA ANGELOU, My Arkansas 699MARGARET ATWOOD, Siren Song 699MARGARET ATWOOD, Variation on the Word Sleep 700W. H. AUDEN, In Memory of W. B. Yeats 701IMAMU AMIRI BARAKA (LEROI JONES), Preface to a Twenty
Volume Suicide Note 702APHRA BEHN, Song: Love Armed 703LOUISE BOGAN, Women 703ANNE BRADSTREET, The Author to Her Book 704WILLIAM CULLEN BRYANT, To a Waterfowl 705ROBERT BURNS, Oh, my love is like a red, red rose 705COUNTEE CULLEN, Incident 706E. E. CUMMINGS, anyone lived in a pretty how town 706KWAME DAWES, Umpire at the Portrait Gallery 707EMILY DICKINSON, Because I could not stop for Death 708EMILY DICKINSON, ‘Faith’ Is a Fine Invention 709EMILY DICKINSON, I heard a Fly Buzz—When I Died 709EMILY DICKINSON, I like to see it lap the Miles 709FRED DINGS, The Divers 710JOHN DONNE, The Canonization 711RITA DOVE, Motherhood 712JOHN DRYDEN, To the Memory of Mr. Oldham 712RICHARD EBERHART, The Fury of Aerial Bombardment 713ROBERT FRANCIS, Pitcher 714
xx Detailed Contents
MICHAEL HARPER, Dear John, Dear Coltrane 714ROBERT HERRICK, To the Virgins, to Make Much of Time 715A. E. HOUSMAN, Loveliest of Trees, the Cherry Now 716LANGSTON HUGHES, The Negro Speaks of Rivers 716LANGSTON HUGHES, The Weary Blues 717LANGSTON HUGHES, Theme for English B 717LUISA IGLORIA, Dinakdakan 718GALWAY KINNELL, The Bear 719PHILIP LARKIN, A Study of Reading Habits 722LI-YOUNG LEE, Persimmons 722DENISE LEVERTOV, Pleasures 724RICHARD LOVELACE, To Amarantha, That She Would Dishevel
Her Hair 725AMY LOWELL, Patterns 725CLAUDE MCKAY, If We Must Die 728CLAUDE MCKAY, America 728W. S. MERWIN, For the Anniversary of My Death 728W. S. MERWIN, Leviathan 729EDNA ST. VINCENT MILLAY, Love Is Not All 730HOWARD NEMEROV, The Goose Fish 730WILFRED OWEN, Dulce et Decorum Est 731DOROTHY PARKER, Résumé 732SYLVIA PLATH, Metaphors 733DUDLEY RANDALL, Ballad of Birmingham 733JOHN CROWE RANSOM, Bells for John Whiteside’s Daughter 734HENRY REED, Naming of Parts 734ADRIENNE RICH, Aunt Jennifer’s Tigers 735WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Sonnet 29 736WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Sonnet 31 736STEVIE SMITH, Not Waving but Drowning 736WILLIAM STAFFORD, Traveling Through the Dark 737JONATHAN SWIFT, A Description of the Morning 737DYLAN THOMAS, Do Not Go Gentle into That Good Night 738DYLAN THOMAS, Fern Hill 738JOHN UPDIKE, Ex-Basketball Player 740WALT WHITMAN, O Captain! My Captain! 740RICHARD WILBUR, The Death of a Toad 741WILLIAM CARLOS WILLIAMS, Spring and All 741WILLIAM CARLOS WILLIAMS, The Dance 742PIETER BREUGHEL THE ELDER, Flemish Kermess (Peasant’s
Dance) (painting) 742JAMES WRIGHT, A Blessing 743
Detailed Contents xxi
WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS, The Second Coming 743
Drama 745
17. Elements of Drama 747
The World’s a Stage 747Getting the Play off the Page 749
Suggestions for Reading Plays 750
DOUGLAS ADAMS, Fit the First (from The HitchHiker’s Guide to the Galaxy) 751
Recognizing Elements: Conflict, Resolution, Act, and Play 765Writing about Drama 769
SUSAN GLASPELL, Trifles 770Understanding the Play 780Journal Entry: Student Example 781A Writing Plan: Critical Strategies 782Reader-Response Strategies 782Journal Entry: Student Example 784More Questions and Answers 784
“And Then She—Laughed”: Glaspell’s Trifles and the Reader’sResponse 788
Political Strategies 791
New Critical Strategies 791
Deconstructive Strategies 792
Psychological Strategies 793
Biographical, Historical, and New Historical Strategies 793
18. Sophocles and Shakespeare: Three Case Studies 795
Oedipus the King 795Oedipus and the Rest of Us 796Aristotle and Tragedy 797The Greek Theatre 798The Play Itself 801Sophocles, Oedipus the King 802
Writing about Oedipus the King: Critical Viewpoints 837James C. Hogan: Historical and Cultural Criticism 837Bernard Knox: New Critical Reading 838Sigmund Freud: Psychological Reading 839Adrian Poole: A Comment on Freud 840
Suggestions for Writing 840Hamlet 841
The Weight of Hamlet 841
xxii Detailed Contents
Detailed Contents xxiii
The Author, the Theatre, the Play 844
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, Hamlet, Prince of Denmark 845Writing about Hamlet, Prince of Denmark: Critical Viewpoints 950
H. D. F. Kitto: Historical Criticism 950Eleanor Prosser: Historical Criticism 952Maynard Mack: Close Reading 954Norman Holland: Reader Response Criticism 955Coppelia Kahn: Cultural and Political Criticism 957Elaine Showalter: Psychological and Feminist Criticism 957Janet Adelman: Psychological and Feminist Criticism 959John Updike: Creative Interpretation 961
Suggestions for Writing 964A Midsummer Night’s Dream 964
Your Shakespeare 965
WILLIAM SHAKESPEARE, A Midsummer Night’s Dream 967Writing about A Midsummer Night’s Dream: Critical Viewpoints 1027
Sidney Homann: The Director’s View 1027C. Walter Hodges: Reader-Response Criticism 1029David Bevington: New Criticism 1030Norman Holland: Reader Response and Psychological Criticism 1034Richard Wilson: Political Criticism 1037Shirley Nelson Garner: Feminist Criticism 1038Douglas Green: Queer Theory 1041Philip McGuire: Deconstructive and Historical Criticism 1045Leonard Tennenhouse: New Historical Criticism 1050Louis Montrose: New Historical Criticism 1052
Suggestions for Writing 1053
19. More Plays 1055
MARSHA NORMAN, The Laundromat 1056DAVID IVES, Sure Thing 1075AUGUST WILSON, The Janitor 1083CATHERINE CELESIA ALLEN, Anything for You 1084MILCHA SANCHEZ-SCOTT, The Cuban Swimmer 1088
Appendix A: Research and Documentation 1101
Investigating the Work 1101The Purposes of Research 1102
The Topic and the Task 1102How To Do Research 1106
xxiv Detailed Contents
Background Sources 1107Bibliographies and Indexes 1108Securing Resources, Taking Notes, Finding a Thesis 1109
The Writing Process 1112Principles of Documentation 1113WILLIAM BUTLER YEATS, Sailing to Byzantium 1113
A Sample Research Paper 1116Getting Ideas 1116Organizing 1121Drafting 1122
Appendix C: Brief Biographies of Selected Poets 1143
Glossary of Literary and Critical Terms 1160Acknowledgments 1181Index of First Lines of Poems 1199Index of Authors and Titles 1203Index of Literary and Critical Terms Inside Back Cover