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Destination Image from an Arab Perspective: The Influence of

Culture on Perceptions of and Motivations for Visiting the Gold

Coast, Australia

By

Jamila Alarabi Abodeeb

Student ID: 21841840

A thesis submitted to Southern Cross University in fulfillment of the requirements

of the degree of the Doctor of Philosophy

School of Tourism and Hospitality Management

Southern Cross University

July, 2014

i

Division of Research, Research Training Unit

THESIS DECLARATION

I certify that the work presented in this thesis is, to the best of my

knowledge and belief, original, except as acknowledged in the text, and that

the material has not been submitted, either in whole or in part, for a degree

at this or any other university. I acknowledge that I have read and understood the University's rules,

requirements, procedures and policy relating to my higher degree research

award and to my thesis. I certify that I have complied with the rules,

requirements, procedures and policy of the University.

Print Name:.........Jamila Alarabi Abodeeb...........................

Signature:………………………………………………………

Date: ………1- 7- 2014……………………………………………

ii

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

Firstly, praise be to God who gave me strength and patience to accomplish this work.

Secondly, I express my sincere thanks and gratitude to my principal supervisor Dr Erica

Wilson, who worked patiently with me at all stages of this thesis project, who has provided

endless advice and guidance, and showed such great generosity of effort in sharing her

knowledge to assist me.

In addition, I owe much gratitude to my co-supervisor Dr Brent Moyle, who joined in the

latter part in my thesis candidature, for his constructive suggestions and opinions that

became an integral and most important part of this study. I would also like to express my

sincere thanks to my previous supervisors, Dr Johan Edelheim, Dr Michelle Whitford and

Professor Perry Hobson who also assisted me at varying stages of this thesis.

I also extend my thanks and gratitude to my parents and family and my husband who

supported me and encouraged me to complete my studies. In conclusion, I would like to

extend my sincere thanks and gratitude to Southern Cross University, especially to the

members of the School of Tourism and Hospitality Management, for providing the

facilities and the support that have enabled me to complete this PhD.

iii

ABSTRACT

Arab tourists are recognised as an emerging inbound visitor market for Australia, as

evidenced through increased visitor numbers, coupled with high levels of expenditure.

Despite this increased recognition, research relating to the motivations and perceptions of

Arab tourists, especially in relation to Australia, is sparse. In order to bridge this gap, this

thesis investigates Arab tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations for visiting Australia,

using the Gold Coast in Queensland as a case study. The thesis also examines the impact of

Arab tourists’ culture on these perceptions and motivations. Finally, this thesis explores

differences between Arab tourists’ perceived image of the Gold Coast and the destination’s

actual identity as constructed by marketers.

To achieve the overarching aim and key objectives of this research, a mixed methods

approach was adopted, including interviews with stakeholders from Queensland

destination marketing organisations, a content analysis of Australian and Arab tourism

websites, and a survey of Arab visitors at the Gold Coast. Data collection was completed

between March and August in 2012.

Interviews were conducted with senior managers at key Destination Marketing

Organisations (DMOs) who are responsible for marketing the Gold Coast as a destination

to Arab market, namely Tourism Queensland (TQ) and Gold Coast Tourism (GCT). The

interviews revealed that those marketers sought to portray a strong destination brand,

specifically around the theme of “Gold Coast: Famous for Fun”. Although they have

actively targeted the Arab tourist market, Gold Coast Tourism has recommended more

research needs to be completed to better understand Arab tourists at the Gold Coast and the

impact of their culture on their perceptions and motivations for visiting.

A content analysis of Australian and Arab websites was carried out to extend issues raised

through the interviews. During this stage of the research, the analysis revealed that the

iv

image of the Gold Coast held by Arab tourists did not correspond with the image portrayed

by Australian tourism organisations – and this was a result that was reflected in the

findings of the interviews.

A survey of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast was also conducted in order to

understand Arab tourists' perceptions of, and motivations for, visiting the Gold Coast,

Australia. The survey also sought to identify Arab tourists’ cultural backgrounds through

the use of the Hofstede culture model. Survey findings revealed three important factors that

motivated Arab tourists to visit the Gold Coast including: ‘visiting beaches’, ‘enjoying

beauty and landscape’ and ‘shopping’. Also, the examination of Arab perceptions of the

Gold Coast indicated that there were positive perceptions held by Arab tourists’ about

Australia and the Gold Coast. A factor analysis of cultural items found that tourists’

perceptions and motivations were indeed affected by cultural factors.

This research has made a significant contribution to the extant tourism literature, by

improving our understanding of the theory of ‘destination image’ by focusing on tourists'

perceptions and motivations, from a cross-cultural perspective. Thus this thesis provides a

theoretical basis for future research in this field. This research also has important

implications for developing tourism marketing strategies, both general marketing strategies

and targeted strategies specifically aimed at the Arab market. It highlights the need to

understand the motivations and perceptions of Arab tourists towards the Gold Coast.

v

TABLE OF CONTENTS

THESIS DECLARATION .................................................................................................. i

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ..................................................................................................... ii

ABSTRACT .......................................................................................................................... iii

TABLE OF CONTENTS ...................................................................................................... v

LIST OF FIGURES ............................................................................................................. x

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................... xi

1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION .......................................................................... 1

1.1 Research Background ..................................................................................................... 1

1.2 Arab Tourists to Australia ............................................................................................. 3

1.3 Research Aims and Objectives ...................................................................................... 4

1.4 Significance of the Research .......................................................................................... 5

1.5 Outline of the Thesis ....................................................................................................... 7

1.6 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 10

2 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW ............................................................ 11

2.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 11

2.2 Tourism Marketing....................................................................................................... 11

2.2.1 The Role and Importance of Tourism Marketing .................................................................... 11

2.2.2 Tourism Marketing and Tourists’ Perceptions ........................................................................ 14

2.2.3 Obstacles Facing Tourism Marketing ...................................................................................... 16

2.3 Destination Brand ......................................................................................................... 18

2.3.1 Destination Brand Concepts .................................................................................................... 19

2.3.2 The Processes of Building a Destination Brand ...................................................................... 20

2.3.3 Challenges of Destination Branding ........................................................................................ 23

2.4 Destination Image ......................................................................................................... 24

2.4.1 The Concept of Destination Image .......................................................................................... 24

2.4.2 Key Research on Destination Image ........................................................................................ 27

2.4.3 Factors That Influence Destination Image ............................................................................... 29

2.4.4 Influence of Culture and Nationality on Destination Image .................................................... 31

vi

2.5 Tourism Motivation ...................................................................................................... 33

2.5.1 Definitions and Importance ..................................................................................................... 33

2.5.2 Tourist Motivation and Tourism Marketing ............................................................................ 37

2.5.3 Linking Tourist Motivations and Destination Image ............................................................... 38

2.6 Cross-Cultural Communication .................................................................................. 38

2.6.1 What is Cross-Cultural Communication? ................................................................................ 38

2.6.2 Cross-Cultural Research in Tourism........................................................................................ 40

2.6.3 Hofstede’s Model of Culture ................................................................................................... 42

2.7 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 47

3 CHAPTER THREE: THE RESEARCH CONTEXT: ARAB TOURISTS AT THE

GOLD COAST, AUSTRALIA ............................................................................................ 49

3.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 49

3.2 Tourism Marketing in Australia ................................................................................. 49

3.2.1 Destination Marketing Organisations (DMOs) ........................................................................ 49

3.2.2 The Development of Australia’s Brand Image ........................................................................ 51

3.3 Gold Coast City ............................................................................................................. 53

3.3.1 An Overview of the Gold Coast .............................................................................................. 53

3.3.2 A History of the Gold Coast as a Tourist Destination ............................................................. 54

3.3.3 Tourism at the Gold Coast ....................................................................................................... 56

3.4 Arab Outbound Tourists .............................................................................................. 58

3.4.1 An Overview of the Arab World ............................................................................................. 58

3.4.2 Islam: The Arab Religion ........................................................................................................ 60

3.4.3 Arab Culture ............................................................................................................................ 61

3.4.4 Arab Tourists ........................................................................................................................... 63

3.4.5 Desires and Needs of Arab Tourists ........................................................................................ 64

3.4.6 Previous Studies on the Motivations of Arab Tourists ............................................................ 65

3.5 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 66

4 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY ............................................... 67

4.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................... 67

4.2 Previous Studies on Destination Image ....................................................................... 67

4.2.1 Collection of Previous Studies ................................................................................................. 68

4.2.2 Commonalities and Differences in Methods of Assessment ................................................... 68

vii

4.2.3 Implications of Previous Studies for Research Design ............................................................ 72

4.3 Research Approach....................................................................................................... 73

4.3.1 Research Paradigm .................................................................................................................. 74

4.3.2 Research Method ..................................................................................................................... 77

4.3.3 Justification of the Research Methodology.............................................................................. 78

4.3.4 Case Study Research ............................................................................................................... 79

4.4 Research Method .......................................................................................................... 81

4.4.1 Interview .................................................................................................................................. 81

4.4.1.1 In-Depth Interviews ....................................................................................................... 81

4.4.1.2 Interview Design ............................................................................................................ 82

4.4.1.3 Interview Recruitment and Selection ............................................................................. 83

4.4.1.4 Interview Setting and Procedures ................................................................................... 84

4.4.1.5 Interview Data Analysis ................................................................................................. 85

4.4.2 Content Analysis...................................................................................................................... 86

4.4.2.1 Concept of Content Analysis ......................................................................................... 86

4.4.2.2 Website Selection ........................................................................................................... 89

4.4.2.3 Data Analysis ................................................................................................................. 90

4.4.3 Survey ...................................................................................................................................... 92

4.4.3.1 Instrument Design .......................................................................................................... 92

4.4.3.2 Pilot Testing Procedure .................................................................................................. 95

4.4.3.3 Participant Recruitment and Selection ........................................................................... 95

4.4.3.4 Reliability and Validity .................................................................................................. 97

4.5 Ethical Considerations ................................................................................................. 98

4.6 Chapter Summary ........................................................................................................ 98

5 CHAPTER FIVE: STAGE ONE RESULTS ........................................................... 100

5.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 100

5.2 Results of Interviews ................................................................................................... 100

5.2.1 Promoting the Destination Image of the Gold Coast: Fun and Family Friendly ................... 101

5.2.2 The Growth and Importance of the Arab Market as a Source of Out-bound Tourists ........... 104

5.2.3 Marketing to Arab Visitors .................................................................................................... 106

5.3 Results of Content Analysis ....................................................................................... 111

5.3.1 Australian Destination Marketing Organisation Websites ..................................................... 112

5.3.1.1 Analysis of Textual Information .................................................................................. 113

5.3.1.2 Analysis of visual information ..................................................................................... 116

viii

5.3.2 Arab Travel Websites ............................................................................................................ 117

5.3.2.1 Analysis of Textual Information .................................................................................. 118

5.3.2.2 Analysis of Visual Information .................................................................................... 120

5.3.3 Comparing Australian and Arab Websites ............................................................................ 122

5.4 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 124

6 CHAPTER SIX: STAGE TWO RESULTS ............................................................. 125

6.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 125

6.2 Visitor Profile .............................................................................................................. 126

6.2.1 Tourist Characteristics and Behaviour ................................................................................... 126

6.2.2 Past Experience for Tourists with Australia and the Gold Coast ........................................... 128

6.3 Visitors’ Motivations .................................................................................................. 129

6.3.1 Main Reason for Visit ............................................................................................................ 129

6.3.2 Characteristics that Attract Arab Tourists to the Gold Coast ................................................. 130

6.4 Visitors’ Perceptions ................................................................................................... 131

6.4.1 Arab Tourists’ Perceptions about Australia and the Gold Coast ........................................... 131

6.4.2 Three Words that Describe the Gold Coast ........................................................................... 132

6.4.3 Impression of the Gold Coast as a Tourist Destination ......................................................... 133

6.4.4 Future Travel to the Gold Coast ............................................................................................ 133

6.5 Influences on Tourist Motivations and Perceptions ................................................ 134

6.5.1 Influence of Gender on Push Motivations ............................................................................. 134

6.5.2 Influence of Gender on Pull Motivations .............................................................................. 134

6.5.3 Influence of Gender on Perception Variables ........................................................................ 136

6.5.4 Influence of Age on Motivations ........................................................................................... 137

6.5.5 Influence of Age on Perceptions ............................................................................................ 138

6.5.6 Influence of Travel Party on Motivation ............................................................................... 139

6.5.7 Influence of Travel Party on Perception ................................................................................ 141

6.5.8 Influence of Length of Stay on Motivations .......................................................................... 141

6.5.9 Influence of Length of Stay on Perceptions ........................................................................... 143

6.5.10 Cultural Influences on Motivations and Perceptions ........................................................ 144

6.5.10.1 Compilation of Cultural Factors Items ......................................................................... 144

6.5.10.2 Identifying Arab Culture .............................................................................................. 147

6.5.10.3 Developing Motivation Factors .................................................................................... 153

6.5.10.4 Influences of cultural factors on motivations ............................................................... 155

6.5.10.5 Relationship between Perception and Cultural Factors ................................................ 156

ix

6.6 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 157

7 CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION ........................................................................ 158

7.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 158

7.2 Discussion of Research Objective One ...................................................................... 159

7.3 Discussion of Research Objective Two ..................................................................... 163

7.4 Discussion of Research Objective Three ................................................................... 166

7.5 Discussion of Research Objective Four..................................................................... 169

7.6 Discussion of Research Objective Five ...................................................................... 171

7.7 Overarching Discussion .............................................................................................. 177

7.8 Chapter Summary ...................................................................................................... 179

8 CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION ...................................................................... 182

8.1 Introduction ................................................................................................................. 182

8.2 Thesis Summary .......................................................................................................... 182

8.3 Contributions to Theory ............................................................................................. 185

8.4 Implications for Practice ............................................................................................ 186

8.5 Limitations of the Research ....................................................................................... 188

8.6 Implications for Further Research ............................................................................ 189

9 LIST OF REFERENCES ........................................................................................ 191

10 APPENDICES .......................................................................................................... 213

Appendix A: Survey .......................................................................................................... 214

Appendix B: Interview Questions .................................................................................... 224

Appendix C: Sample of Interview Email ......................................................................... 228

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Model of Destination Branding............................................................................ 22

Figure 2: A Map of Gold Coast, Australia .......................................................................... 53

Figure 3: Domestic and International Visitors to Gold Coast Between 2001 – 2010 ......... 57

Figure 4: A Map of the Arab World .................................................................................... 59

Figure 5: Research Design and Methods ............................................................................. 80

Figure 6: Interview Data Analysis Stages ........................................................................... 86

Figure 7: Questionnaire Elements ....................................................................................... 93

Figure 8: Analysis of the Perceived Image (by Arab) and the Promoted Image (by

Australian) ......................................................................................................................... 123

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Definitions of Tourist Motivation……………………………………………………………………….33

Table 2: Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions…………………………………………………………………………44

Table 3: Domestic and International Visitors to Gold Coast…………………………………………….57

Table 4: The Nationality of International Visitor Arrivals to the Gold Coast in 2010………..58

Table 5: Previous Studies on Destination Image……………………………………………………………..70

Table 6: Interview Participants……………………………………………………………………………………..101

Table 7: Sample of Australian Tourism Websites………………………………………………………….113

Table 8: Most Frequent Keywords in Rank Order…………………………………………………………114

Table 9: Frequency Rates of Keywords – All Websites (in relation to the Gold Coast)….115

Table 10: Five Characteristics from Websites………………………………………………………………116

Table 11: Category of Arab Websites…………………………………………………………………………..117

Table 12: Most Frequent Keywords (relating to the Gold Coast) in Rank Order…………..119

Table 13: Frequency Rates of Keywords for all Website Category (in %)……………………..119

Table 14: Visual Information on the Three Categories of Website Image: Blogs, Travel

Magazines and Travel Trade………………………………............................................................121

Table 15: Respondent Background……………………………………………………………………………….127

Table 16: Previous Visits to Australia and the Gold Coast……………………………………………..128

Table 17: Main Reason to Travel (Push Factors)…………………………………………………………..129

Table 18: Destination Attributes of the Gold Coast That Attract Arab Tourists (Pull

factors)…………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………130

Table 19: Words Mentioned in the Description of the Gold Coast…………………………………131

Table 20: Influence of Gender on Push Motivations……………………………………………………..134

Table 21: Influence of Gender on Pull Motivations……………………………………………………….135

Table 22: Gender on Perception Variables……………………………………………………………………136

Table 23: ANOVA (Comparing Age with Push Motivations)…………………………………………..137

Table 24: ANOVA (Comparing Age with Pull Motivations)…………………………………………….138

Table 25: ANOVA (Comparing Age with Perceptions).......................................................139

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Table 26: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Push Motivations by Travel Party…………..140

Table 27: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Pull Motivations by Travel Party…………….140

Table 28: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Perceptions by Travel Party…………………..141

Table 29: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Push Motivations by Length of Stay………142

Table 30: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Pull Motivations by Length of Stay………..142

Table 31: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Perceptions by Length of Stay……………….143

Table 32: Respondent Background……………………………………………………………………………….145

Table 33: Collectivism Scale Inter-item Correlations and Cronbach's Alpha…………………148

Table 34: Classification of Participants According To Their Belonging to the Collectivist

Societies……………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….149

Table 35: Power Distance Scale Inter-item Correlations and Cronbach's Alpha……………150

Table 36: Classification of Participants: Large or Small Power Distance Families…………150

Table 37: Uncertainty Avoidance Index Inter-Item Correlations and Cronbach's Alpha of

Factor Three………………………………………………………………………………………………………………….151

Table 38: Respondents’ Uncertainty Avoidance……………………………………………………………152

Table 39: Rotated Factor Loadings and Unique Variances…………………………………………….153

Table 40: Cronbach’s Alpha Test and the Inter-Correlation…………………………………………..154

Table 41: Rotated Factor Loadings and Unique Variances…………………………………………….154

Table 42: Cronbach's Alpha Test…………………………………………………………………………………..155

Table 43: Regression of the Cultural Factors onto Push Motivation………………………………156

Table 44: Regression of the Cultural Factors onto Pull Motivations………………………………156

Table 45: Result of Regression Analysis of Cultural Factors and Perception ………………….156

Table 46: The Impact of Arab Cultural Background on Arab Tourists’ Behaviour………….176

1

1 CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION

1.1 Research Background

Tourism continues to play an important role in the economic development of countries

worldwide (Mishra et al., 2011). According to Weaver and Lawton (2002, p. 3) ‘tourism is

an increasingly widespread and complex activity that requires sophisticated management to

realise its full potential as a positive economic, environmental, social and cultural force’.

Tourism marketing is a management tool designed primarily to encourage people to travel

to a particular destination. As such, destination marketers make extensive efforts to build,

establish and defend a market position (Siri, 2009). The success of destination marketing

lies in its ability to compete, the power of the destination brand, and understanding

tourists’ perceptions and motivations (Tascia et al., 2007).

Tourism marketing is the coordination and implementation of actions in tourism

enterprises, whether public or private, or at the local, regional, national or international

level (Hussein et al., 2002). Its purpose is to satisfy the needs of specific consumer groups

and to achieve economic benefits (Rabiea, 2004). The success of tourism marketing

strategies depends on, among other things, the destination brand image that is present in

the minds of customers, namely tourists (Ekinci, 2003). As a result, tourist destinations try

to put forward a clear brand image that helps to differentiate the destination from its

competitors. Destination brand image is therefore an integral component of tourism

marketing strategies that works to deliver a clear message to customers, reflecting a

positive image to attract customers to the destination (Flynn, 2010).

Understanding a tourist’s cultural background is also important in developing tourism

marketing strategies (Isaac, 2008). While a tourist’s cultural group and nationality affects

their understanding and vision of a tourism destination, potentially it also influences the

way they receive marketing messages, and hence their perception of the destination brand

2

image (Turner et al., 2001). In turn, this may also affect their choice of tourist destination

(Kay, 2009). Therefore, understanding the social and cultural background of tourists

contributes to the development of effective marketing strategies (Reisinger & Turner,

1997), which in turn can feed into existing marketing theory. Successful marketing

strategies display an appropriate image for a destination and attract tourists to the

destination, and are formulated by understanding the impact of national cultures on tourists

(Reisinger & Turner, 2000). Such strategies should enable destinations to compete

successfully with other destinations (Mackay & Fesenmaier, 2000) and to obtain an

adequate market share. Thus, understanding the cultural background of tourists contributes

to the development of effective marketing strategies for particular tourism destinations.

The factors that motivate tourists to select a destination are complex, due to their differing

needs and desires. For example, previous research has found that tourists often seek

recreational places to spend time in a unique environment, while others seek to explore

new places and learn about different cultures along with other needs and desires (Andreu et

al., 2005; Liên, 2010; Mehmetoglu, 2011). Therefore, understanding the motivations of

tourists clarifies and contributes to the understanding of what motivates tourists to choose

one specific destination over another.

According to Yoon and Uysal (2005), people are pushed to travel by an internal force (i.e.

‘psychological’) and pulled by an external force (i.e. ‘the attributes of a destination’).

Thus, what motivates tourists to choose a specific destination is based on internal (push)

and external (pull) forces (Yoon & Uysal, 2005). The importance of understanding tourist

motivations highlights how the understanding of the main reasons for the tourists’

behaviour plays a vital role in understanding the process which underpins how and why

tourists select a destination (Liên, 2010). Understanding tourist motivations also helps

marketers to develop appropriate marketing strategies that contribute to pushing the inner

strength of people and motivating them to choose the destination they advocate (Zhang &

Marcussen, 2007), especially with the increase in the number of tourist destinations and

increased competition between these destinations. Thus, knowledge of tourists’

3

motivations assists marketers to develop the tourism sector in the destination that is being

promoted, and thus enhance its competitive position.

As a tourism destination, Australia has been competitive on the global stage (Moyle et al.,

2013). The 21st Century has seen a growing importance for tourism in many Australian

cities such as Sydney, Melbourne and the Gold Coast, with increasing numbers of

international tourists, especially from Asia and European countries (ABS, 2012). In

January 2011, according to Tourism Australia (2011), the number of visitors from

European countries was 1,264,000. The total number of Asian visitors arriving in Australia

was 1,106,800, where China, Japan and Korea were considered to be Australia’s largest

inbound market in terms of tourist arrivals in 2011. These numbers show the large numbers

of tourists coming to Australia are from both European and Asian countries. However,

other markets are emerging as important for the Australian tourist industry, for instance

Arab tourists are also becoming an important source market for the Australian inbound

tourism.

1.2 Arab Tourists to Australia

The importance of Arab visitors to destinations across the world has also been recognised

by previous studies (Ibrahim et al., 2009). Arab tourists have been identified to generate

high levels of yield in the destinations they visit (Mat & Zakaria, 2009). According to the

Tourism Authority of Saudi Arabia, the number of Saudi tourists who spent their holidays

outside the Kingdom for the summer of 2010 has reached more than 4.6 million, which is

up 8 percent from the year 2009 (Sulaiman, 2010). This rise in the number of Arab tourists

is considered a significant opportunity on which certain tourism destinations, such as

Australia, can be well positioned to capitalize from.

Despite this potential, little is currently known about what motivates Arabs to travel to

Australia, or what perceptions Arabs have of Australia as a tourist destination. Based on

data collected by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS), the number of tourists from the

4

Middle East and North Africa in January 2011 was 91,000, which represents about 2

percent of the total inbound international visitor numbers to Australia. However, the

number of Arab tourists going outbound is increasing every year (Alubaydli, 2009).

To capitalise on this growth, it is essential to understand what motivates Arab tourists. In

addition, it is important to determine how Arab tourists perceive different destinations and

their motivations towards these destinations. On the one hand, tourists’ perceptions of the

image of a destination determines destination choice (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). That is,

the sum of beliefs, ideas and impressions formed by tourists for the specific destination has

an impact on a tourist’s decision to travel to that destination. Consequently, images and

perceptions of a destination are external variables that affect Arab tourists’ destination

choice. This aspect can also be considered as one of the constraints in tourists’ destination

choice (Hudson, 2000). On the other hand, the motivations explain the reasons why tourists

travel and where they travel.

Previous studies have identified that the needs and desires that motivate Arabs to travel are

varied and multiple, but generally include the search for entertainment and adventure;

shopping and obtaining goods such as electronics, clothes and luxury jewels and other

goods; as well as exploring new locations and other cultures (Akoum, 2011; Mick, 2007).

All of these are considered to be important factors that motivate Arab tourists and lead

them to choose a destination that meets their needs and desires. Thus, image, perceptions

and motivations has an impact on the destinations Arab tourists’ select to visit.

1.3 Research Aims and Objectives

The main aim of this study is to apply a cross-cultural perspective to identify and explore

Arab tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations to visit, Australia. Due to its popularity with

Arab tourists, the Gold Coast was selected as an appropriate case study to achieve this aim.

The broad aim consists of the following five key research objectives:

1. To explore and understand how the Gold Coast is presented to Arab tourists;

5

2. To analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on Arab websites corresponds

with the image that is promoted by key DMO (destination marketing organisation)

websites;

3. To identify the characteristics of Arab tourists who visit the Gold Coast;

4. To examine the perceptions and motivations of Arab tourists visiting the Gold

Coast, Australia; and,

5. To examine the influence of Arab culture and other factors on Arab tourists’

motivations and perceptions.

This research explores Arab tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations for, visiting the Gold

Coast, Australia. The Gold Coast is the fourth largest tourist destination in Australia and is

one of the country’s most important tourism cities (Tourism Australia, T., 2011). There is

also a large number of Arab tourists who visit this city and some of the visitors have

included wealthy Arab sheiks who have visited the Gold Coast over the past decade (Stolz,

2011).

1.4 Significance of the Research

There are many studies that have focused on the image of Australia as a tourist destination.

A number of such previous studies have investigated the role which brand identity plays in

successful branding of destinations (Litvin, 1999; Murphy, 2000; Reisinger & Turner,

2000; Son & Pearce, 2005). Despite this, there is a lack of research that focuses on the

significance of the Arab tourist market as a contributor to the development of the global

tourism sector in general and for the Australian tourism industry in particular.

Consequently, this research will undertake an analysis of Arab tourists’ perceptions and

motivations for visiting the Gold Coast, Australia, as a tourist destination.

It is expected that this research will make a significant contribution to both theory and

practice. As a theoretical contribution, this research builds on and enhances destination

image theory by focusing on tourists' perceptions and motivations, from a cross-cultural

6

perspective. Tourists’ perceptions and motivations are concepts that have been studied by

many destination image researchers (Andreu et al., 2005; Dewar et al., 2007; Kulshreshtha,

2011). However, there seems to be a lack of empirical research that explicitly links these

concepts together. Therefore, this research is significant due its importance in linking these

concepts together and in highlighting the influence of these concepts on tourists,

specifically Arab tourists.

Pine and Gilmore (2008) argue that many people today choose to spend their money based

on how real they perceive an attraction or image to be (Pine & Gilmore, 2008), its

perceived authenticity. There is also lack of research into whether or not the perceived

image corresponds with the image projected by destination marketing organisations

(DMO’s). Based on this key tenet, this research will add to the body of knowledge on

tourists' perceptions of the image that has been portrayed of a destination by tourism

markers. Perceived images affect tourists’ behaviour and destination choice, so recognising

the perceived image of a destination is crucially important for developing successful

tourism marketing strategies (Prebensen, 2007).

Further, there has been little research published on the potential of Arab tourists’

perceptions of Australia, in particular, significant coastal destinations such as the Gold

Coast. In addition there has been a lack of attention investigating Arab tourists’

motivations in general, and their motivations to visit the Gold Coast, in particular; as well

as the impact of their cultural background on their perceptions. Thus, this research aims to

contribute to the literature by providing a deeper understanding of Arab perceptions and

motivations as well as the effect of tourists’ culture on their motivations and perceptions.

The practical contribution of this research is in providing a more nuanced understanding of

cross-cultural communication that will, in turn, facilitate more effective destination

marketing of Australia as a tourism destination in Arab countries. Moreover, understanding

Arabian culture and Arab tourists’ perceptions and motivations will assist tourism

companies to create and deliver successful tourism products. In addition, this research is

significant as it can be replicated to destinations on a global scale, where this study can be

7

used in English-speaking destinations such as European countries, which are favoured in

the Arab countries. It may be possible to replicate this study in Western countries such as

the United States of America and Brazil, as well as in Islamic countries such as Indonesia

and Malaysia who are also trying to attract more Arab tourists to their destinations. Thus,

this research can assist the development of tourism marketing strategies and destination

image with the development of a cultural communication framework. In addition, by

understanding the impact of tourists' cultural background on their perceptions and

motivations, it will provide practitioners and policy-makers with a base from which they

can begin to work out an effective strategy to improve their tourism sector.

Finally, the results will highlight the importance of a suitable and effective strategic

marketing message as a tool for attracting visitors from different cultural backgrounds. In

addition, this research will provide in-depth information about Arab tourists’ perceptions

and their expectations, which will assist stakeholders in obtaining a clearer picture about

Arab tourists’ perspectives. All of this information will contribute to assisting tourism

marketers to develop cohesive and culturally sensitive marketing strategies as well as the

advancement of existing marketing theory.

1.5 Outline of the Thesis

Chapter One has presented an overview of the thesis, by providing a brief background to

the research as well as identifying the research problem. The current chapter also addresses

the aim of the thesis and its objectives. The methodological approach was also outlined.

Chapter One has highlighted the theoretical and practical contributions of the research to

extant knowledge on tourists’ perceptions, motivations and culture and destination image.

Chapter Two starts by presenting an overview of tourism marketing research. The link

between tourism marketing and perceptions and motivations is explained, followed by an

identification of the challenges that face the tourism marketing. In addition, Chapter Two

introduces concepts such as destination branding and destination image, identifying factors

8

that influence perceptions of these key constructs. Chapter 2 also reviews the literature on

tourist motivations, including both ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors. Previous research on cross

cultural communication is also reviewed, including an analysis of Hofstede’s (1980, 1990)

model. The chapter concludes by highlighting gaps in extant literature.

Chapter Three provides important information about the research context. This chapter

divided into two main parts; it begins with an examination of the Gold Coast, Australia as

the case study for this research, and then leads into a discussion of Arab tourists as a focal

point for this research. The Australian section includes an overview about its main tourism

promotion organisation as the two tourism brands of Australia and the Gold Coast. Further

information about the most important tourism attractions of the Gold Coast is also

presented. The Arab section explores various aspects about Arab tourists including

background information about the Arab world and the Islamic religion, as well as cultural

factors that assist in our understanding of Arab tourists.

Chapter Four explores the methodology for this study; initially commencing by providing

an explanation of the research paradigm and approach as well as the justification for the

research paradigm. After a short outline of the research case study, the chapter continues

by exploring the research methods. The research methods section is divided into three

subsections based on three methods used including interviews, content analysis and a

survey. Each of these methods is presented in subsections that provide more information

about them as well as the procedures and analysis that were used for each method.

Chapter Five presents the results of the interviews and the content analysis of Australian

and Arabic tourism websites. The findings of the interviews are divided into three parts.

The first part explores the destination image of the Gold Coast and how this destination is

presented; the second part addresses the knowledge displayed about Arab market and its

characteristics; while the third part highlights the marketing tools that target Arab visitors

and identifies strategies to target this market. After the interviews, the findings of the

content analysis are presented, including an analysis of textual and visual information on

9

both Australian tourism websites and Arab travel websites. The extent of the similarities

between both groups is also investigated in this chapter.

Chapter Six provides the findings and analysis of the survey, with results presented in five

sections. The first section introduces the visitor profile, which explores tourists’

characteristics and behaviour. Visitor motivation is then addressed in second section. In the

third section, visitors’ perceptions are highlighted. Factors influencing tourists’ perceptions

and motivations are outlined in section four, including the influence of Arab tourists’

characteristics (gender, age, size of the travel party and length of stay) on motivation and

perceptions. Section five provides details of cultural influences as they affect motivations

and perceptions, and this subsection is based upon the three dimensions of the Hofstede

Model.

In Chapter Seven, the results of the research are discussed and evaluated in the context of

extant literature. The discussion is divided into five sections. The first section discusses

research Objective One, namely the destination image of the Gold Coast and tourism

marketers’ knowledge about Arab market. Discussion of research Objective Two is

presented in the second section. The content analysis utilised in order to discuss and

understand the image held by Arab tourists in response to the images portrayed in Gold

Coast tourism marketing. The Third section presents the discussion of research Objective

Three which identifies the characteristics of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast.

Objective Four is highlighted in fourth section, where the author presents and explores

Arab tourists’ perceptions and motivations to visit Gold Coast, Australia. The Fifth section

discusses research Objective Five. This section discusses the factors that influence tourists’

motivations and perceptions as well as the relationship between cultural background and

motivations and perceptions of tourists, this achieving the overarching aim of the research.

Chapter Eight is the final chapter that represents the conclusions from the knowledge

obtained and insights gained during the composition of this thesis. This chapter has been

divided into six sections. First of all, the knowledge contribution of this thesis is outlined

in first section. In the second section, the focus of the thesis’ conclusion lies on achieving

10

the research aims and objectives by providing the reader a brief summary of the research

results. The practical and theoretical contributions of the research are outlined. Finally, the

limitations of this study and scope for further research are addressed as the third and fourth

sections in this chapter.

1.6 Chapter Summary

Chapter One provided a background to the research, introduced Arab tourists, identified

the research problem and presented the research objectives. This chapter also presented the

theoretical orientation and expected contributions of the research. Finally, the structure of

the thesis was presented, with a brief summary of each of its eight chapters detailed

therein. Chapter Two presents a review of literature on tourism marketing, destination

image, tourism motivations and cross-cultural communication.

11

2 CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW

2.1 Introduction

Chapter Two reviews the academic literature relating to the concepts of destination

branding and destination image, including a discussion on tourist perceptions and

motivations. As an inherent part of this, the concept of tourism marketing, including its

relationship with perception, is also explored. Chapter Two addresses destination branding

in the process of building a destination’s identity and outlines the marketing mix of tourism

as well as the challenges of destination branding. In addition, this chapter highlights

different concepts of destination image and the potential influence of culture and

nationality on destination image. Furthermore, tourism motivations are described,

including an explanation of the different definitions and important factors that affect

destination choice. Chapter Two also reviews the literature and current theory on cross

cultural communication in the field of tourism studies and tourism marketing. In addition,

Hofstede’s model of culture is introduced, with previous studies applying the framework in

a tourism context reviewed in the chapter. The chapter concludes by highlighting gaps in

the extant literature.

2.2 Tourism Marketing

2.2.1 The Role and Importance of Tourism Marketing

Tourism marketing has seen significant growth after World War II, and has since been

widely analysed by scholars from across the globe (Fesenmaier et al., 1996). Krippendorf

(1971) was among the first to define tourism marketing as ‘a process of searching and

obtaining the optimum market based on actual and recognized needs for the best interest of

the company and consumer’ {cited in (Kulcsár, 2012).

Since this definition, there has been a plethora of studies on the subject of tourism

marketing (Blumberg, 2005; Buhalis, 2000; Lumsdon, 1997). Most of these studies have

12

shown the complexity of tourism activity and have demonstrated the importance of

developing marketing strategies appropriate to raising the desires and motivations of

prospective tourists from around the world (Buhalis, 2000).

This increased interest in the field of tourism marketing has now led to a variety of

alternative definitions. One of the most commonly cited definitions is by Khan (2005, p. 7)

who defined tourism marketing as the ‘systematic and coordinated efforts exerted by the

National Tourist Organisations and/or tourist enterprises as international, national and local

levels to optimise the satisfaction of tourists, groups and individuals, in view of the

sustained tourism growth’ (Khan, 2005) . However, Middleton, Fyall, Morgan and

Ranchhod (2009, p. 9) defined tourism marketing as ‘the vital linking mechanism between

supply and demand focused on exchange transaction in which consumers exercise

preferences and choices, and exchange their time and money in return for the supply of

particular travel experiences or products’ . Despite subtle variations in definitions, tourism

marketing is widely regarded as an administrative and technical activity undertaken by

tourism enterprises within and outside the state in order to determine prospective tourist

markets.

Tourism marketing is a key factor for tourism development due to the important role it

plays in promoting tourism and associated tourism services. Tourism marketing applies the

principles and techniques of marketing to meet and even exceed the needs and expectations

of various target market segments, contributing to the promotion of tourist attractions and

services (Kotler et al., 2010). Tourism marketing has been identified to create a desire in

individuals for a certain tourist product, and often aims to expand the tourism market

through attracting the largest possible number of consumers for these services (Buhalis,

2000; Hussein et al., 2002). Furthermore, a successful marketing approach can create a

lasting connection between the tourism industry and consumers, generating a sense of

destination loyalty (Dawson et al., 2011). However, this requires a comprehensive national

plan for tourism marketing, as well as efforts across multiple levels of government and

industry (Blumberg, 2005).

13

Tourism marketing has a range of different objectives, which vary because of the multitude

of tourist activities. However, previous literature has identified that the principle objectives

of tourism marketing can be broken into the three distinct categories: tourist satisfaction,

profitability and image management (Abaid, 2010). The first key objective of tourism

marketing is to satisfy consumers. Previous research has explored how, tourism enterprises

can work diligently to maintain a presence in the tourism market to increase levels of

customer satisfaction (Fyall & Garrod, 2005). Such previous studies have come to the

conclusion that to have high and sustained levels of customer satisfaction, marketing

activity must be aimed to provide appropriate services at competitive prices for tourists,

and in a timely manner (Harbi, 2012 ; Jönsson, 2006). Additionally, these services must be

compatible with the expectations and tastes of tourists (Rodgers, 2001).

The second key objective of tourism marketing aims to assist stakeholders in increasing

profits and, without a doubt, this is a long-term goal (Hassan, 2000). Previous studies have

identified that the economy in operation, the expansion in market size, and the ability to

create a good image of tourism are all factors necessary to achieve an increase in profits

(Dolnicar & Huybers, 2010; Najib, 2011). Accordingly, it has been identified that tourism

enterprises must operate in a planned and orderly way to attract tourists without any

inconvenience and in a manner that will increase profit margins (Buhalis, 2000).

The third key objective of tourism marketing is to highlight a clear image of a tourist

destination or region (Anh, 2012). Current scholars in the field have identified that the

principles of tourism marketing are influential in the creation of this image in order to

correct false perceptions in the tourist market about a particular tourist destination

(Malkawi, 2008). The literature generally indicates that effective image management can

be achieved through effective communication that contributes to the process of

strengthening the positive aspects and reducing or eliminating the negative aspects about

the destination (Hankinson, 2004). Effective marketing strategies and support for a tourism

destination have been identified as ways to enhance the competitive position of a

destination (Mohammadi et al., 2010).

14

The term ‘marketing mix' term refers to the basic elements that work to define demand for

a business or destination product. The tourism marketing mix is designed to bring together

the combination of a destination's tourism product that provides value to targeted

marketing efforts and stimulates the consumer towards a decision or purchase (Harbi,

2012). Previous literature has identified that developing the marketing mix of tourism is

essential to create a successful tourism business or destination. There are many different

marketing structures that have been proposed, with one of the most common models

widely discussed in tourism research known as the ‘8P’ model, which goes beyond the

standard ‘4Ps’ of price, place, product and promotion; to also include people, packaging,

partnerships and programming (Jönsson, 2006).

2.2.2 Tourism Marketing and Tourists’ Perceptions

Gaining a clear understanding of tourists' perceptions of a destination is essential for

developing successful marketing strategies. In tourism marketing, it is important to

determine how people perceive different destinations (Eljalil, 2010). Perception has been

defined as the process through which people see the world around themselves (Terho,

2007). Based on this definition, tourists' perceptions of a destination are the sum of their

beliefs and impressions about a specific destination.

Tourists' perceptions of a destination have been identified to play a significant role in the

destination decision-making process (Jesus, 2013). As tourists have different views on

particular aspects of a destination, it is important that destination marketers appreciate

these differences (Dolnicar & Huybers, 2010). The difference between tourists’

perceptions is evaluated as part of destination image, with tourism marketers paying close

attention to the image of a destination. Tourism destinations with a positive image can be

expected to become famous and thriving (Chen & Pan, 2006). On the other hand, those

with a less desirable image may not reach a full tourism potential (Sirakaya et al., 2001).

Therefore it is important for tourism marketers to prepare suitable marketing strategies that

can highlight the tourism potential of the destination and display a positive image that

attracts visitors.

15

Potential differences in perception require marketing organisations to identify and examine

differences between the target markets (Zhao, 2006). Thus, by segmenting the market and

focusing marketing activities on a specific group of customers, it is possible to optimally

satisfy the needs of the chosen market (Goyat, 2011). One of the important challenges

facing tourism marketing is to derive a destination profile image for each identifiable sub-

group (Dolnicar & Huybers, 2010). Market segmentation is one of the strategies used to

meet customer needs. This process segments the market through the development of

groups of individuals that are similar according to personality traits, and these similarities

are considered to be the standard or base of the segmentation. Markets can also be

segmented according to socio-demographic variables (gender, age, income, educational

level) (Alebaki & Lakovidou, 2011). One important advantage of market segmentation lies

in its ability to identify tourism destinations that cater to the needs of a specific group and

enables the destination to better meet the group’s needs (Andreua et al., 2001).

It is also important for tourism marketers to focus on developing an effective message for

the target market (Dolnicar, 2008). Furthermore, by segmentation, marketers can develop

an effective marketing mix (Zhang & Marcussen, 2007). Accordingly, market

segmentation is one aspect of a tourist destination’s strategy that can assist marketers to

create positive destination image that can attract target market. Thus, destination marketers

should estimate the differences in destination image between customer market segments.

Previous studies have identified that people from a similar cultural background are likely

hold a similar image of a particular destination or holiday experience (Yu, 2008). On the

other hand tourists from different cultural backgrounds might have contrasting perceptions

of a particular destination. Isaac (2008) found that tourists' perceptions and motivations are

affected by their cultural background. (Isaac, 2008). Consequently tourism marketers need

to be aware of, and sensitive to, the importance of the cultural background of tourists.

Furthermore, in order to enhance tourists perceptions of the destination and attract them to

it, tourism marketers should be cognizant of significant cultural characteristics, including

values, attitudes, religion, and customs. Understanding cultural characteristics supports the

16

development of an effective marketing strategy. Thus, tourists' cultural backgrounds

potentially have an influence on their perceptions towards the destination.

Although much of the tourism literature has focused on destination image (Dewar et al.,

2007; Echtner & Ritchie, 2003; Terho, 2007), there is a lack of research concerning the

impact of culture on tourists’ perceptions. This is especially true in the context of the

influence of Arab culture on perceptions of the image of a destination. Further, in spite of

previous literature on the influence of cultural factors on tourism motivations there has

been a lack of focus on the influence of Arab culture on these motivations. Therefore, this

research will bridge this gap and contribute to the literature by studying the effect of Arab

culture on tourism motivations. This area is of growing importance given the recent

increase in international travel by residents of Arab countries, and the potential for even

greater outbound travel from these countries. The current study not only fills the identified

gaps in relation to destination image, it also provides a base for marketing practitioners

from which they can begin to develop an effective strategy in order to attract more Arab

tourists, and understand their needs and wants in the tourist experience.

2.2.3 Obstacles Facing Tourism Marketing

As discussed above, tourism marketing is increasingly important in the production and

consumption of modern tourism. However, there are many challenges that are encountered

in the development of tourism and marketing strategies. Obaidat (2008) identified that the

most important of these obstacles is coordination and cooperation among stakeholders in

the tourism sector. This includes the formation of partnerships among travel agencies,

hotels and attractions, rather than competing for the same resources (Obaidat, 2008).

In our increasingly globalised society, ‘culture’ has been identified as one of the most

important challenges facing tourism marketers (Reisinger & Turner, 2003). A difference in

culture may also mean there is a difference between the habits, traditions, actions and

ability to understand the marketing messages addressed to tourists. In order to attract

tourists, marketers firstly need to understand target markets and their cultures.

17

Understanding the behaviour and motives of tourists assists in identifying the most

important elements of the tourism market that are attracting tourists (Reisinger & Turner,

2003). Collecting this information can also provide important insights into how tourists

perceive a particular destination (Dolnicar & Huybers, 2010). Thus, appealing to tourists

from different cultural backgrounds is a strong challenge facing tourism marketers from

across the globe.

Moreover, the complexity in tourist behaviour makes tourism marketing even more

problematic. There is no doubt that this complexity is increasing day by day and is not

confined to one party (Pearce, 2005). The complexity of the marketing environment

includes the needs, desires and tastes of consumers, tourism regulations, technology and

lifestyles and requires an appropriate response in marketing strategies commensurate with

the intellectual developments and expectations of domestic and global tourism markets

(Swarbrooke & Horner, 2006). This shows the importance of studying consumers’

behaviour to achieve satisfaction, as well as developing plans to analyse tourists’

expectations in order to appropriately distribute tourism resources based on these

expectations.

In addition, keeping up with the latest developments (including, for example, publicity,

advertising and public relations) in tourism promotion is one of the challenges that may

affect the marketing of tourism (Harbi, 2012 ). These elements have a considerable impact

on sending the right message to tourists and also their choice of tourist destination. The

weakness of promotional activities may lead to inconsistent tourism marketing strategies

and, consequently, to the vulnerability of these strategies (Obaidat, 2008). Accordingly,

coordination between the marketing efforts of stakeholders in the tourism sector, the

complexity in consumer behaviour, different cultural backgrounds and rapid development

of the promotional strategies are the most important challenges facing the tourism

marketers, with the potential to weaken the effectiveness of marketing campaigns.

18

2.3 Destination Brand

Destination branding has emerged as an important component of promotional strategies

used by tourism marketing. Within an increasingly competitive global and destination

marketplace, the need for destinations to create a unique identity to differentiate

themselves from competitors has become more critical than ever (Clark et al., 2010).

Branding is an essential tool used to differentiate products/services and gain sustainable

competitive advantage (Aaker, 1996; Keller, 2012).

Destination branding is defined as selecting a consistent element mix to identify and

distinguish destination brand through positive image building (Cai, 2002). Destination

branding processes seek to develop an image of the destination and communicate this to

targeted audiences based on positive values and perceptions of the destination (Kay &

Wang, 2010). Destination branding is often designed to convey the promise of a

memorable travel experience that is uniquely associated with the destination (Blain et al.,

2005). It also serves to consolidate and reinforce the recollection of pleasurable memories

of the destination experience (Al Bohairy et al., 2010).

The basic premise behind destination branding is to create a recognisable and favourable

image a destination will attract tourists and generate economic benefits (Ivanov et al.,

2010). Reducing replacement is the basis of destination branding success. To achieve this,

destination marketers increasingly focus on the tourist experience, and create marketing

messages based on these experiences that will appeal to the emotions of potential travellers

(Veen, 2003/ 2004). As a result, tourism marketers work to manage the successful

implementation of a destination branding strategy in order to develop a positive brand

image.

19

2.3.1 Destination Brand Concepts

Over the past two decades, as a result of an intensely competitive global marketplace,

research focused on the development of a singular destination brand has grown in the

tourism literature. The concept of a unifying destination brand suggests a destination may

be a village, city, country or a place which has one or more attractions for tourists

(Jayswal, 2008); while brand is a name, a symbol or a slogan that distinguishes a

destination from its competitors. Ritchie and Ritchie (1998, p. 103) have defined

‘destination brand’ as

…a name, symbol, logo, word mark or other graphic that both identifies and

differentiates the destination; furthermore it conveys the promise of a memorable

travel experience that is uniquely associated with the destination; it also serves to

consolidate and reinforce the recollection of pleasurable memories of the

destination experience.

Having a positive destination brand is very important for any destination seeking to build

place competitiveness, where it reflects the attractions that make the destination unique

from others, and contribute to it becoming the destination of choice for visitors (Morgan &

Huertas, 2011). A destination brand is described as a powerful tool with the ability to

create emotional appeal, and brand image is a conclusive point in successful marketing of a

tourism destination (Marzano, 2009). It is also defined as a range of marketing activities

that support the creation of brand markers, such as name and symbol, and provide

experiences that are unique and unforgettable to the destination, to promote emotional

contact between the place and visitors, and decrease the potential risks in the choice of the

destination (Blain et al., 2005). Thus, the destination brand gives a description of the

unique regional characteristics that contribute to making a tourism destination more

attractive.

The destination brand plays an important and effective role for both sides of supply and

demand in the tourism sector. Strength of competition between destination brands is

reassuring to customers about the quality of service provided. It also contributes to the

20

formation of options with different levels of quality that suit the needs of different

customers (Blain, 2001). In addition, a destination brand contributes to the reduction of the

costs of searching for the appropriate destination by customers, leading to increased ease of

choice for their decision-making (Murphy et al., 2007).

The development of a destination brand is of vital importance to the progress and growth

of tourism. The establishment of a unique name or logo or other graphics, including the

unique ability to differentiate between places that offer similar features (Pike, 2009),

contribute to increasing the attractiveness of the destination. This in turn has been

identified to contribute to the strengthening of the emotional relationship between visitors

and place and increases the likelihood of visiting this location again (Clark et al., 2010).

Among current examples of a successfully branded destination is New York. I ♥ NEW

YORK brand has worked well over several decades to showcase that New York is more

than just Manhattan. This brand probably is the best known of all territorial brands in the

world (Lasarte, 2011). According to consumer research, Brand Western Australia (Brand

WA) has led to an entire organisational shift and has repositioned Western Australia as a

premier nature-based tourism destination in the global market (Crockett & Wood, 1999).

This demonstrates the power of good destination branding and its impact on creating

positive perceptions and attitudes in the mind of the tourist. Moreover, a destination brand

provides increased confidence that this location will provide customers with a comfortable

and enjoyable holiday commensurate with their wishes. In addition, a destination brand has

been found to contribute to increased customer loyalty and thus increase the chances of

repeat visits and stimulate others to visit (Pike, 2010). Accordingly, a destination brand has

a significant impact on both the tourism sector and consumers.

2.3.2 The Processes of Building a Destination Brand

Branding is defined as selecting a consistent element mix to identify and distinguish a

product or service through build a positive image (Cai, 2002). Most research indicates that

the most important stage of the destination branding processes is about communicating to

tourists the core values of the destination. Destination brand identity is at the core of

21

branding a destination (Risitano, 2006). Brand identity refers to the way the brand

marketers want the customers to perceive the brand (Lombard, 2007). Aker and

Joachimsthaler (2000) discuss the traditional branding model and introduce the brand

leadership model, which emphasises strategy as well as tactics. This model argued that to

be effective, a brand identity needs to resonate with customers, differentiate the brand from

competitors, and represent what the organisation can and will do over time. These three

steps of this model can be applied to destination branding: tourist analysis, competitor

analysis and self-analysis. As a first step, the destination should design a systematic

analysis for tourists, in order to identify new trends and understand travelling motivations.

The second step is the competitors’ analysis in order to know ways to improve

competitiveness and find new markets. The last step is an analysis of the actual position of

destination in the market (Aaker & Joachimsthaler, 2000).

The most well-known destination branding model was developed by Cai in 2002. This

model combines the different approaches to destination branding, connecting the concepts

from the perspectives of consumer to the perspectives of the destination marketer. The

process starts with carefully choosing one or more brand elements. These elements identify

the destination and begin the formation of a strong brand associations that reflect the

attributes (perceptual features characterising the destination), affective (personal value and

meaning related to benefits desired from the attributes), and attitudes components of an

image (overall impressions).

22

Figure 1: Model of Destination Branding

Source: Cai, 2002

In the model by Cai (2002), image formation includes the image that marketers desire to

project through each of the 3As (attributes, affective, and attitudes). This makes it possible

to assess the gap between the perceived and the projected image. The assessment then

provides input in building the desired image that is compatible with brand identity and

through marketing programs, marketing communications, and managing secondary

associations. Associations are considered to be secondary in destination branding when this

relationship with the destination as perceived by tourists is not produced by direct

marketing programs of destination marketing organisations, and is usually beyond its

control. By marketing programs, marketing communications and management of

secondary associations (3Ms in the model), the brand identity is enhanced through

23

spreading activation, a concept introduced in 1983 by Anderson in referencing to memory,

but which can also be applied to branding: to build a brand image one needs to ‘identify

the most relevant associations and strengthen their linkages to the brand’ (Cai, 2002).

According to Cai (2002) the four components outside the circle specify the contextual

preconditions (4Cs) of the destination branding process. Those include existing induced

image, destination size and composition, positioning and target market, and existing

organic image. Therefore, the model centres on building destination identity through

spreading activation, which results from dynamic linkages between brand element mix,

image building, brand associations (3As), and marketing activities (3Ms). In addition, the

model indicated that spreading activation should take place under the four conditions of

(4Cs) (Cai, 2002).

The models by Cai (2002) and Aaker and Joachimsthaler (2004) demonstrate the

perspective of both supply and demand sides that constitute the destination marketers'

perspective and tourists' perspective. Accordingly these models play a vital role in the

destination branding process.

2.3.3 Challenges of Destination Branding

Over the past decade there have been increases in the complexity of the challenges faced in

destination branding as a result of significant growth in the tourism industry (Marzano &

Scott, 2006). The increased options available to tourists, especially with the increased level

of personal income, have contributed to increased competition in the field of tourism

(Echtner & Ritchie, 2003). The development of a strong brand is a vital challenge in

gaining a competitive advantage. This is because branding is considered to be a powerful

tool in the marketing of contemporary destination. In addition, for survival within the

globally competitive tourism market, the portrayal of a unique identity for a destination is

more critical than ever. One of the main challenges facing tourism marketers is excellence

in a design that makes a brand clear and attractive, and easily identifiable by customers.

The expansion of similar vacations offers across different countries and regions presents

24

challenges for destinations in building unique brand identities (Day et al., 2002). Thereby

destinations need to have a clear brand that is understood by everyone, both internally and

externally. This can be achieved through good communication with both sides (Hema &

Iversena, 2004).

Furthermore, the complex and multidimensional aspects of the destination are one of

challenges that face marketers when attempting to develop and maintain and destination

brand. The tourist destination includes a variety of components that can make a destination

appealing, including cultural significance, physical and social significance. These elements

work together to build the destination brand, and on the basis of this information,

promotional strategies are devised that attract the attention of tourists (Marco & Aida,

2008; Morgan & Pritchard, 2005). Also, destination branding is a long process that needs

the collaboration of public and private agencies such as government, tourist agencies,

chambers of commerce and advertising agencies.

Destination branding has also been identified to be extremely challenging because of the

segmented nature of the stakeholders, control problems, as well as the lack of clear

demarcation of the various stages in this vital process (Morgan & Pritchard, 2005).

Moreover, Henderson (2007) argued that is often difficult for destination marketers to

develop a global brand strategy that is fit to all markets with their divergent needs and

different preferences (Henderson, 2007). Accordingly, there are many challenges and

difficulties that tourism marketers must deal with and overcome in the development of a

distinctive brand and unique location promotion that have a significant impact on attracting

tourists in order to promote and support the competitive position of this destination.

2.4 Destination Image

2.4.1 The Concept of Destination Image

Tourism destination image is considered to be one of the most important study areas in the

tourism literature (Lopes, 2011), with research on the subject dating back to the 1970s and

25

1980s (Li & Stepchenkova, 2012). The importance of destination image has resulted in a

considerable scope of research focus on the subject. A number of previous studies have

contributed to the definition of destination image (Campo et al., 2011; Esper & Rateike,

2010; Phelps, 1986). According to Bandyopadhyay and Kerstetter (2004) Lawson and

Baud-Bovyis (1977) study is one of the first that defined destination image, put forward as

expression of objective knowledge, impressions and emotional thoughts a person might

have of a specific place (Bandyopadhyay & Kerstetter, 2004).

Destination image has also been defined as potential visitors' perceptions towards an area

(Phelps, 1986). Furthermore it has also been defined as the sum of beliefs, ideas and

impressions that people have of a place (Kotler, 2002 ). After decades of further research,

Ekinci (2003) extended early definitions by defining destination image as a set of beliefs,

impressions and ideas that a tourist holds for a particular place (Ekinci, 2003). More

recently, destination image has beent defined as all of the impressions and ideas, beliefs

and feelings accumulated over time about a place (Esper & Rateike, 2010). These

definitions indicate that the image of a destination is comprised of an individual’s feelings

and ideas about a destination or a particular place.

Simon Anholt is arguably one of leaders in thinking and research about destination image

at the ‘nation’ level (Anholt, 2010). According to Anholt, nation branding or image is a

process by which a nation's image can be created or altered, monitored, evaluated and

proactively managed in order to enhance the country's reputation among a target

international audience. Anholt discusses how in this crowded global marketplace, most

people and organizations do not have time to learn much about other places. For this

reason, nation branding or image becomes an important vital requirement for places that

wish to compete in a globalised world. Keith Dinnie (2004), another key thinker in the area

of country or nation branding, offers a position along similar lines. He argues that

today there are more reasons why nations must manage and control their branding,

including the need to attract tourists, factories, companies and talented people and

26

to find markets for their exports. This requires countries to adopt conscious

branding if they are to compete effectively on the global stage (pp. 106-107).

Linked strongly with notions of national identity, managing nation branding is a complex

task, as multiple elements such as sport, film, media, music, literature, product purchasing,

businesses,, corporations and travel, among other things can all work together to form an

image or perception of a ‘nation’ inside the consumer’s mind –whether that consumer be

inside or outside of that particular nation (Dinnie, 2004). Indeed, argues Dinnie, tourism

destination branding can be very important in developing a country brand, however these

facets can at times be too tightly bound and lead to controversy (for instance, a nation may

not want to be known only for its ‘stereotypical’ touristic images).

Understanding destination image can have a significant impact on how competitive a

destination’s position is in the tourism market. Knowledge and shaping the destination

image contributes to improving the attractiveness of a destination and strengthens its

ability to compete (Esper & Rateike, 2010). Moreover, destination image has a significant

impact on decision-making in tourism or travel. Tourists often have little idea about places

not yet visited, and the picture by tourists from these places has a significant impact on

their selection of a destination (Govers et al., 2007). Getting a genuine and positive image

for the destination gives a greater chance for it being selected as a tourist destination,

because tourists prefer to choose the place that has a positive image in their minds.

Furthermore, destination image plays a significant role in the success of the destination

brand and the strength of the destination brand depends on a positive destination image

(Kurguni, 2010). In addition, the brand image of the destination forms a main building

block in developing the destination brand (Tasci & Kozak, 2006). Thus, destination brand

and a positive destination image together contribute to the increased attractiveness of the

destination and previous studies have found these two concepts increase tourists’ loyalty to

this destination (Gras, 2008) .

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2.4.2 Key Research on Destination Image

Throughout the last 40 years, numerous researchers have examined destination image and

presented various approaches and concepts to try to explain this topic. Some previous

studies have attempted to develop a theoretical basis for the touristic image formation

process (Campo et al., 2011; Pavlović & Belullo, 2007). Other research has illustrated the

importance of the destination image for developing destination marketing strategies (Hema

& Iversena, 2004; Mohamed, 2007; Molina et al., 2010). In addition other studies have

suggested basic methodologies to measure destination image (Beerli & Martín, 2004;

Hema & Iversena, 2004).

Numerous studies in tourism have contributed to understanding of the concept of

destination image formation (Campo et al., 2011; Gartnera, 1994; Lee & Hsu, 2010).

Gartner (1994) presented a typology of the different image formation agents as well as

described the process of touristic image formation. Gartner (1994) argued that after the

evaluating destinations’ attributes, the choices are reduced by an affective evaluation

closely linked to the motives one has for image selection. In addition Hanlan and Kelly

(2005) explored the information sources from which destination brand image evolves,

providing insights into which have the potential to improve tourism destination brand

development strategies. The results indicated that mainstream media plays less part than

word of mouth in the formation of respondents’ image of the destination. This, previous

destination experience plays a vital role in the image formation process. Furthermore, it

suggested that destination marketing organisations should go beyond traditional

mainstream media to communicate their brand message (Hanlan & Kelly, 2005).

Recently Dragičević (2011) analyzed the relevance of different marketing and

communication channels in the process of destination image formation, as well as explored

the importance of forming partnership relations between the destinations and the marketing

channel participants. A key recommendation of this study was introducing marketing

channels into the network of marketing relations destinations, that in order to achieve

collaboration with independent agents that secure necessary level of purchasing process

management (Dragičević, 2011). Much previous research on destination image has

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concluded, either in an explicit or implicit manner, that perceptive/cognitive evaluations

and affective evaluations towards the destination are the normative foundation in formation

of the destination image (Campo et al., 2011). In addition, this research found that

cognitive evaluation precedes and influences affective appraisal during the process of

image formation (Bilei & Kim, 2009).

The importance of understanding destination image to tourism marketers has been

addressed in the destination image literature. Wee (1986) examined the temporal and

spatial differences in the image tourists had of visit place of, finding significant differences

among some items of the image scale both in the temporal and spatial aspects. The findings

recommended taking into account the importance of the image when the development of

marketing strategies (Wee, 1986). Recently Day et al. (2012) investigated the relevance of

destination image to products and distribution partners in the tourism system. Day et al.

(2012) also examined the perceived contribution of miscellaneous image creation factors in

stages of the consumer buying process. Results of the study highlighted the importance of

destination image to destination image stakeholders and marketers (Day et al., 2012). The

research in this area suggests that a successful marketing strategy requires having a clear

understanding of the tourist’s destination image, where that image is based on the tourist’s

expected benefits, psychological characteristics, and meanings.

Destination image measurement has been the subject of much attention in tourism

research. One of the most influential studies in this field is by published by Echtner and

Ritchie (2003). Echtner and Ritchie (2003) highlighted the strengths and deficiencies of the

methods used to define and measure destination image. As a result the study suggested a

combination of structured and unstructured methodologies to measure destination image.

In addition Govers et al., (2007) utilised enabling Internet and computerised content

analysis technologies to measure destination image from a phenomenographic post-

positivist perspective. The results produced a vivid three-dimensional picture of the

differences and commonalities among the images of selected destinations. Therefore, the

study suggested that an objective blend of the rich existing body of knowledge in the field

of destination image measurement, with more post-positivist approaches, will create

29

methodologies that will provide challenging future research opportunities (Govers et al.,

2007). Moreover, Son (2011 ) explored tourists' own perspectives on the nature of a tourist

destination by using travel blogs. Their study identified Western travellers’ image of

Zhangjiajie, China, as a tourist destination, drawing on data from contents of web travel

blogs; their results showed that travel blogs can form a good basis for measuring Western

travellers’ image of destination (Son, 2011).

2.4.3 Factors That Influence Destination Image

Destination image can have a direct impact on travel behaviour and plays a vital role in the

destination selection process (Lopes, 2011). Due to this potential influence on tourist

behaviour, numerous authors have dealt with the factors that define, modify, and

strengthen destination image (Beerli & Martín, 2004). Much of this research confirms the

importance of understanding the factors that influence image development. By

understanding the factors that affect image, tourism marketers can determine target

markets and identify which image should be promoted to which segment of the market

(Tasci & Kozak, 2006). Studies have shown that many factors influence the destination

image formation process (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003; Frias et al., 2008; Stylidis et al., 2008).

In particular, previous studies have identified the influence of stimulus factors (information

sources and previous experience) and personal factors (psychological and social) as factors

which potentially influence destination image.

Previous studies have identified information sources have the potential to influence tourists

perceptions of a destination (Sparks & Pan, 2009). Destination image is formed by

collecting information about a destination from a variety sources (Frías et al., 2012).

Researchers hypothesise that there is a difference between the destination image of a place

that tourists have not visited and those who have in the past visited a destination (Echtner

& Ritchie, 2003). According to Gartner (1993), sources of information can be classified

into two categories: primary information sources and secondary information sources. A

primary information source is related to previous experience (the past visit to the

destination). Secondary information sources include: induced sources such as overt

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induced (advertisement from the mass media, tour operators as well as other the relevant

institutions in the destination), covert induced (using celebrities in the destination’s

promotional campaigns), autonomous sources (documentaries, news, television programs

and others), and organic sources (information from friends and relatives based on their

own knowledge or experience, whether the information was requested or volunteered).

Secondary information sources play a vital role in individuals forming images of the

destinations due to its influence on the cognitive dimension of individuals; thereby these

images will be considered when travel decisions are made. Thus, the diversity and

multiplicity of information sources has a significant impact on tourists’ behavior (Frías et

al., 2012).

In addition, the information gathered by visiting the destination forms the primary

destination image (Beerli & Martín, 2004), also known as organic. This image may

different to the image formed by secondary information sources. Images formed from an

organic experience are considered to be more realistic, complex and differentiated from the

one formed through secondary sources of information (Agrawal, 2007), and have higher

levels of perceived credibility. In addition, the number of visits to, the length of stay at the

destination, and the extent of an individual’s interaction with the place (the intensity) are

all factors that have an important impact on the perceived image (Beerli & Martín, 2004).

Perceived image become more realistic through repeat visits or longer duration of stay as

well as the degree of involvement with the place during the stay (Lia et al., 2008). Thus,

image formed by personal experience or visits are more complex.

Destination image formation is influenced not only by the different information sources,

but also by the personal characteristics of the individual. Thereby the image projected by

the destination and the individuals’ characteristics (own needs, motivations, prior

knowledge, preferences and other) form the perceived image of a destination (Beerli &

Martín, 2004). Personal factors identified to potentially influence individuals perceptions

of a destination include socio-demographic characteristics such as gender, age, level of

education, family life cycle, as well and psychological characteristics, such as motivations,

values and personality.

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The factors listed above have been found to potentially impact on the cognitive

organisation of individuals or motives assessments. Research indicates that individuals’

personal characteristics, such as gender and age are internal inputs that have the capacity to

influence perceptions of destination (Dolnicar, 2008). The individual chooses and

interprets the information received in order to create the image and does not depend only

on certain stimuli, but also on the stimulus in general and on circumstances of individual.

As a result, these cognitive processes vary from person to other (Beerli & Martín, 2004).

Thus personal factors have a significant influence on destination image. In sum up there

are many factors that have influence on destination image. The most common of these

factors are information obtained from different sources and the characteristics of the

individual. These factors (sources of information and personal factors) can also have an

effect on the perceived image.

2.4.4 Influence of Culture and Nationality on Destination Image

A number of previous studies have also explored the role of culture and nationality on the

destination image (Frías et al., 2012). This focus has been attributed to the influence of

culture and nationality on the tourists’ perceptions of a destination. There are various

indirect assessments differentiate tourists' perceptions by nationality and cultural factors

(Jonsson & Devonish, 2008). Thus there is a precedent for exploring destination image and

tourists' cultural background and nationality.

Previous studies have addressed destination image and tourist behaviour influenced by

culture (Chen & Tsai, 2007; Dewar et al., 2007; Watkins, 2006). People from different

cultural backgrounds have different behaviour and potentially quite contrasting perceptions

about the same destination. Indeed Zhao (2006) investigated the similarities and

differences between northern and southern Chinese markets (the Beijing and Guangdong

markets) in relation to New Zealand's destination image, great differences were found in

the destination image formation between tourists from different cultures. In addition

Martin and Bosque (2008) analysed the relationship between psychological factors and

32

perceived destination image. In this study tourists’ cultural backgrounds have been

investigated according to origin of the geographical level and it was found that there is a

close relationship between the origin country and culture (Martin & Bosque, 2008). These

studies pointed to countries as they represent different cultural factors. Tourists from

different countries have different cultures and, as a result potentially have quite different

perceptions about the same destination (Yu, 2008). In other countries, different cultural

groups perceive images of destinations differently. This creates a challenge for tourism

marketers in delivering specific messages to particular groups.

Although much of the existing literature explores the relationship of culture to tourists’

behaviour (El-Kadhi, 2009; Prayag, 2009), Zhao (2006) indicated that relatively little

cross-cultural research has been conducted in the context of destination image and

marketing. In particular there is a lack of research that has focused on tourists' cultural

background and its impact on tourists’ perceptions of the image of a destination, and

consequent motivations to visit.

Nationality is also considered as a key variable in studying the differences between tourists

from different cultures (Joppe et al., 2001; Kozak, 2002; Yue-qian & Gong-min, 2008).

Although the processes of globalisation has brought about a convergence of cultures, there

is a difference between national cultures that cannot be ignored (Prayag, 2009). There are

some studies on cultural perspectives, destination image, and tourist’s perceptions and the

destination choice and satisfaction (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003; Mohamed, 2008). However,

these studies have reached conflicting conclusions on the impact of national culture. A

number of studies have shown a positive impact of nationality on destination image and

destination choice. For example, Kozak (2002) examined British and German tourists

visiting Mallorca and Turkey, whereby motives differed between nationalities and place

visited (Kozak, 2002).

However, Master and Prideaux (2000) suggest that the main determinant of satisfaction for

Taiwanese tourists in Australia was the perceptions of quality of service, rather than cross-

cultural awareness. In other words, the quality of service has a greater impact on the degree

33

of satisfaction of Taiwanese tourists than awareness of their culture (Master & Prideaux,

2000). Despite the inconsistency such studies indicate the importance of national culture

and its impact on the image of a destination and choice of destination, and also on the

different performance assessments and motivation of tourists, cannot be ignored (Murphy-

Underhill, 2005; Prayag, 2009). This is an area that warrants further exploration.

2.5 Tourism Motivation

2.5.1 Definitions and Importance

The study of motivation in tourism research requires a basic understanding of motivation

concepts and motivation theory. Motivations have been found to have a great impact on

tourists’ behaviour and the process of destination choice. Many studies on tourist

motivations have been conducted in tourism literature over the last few decades (Huang &

Gross, 2010). Among the early work on tourism motivation studies is Dann's study in

1977, who investigated travel motivation through attempting to answer the question of

“what makes tourists travel?” A number of previous researchers have attempted to define

tourist motivations, with Table 1 displaying a number of key definitions.

Table 1: Definitions of Tourist Motivation

Year Researcher Definition

1981 Kleinginna Motivation is the internal situation or case, which is sometimes described

as a need, desire, or want, for work on activating behaviour and giving it

direction.

1995 Backman et

al.

Motivations are linked with basic needs of individual for participating

such as activities.

1998 Morrison and

Rutledge

As the world-integrating network of cultural and biological forces that

giving value and guidelines for travel choices and behavior.

2002 Kim & Lee Tourist Motivation refers to characteristics of people that have influence

over their choice of destinations, where they work as a push factors

leading to travel for tourism.

2004 Beerli and

Martin

Motivation is the individual needs that leads to act in a certain way in

order to get the desired satisfaction achieve.

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From the definitions listed in Table 1 it can be seen that tourist motivations are related to a

certain needs that drive individuals to participate in the activity of tourism. As these needs

are diverse and differ from person to person, there are many complex reasons and motives

that stimulate people to travel.

An analysis of tourists’ motivations is important for the tourism industry, assisting

marketers to understand why tourists select one destination over another. By understanding

tourists’ motivations, tourism marketers can identify what attractions of their location that

motivates tourists to visit, thereby understand how to maintain and develop the destination

in order to attract more tourists (Liên, 2010). In addition, understanding tourists

motivations plays an important role in predicting how tourists’ will behave at a destination

(Chan, Jennifer & Baum, Tom 2007). Moreover, knowledge of the factors that motivated

tourists leads to increase tourists’ satisfaction and loyalty towards the destination as well as

enhance destination image (Beerli & Martín, 2004; Finn, 2011). Previous studies have

concluded that there is a need to prepare and implement suitable strategies that arouse

tourists’ interests, motivating them and meeting their needs in a satisfactory manner (Liên,

2010). Thus, knowledge of motivation it has significant influences on tourism industry

because it play an important role in determining the tourist destination selection as well as

tourists behaviour.

Due to the importance of motivation in general and in the tourism field in particular, there

have been a series of studies in the field of travel motivation (Alali, 2006; Awad, 1995;

Baloglu & Uysal, 1996; Kim & Lee, 2003; Mrchillaan, 2012; Prayag & Ryan, 2011;

Zayed, 2003). The subject of tourist motivation is not separated from the other sciences,

such as psychology and sociology. Therefore, theories derived from psychology and

sociology are often relied upon to explain tourists' motivations (Shi, 2010). The following

discussion is an overview of most prevailing theories of tourists' motivations: Maslow's

hierarchy, a seeking/escaping tourism motivation theory and ‘push and pull’ theory.

Previous literature has investigated tourist motivation through Maslow’s (1943,1954)

needs analysis that developed a hierarchy of human needs spanning five different levels

35

(Allan, 2011). The physiological human needs such as drink, food and sleep were set at the

base of the needs hierarchy. At the next level of the hierarchy are safety and security needs

such as needs of protection and lack of fear. The social needs such as the companionship

and affiliation was located in the middle of the hierarchy. The next level up is the needs of

the appreciation and respect. At the top of the hierarchy, the need of self-actualisation was

placed. Despite the development of the Maslow theory in the field of psychology field, it

has since been used widely in various aspects of social sciences and other fields such as

business and tourism in order to better understand motivation (Kay, 2003). One important

drawback with Maslow’s hierarchy is that it is a one-sided theory that focused just on

human needs, and only on one side of motivation (Ifedili & Ifedili, 2012). Another

criticism of Maslow’s hierarchy is that individuals can normal lives without having their

needs met – there are families living in poverty whose children can still find leisure, play

and be happy (Ventegodt et al., 2003). So, Maslow’s theory was considered as being

insufficient to cover the complex variety of motivations that govern tourism destination

decision-making processes.

A seeking/escaping tourism motivation is another widely apply theory in the tourism

literature (Cassidy & Pegg, 2008). This theory was developed by Iso-Ahola (1982), who

developed a motivation framework, based on the premise that people are motivated to

travel to a specific destination based on two critical recreational motivations: escaping and

seeking (Thomas & Kim, 2011). Within this framework tourists are likely to be motivated

by needs to escape, whether personally from their own stresses or interpersonally from

problems that emerged from dealing with other people (Snepenger et al., 2006; Wolfe &

Hsu, 2004). This framework also prefaces that tourists seek personally to find new

knowledge or seek interpersonally to find new friendships (Wolfe & Hsu, 2004).

Accordingly, Iso-Ahola (1982) demonstrates that tourists usually driven by

seeking/escaping motivations, and tourism experiences would provide greater chances of

escape and seeking for people (Marques, 2005).

Early studies suggested that motivations related to tourists’ choice of a destination can

classified into ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors (Plog, 1985). Since the inception of this theory

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many researchers attempted to discover which factors actually ‘push’ people to travel, and

which factors ‘pull’ people to a destination; push and pull travel motivations have had a

great deal of attention in previous literature (Baloglu & Uysal, 1996; Kim & Lee, 2003).

Push and pull factors reveal the ways in which an individual chooses a destination as well

as their travel behaviour (Altwaijri, 1998). The concept of push and pull factors indicates

that tourists are pushed by their internal factors (tourist’s intangible desires) and pulled by

the external factors of destination attributes (attractiveness of a destination).

The first stage of the individual motivation process begins with push factors, where the

individual is pushed through internal desires or emotional factors (Liên, 2010). Push

factors lie in the effects of the individual’s own internal forces that motivate them to go for

tourism, and people make up their decision as to whether or not to go based on these

internal forces (Kim & Lee, 2003). In addition, push factors are associated with intangible

factors such as the needs and wants of the traveller (Mohammad & Som, 2010). Therefore

through understanding push factors, a deeper understanding of the internal motivation of

tourists can be obtained. Moreover, push factors involving desires such as the need for

relaxation, social interaction, adventure, prestige, sport, and enjoy natural resources (Kim

& Lee, 2003). Thus, push factors are associated with the internal forces that motivate

individuals to go holiday.

Pull factors refer to the external factors that attract tourists towards a certain destination

(Prayag & Ryan, 2011). In other words factors or attributes of a destination that lead

tourists to select it as their destination of choice (Mehmetoglu, 2011). In addition, pull

factors are related with the tangible attractions in the destination, where pull forces explain

that what destination' characteristics that make person want to visit it (Prayag & Ryan,

2011). Further, these factors involve elements that attract tourists to choose one destination

over another; these elements represent some attractions such as the availability of

entertainment places, destination image and perceived risk (Baloglu & Uysal, 1996). Thus,

pull factors refer to the attractions that have an impact upon destination choice.

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In summary, push and pull factors refer to tourists’ motivations. Initially, people are

pushed by internal desires forces (push factors) such as the relaxation, adventure. After that

they pulled by external factors (pull factors) such as historical places and natural

environment. Tourists’ demographic characteristics also have a significant impact on

tourists’ motivation. Where differences between tourists in terms of their motivations (push

and pull factors), these nuances become evident because of existing qualifying differences

in their demographic characteristics such as age, gender and education. Therefore, due to

its broad application to a variety of contexts, push and pull factors provide a suitable

framework for explaining and predicting travel decisions.

2.5.2 Tourist Motivation and Tourism Marketing

From a marketing perspective, it is very important to know why tourists choose (or do not

choose) a particular destination and how tourists feel about the places they visit (Alubaydli,

2009). Consequently, research in the field of tourist motivations has acquired importance

over the last decade and it continues to attract attention from a range of researchers

(Awaritefe, 2004; Mohammad & Som, 2010; Seubsamarn, 2009). In addition, tourists’

motivations explain the reason why tourists will make the decision to choose one particular

destination among all the alternatives, identifying the attributes that govern that lead to the

decision (Rojo, 2007). Consequently, understanding motivations are essential for tourism

planning and marketing, because the tourism industry could not exist without need to travel

(Bogari et al., 2003). In particular, recognising why and how individuals/groups make their

consumption decisions is very important. This can assist tourism marketers in predicting

and explaining how consumers are likely to react, permitting them to shape their marketing

strategies accordingly, assisting destinations to gain a greater competitive advantage in the

marketplace (Alubaydli, 2009). Thus, understanding the motivations that drive the tourist

to choose the specific destination is essential for the tourism industry.

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2.5.3 Linking Tourist Motivations and Destination Image

As mentioned above, the literature on tourist motivation indicates that pull factors depend

on destination attributes that represent attractions of place (Chan, Jennifer & Baum, Tom,

2007). According to image researchers, image is a multiple construct, where it has two

components – namely cognitive appraisal (the individual’s own knowledge and beliefs

about the destination), and affective appraisal (the individual’s feelings towards the place)

(Beerli & Martín, 2004).

From the perspective of cognitive evaluation, the destination image is evaluated based on

the attributes that reflect the tourist attractions available at the destination, such as

sightseeing opportunities, the physical landscape to be seen and activities to be done. In

other words, it is the attractions that persuade an individual to visit a certain destination

(Prayag & Ryan, 2011). In addition, affective evaluation describes the individual feelings

aroused by a destination, where people with different motivations might evaluate the

destination in similar manner (Finn, 2011). This depends on their perception that the

destination provides them with desirable benefits. Thus, pull factors are properties that

emanate from the attractiveness of a destination, from the point of view of the individuals

who have a desire to travel. Thereby, evaluations of pull attributes by visitors consist of the

internal evaluation of perceived image components (perceptual/cognitive and affective),

and as a result, the perceptual/cognitive and affective evaluations have significant

influence on the destination image.

2.6 Cross-Cultural Communication

2.6.1 What is Cross-Cultural Communication?

The broad and rapid spread of globalisation has led to the expansion and spread of the

business environment to reach different parts of the world. This has further led to interest

in the process of cross-cultural communication in most business fields (Lim, 2004; Payne,

2004). The word ‘culture’ at its most simple level refers to a complex set of attributes

(language, rules, customs, beliefs and attitudes) that highlight the pattern of a relatively

39

private life of a group of people (Robins et al., 1998). Culture is seen as the driving force

that drives human behaviour (Moran et al., 2010). Thus, an individual’s behaviour can be

better understood from an examination of the culture to which they belong.

The word communication refers to an interaction between two or more parties, and in order

to transfer of information and mutual understanding among themselves (Adler, 1991).

Cross-cultural communication suggests or describes the ability to create bridges between

people from different cultures (Musabi, 2006). In addition, cross-cultural communication is

based on the exchange of views, ideas, knowledge, customs and traditions among peoples.

Cross-cultural communication is the exchange of cultures, or its main branches

communicating with each other through dialogue and acquaintance where it contributes to

the increased ability to respond to others effectively and to understand and respect their

vision of the world (Paprika & Ozcelik, 2007).

Cross-cultural communication has several benefits for the community, as it facilitates

interaction between parties, known as joint cultural participation this is what contributes to

the promotion of community cohesion and the continuing convergence of communities

(Pym, 2003). Cross-cultural communication promotes the growth of culture and its

development through the exchange of ideas and encourages creativity (Jensen, 2003). In

addition, a country with a communicative culture will encourage its people to

communicate with each other in non-cultural aspects, leading to enhanced communication

in general (the exchange of economics, trade and tourism), as befits the growing

community. Moreover, cross-cultural communication that is characterised by a strong

interdependence will increase the cultural development of society and the community will

be renewed and develop its energies (Mahfouz, 2009). Consequently, one can see that

cross-cultural communication holds great importance for the progress of countries and

their growth, especially with the spread of globalisation which has conceptually turned the

world into a small village.

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2.6.2 Cross-Cultural Research in Tourism

The tremendous growth in tourism has led to increased attention to the identification of

cultures, customs and traditions of all people, and leads to ‘traveller-generating regions’

and ‘tourism destinations’ (Reisinger, 2009). Traveller-generating regions aim to find

suitable tourist areas that will provide the needs of the tourists commensurate with their

desires, habits and traditions (Tosun & Jenkins, 1998; Tosun & Timothy, 2001). Tourism

destinations show an interest in cross-cultural communication in order to provide for and

be sensitive to the needs of tourists and ultimately contributing to making their trip

comfortable in meeting their desires and achieving the goals of the tourists. Accordingly,

cross-cultural communication is a topical issue because of the impact of this

communication on the success and effectiveness of tourism (DeVito, 2001).

Recent studies have highlighted the importance of the cultural dimension in the field of

tourism and the impact of culture on tourist behaviour (Ng et al., 2007). Weiermair (2000),

for example, investigated the cross-cultural perceptions of service quality. This research

identified the different components of quality of service, underlining the service points that

cultural differences may affect. Turner et al. (2001) examined different national cultural

tourist groups in Melbourne, Australia (Turner et al., 2001); and Kang and Moscardo

(2006) explored cross-cultural differences in attitudes towards responsible tourist

behaviour among Korean, British and Australian tourists (Kang & Moscardo, 2006).

Kim and Prideaux (2005) investigated the differences in motivations to travel to Korea,

preferred tourist resources (activities), length of planning before travelling, information

sources used, and length of stay based on five national tourist groups (American,

Australian, Japanese, Chinese [Mainland], Chinese [Hong Kong] SAR). The results

indicated that the significant differences found in motivations to travel to Korea, the length

of pre travel planning, information sources used, and length of stay were influenced by

national culture (Kim & Prideaux, 2005).

Kim and Lee (2000) used cultural orientation of individualism and collectivism to

understand the differences in travel motivations between Anglo-American and Japanese

41

tourists. This study has similarities with the current research, where one of the aspects of

this research is an investigation of the individualism and collectivism of the tourists and the

impact of these imperatives on tourists' motivations. Kim and Lee (2000) found that

Japanese and American tourists have different cultural tendencies and travel preferences

(Kim & Lee, 2000). In addition, Xie (2009) argued that guiding services for visitors from

abroad is different from that required by domestic travellers. Overseas tourists usually

come from different cultural backgrounds, and this necessitates a number of special

requirements and professional skills that are required for tour guides (Xie, 2009).

In many such studies, ‘culture’ has often been cited as an important variable that can be

expected to influence the tourists’ behaviour. Furthermore, cultural variations have direct

impacts on tourist holiday experiences (Alghamdi, 2007), as it is expected that the way in

which people see and understand the destination image is influenced by their cultural

background which, in turn, will affect their choice of destination. Consequently, it is

important to be aware of the tourists’ cultural background in the formulation of tourism

marketing strategies. Such strategies will give a clear image of the destination and

contribute to building an attractive tourism destination image.

Understanding the cultural characteristics of international tourists has been identified as an

important factor that determines the success of the tourism industry. Despite the great

emphasis given by previous research that examined the relationship between culture and

tourism, there has been very little research conducted on how culture influences tourists’

destination choice, perceptions and image. Furthermore, there has been a lack of attention

to the examination of the influence of culture on the motives of tourists. All of the above is

especially true in the context of Arab tourists, which is an emerging international market.

To address this gap, the current study aims to examine the influence of the Arab culture on

Arab tourists’ motives, and in order to achieve this aim, Hofstede's (1980, 1991) model of

culture will be used.

Hofstede’s model was selected for this study because of the clarity of the dimensions of the

model as well as the prior broad application of this model in studies of a large number of

42

countries (Mooij & Hofstede, 2010). In addition, although Hofstede’s model (1980, 1991)

was not the first to address cultural issues as a factor guiding tourism decisions, the

importance of cultural differences has become more prevalent in such fields as applied

psychology, international business management, and the social sciences since its first

application. Also, the primary focus in several key priori studies on cultural differences has

been focused on Hofstede’s model (1980) (Reisinger & Lindsay, 1998). For instance,

Xiumei and Jinying (2011) used five of Hofstede’s dimensions in their study of the

comparison of cultural distance between China and US from the 9 dimensions in GLOBE

Model and the 5 dimensions in Hofstede Model. The results of their study indicated that

both the Hofstede Model and the GLOBE Model were highly valuable in research studies

of international business and management where the application of this model assisted in

the understanding of cultural differences between two countries (Xiumei & Jinying, 2011).

Furthermore, Malinoski (2012) explored the relationship between specific cultural

attributes in different countries and their respective levels of income inequality. The use of

Hofstede’s Dimensions of Culture to the Gini coefficient was done in order to determine if

certain nations tended to live in a less egalitarian socioeconomic climate. The finding of

this study showed that a distinct negative relationship between the individualism and the

long-term orientation scores of a country and its level of income inequality, whereas

nations with high levels of income inequality suffered from reduced social cohesion. The

suggestion of this study indicated that as certain cultural attributes adversely affect

economic equality, policymakers in that nation could encourage equality through increases

in personal savings and human resources investments. Also, in the field of international

commerce, this study suggested that multinational companies could use the potential

relationship between culture and inequality of income to adjust pricing levels in countries

(Malinoski, 2012).

2.6.3 Hofstede’s Model of Culture

Hofstede’s (1980, 1991, 2001) model is the most commonly used because it offers very

simple categories that are easily recognisable from everyday life and offers immediate

43

explanation about how culture affects communication (Jensen, 2003; Kang & Moscardo,

2006). Hofstede’s study has been undertaken on multinational companies in 40 countries

and gives insights into other cultures so communication can be more effective when people

are interacting with others from different countries. According to Hofstede, there are five

key dimensions that can be used to summarise the main differences between the national

and cultural groups, which are displayed in Table 2.

44

Table 2: Hofstede’s Cultural Dimensions

The dimension The explanation

Power distance This aspect relates to the extent of power inequality among members of

an organisational society; where there is a measure how subordinates

respond to power. In other words, understanding the way people are

treated in terms of equality/inequality in their family, school, work and

society. For example, within a small power distance, a family deals with

the children equitably and they are encouraged to make their own

decisions; while in the workplace and in organisations, subordinates are

often not consulted when the company makes decisions. In a large power

distance family, children are relatively obedient to their parents and

elders as a sign of respect. Parents and elderly relatives tend to make the

decisions for the children.

Uncertainty

avoidance

Avoiding uncertainty is strong in cultures that tend to consider that the

unknown is a threat to them and thus try to avoid it. For instance, a

higher uncertainty avoidance culture attempts to structure social systems

(political, educational, and business) and the situations that are held to be

risky and unknown should be avoided as far as possible through strict

laws. On the other hand, avoiding uncertainty is weak in other countries

where people feel less threatened by unknown situations. Therefore, they

tend to be more open to innovation and risk.

Individualism

and

collectivism

Describes the relationship between the individual and the collective that

is reflected in the way people live together. This is a measure of whether

people prefer to work alone or in groups. For example in collectivist

societies, decisions are made by a group of family members. There is a

respect for elders and other family members and, at work, collectivists

taking the opinion of staff when making decisions; whereas in

individualistic societies people’s individual opinions are more important

than those of the group.

Masculinity

and femininity

Mooij and Hofstede (2010, p89) defined it as ‘The dominant values in a

masculine society are achievement and success; the dominant values in a

feminine society are caring for others and quality of life’, which

describes how cultures differentiate between the roles of the sexes.

Masculine cultures tend to be ambitious and want to excel, while

feminine cultures consider the quality of life and assist others.

Long versus

short term

orientation

Refers to the degree to which traditional values of society are adhered to.

This shows the high or low dimensions that symbolise the readiness of

countries to resist or accept the change.

According to research by Hofstede (1980, 1991), Arabs tend to be more collective in their

approach. Arabs tend to place great value on teamwork and cooperation, are less likely to

45

act independently, or allow themselves to stand out from others (Buda & Elsayed-

Elkhouly, 1998). In addition, Arabs have a high rate of power distance. Arabs’ level of

respect for positions of power and for people in authority is relatively high. In Arab

culture, leaders are seen as people with knowledge, power and the ability to take decisions.

Furthermore, Arabs tend to avoid uncertainty. It seems that the spirit of initiative and

innovation have less value than the seeming importance of maintaining the status quo

(Nardon & Steers, 2009). Maintaining tradition is more important than change, which

means they avoid conflict, competition and risk; and in Arab culture, masculine and

feminine roles are strongly differentiated. Some jobs may be more likely reserved for one

gender rather than the other. For example, few men may be primary school teachers and

few women are involved in politics. Arab culture assumes that men are competitive and

resolute, whereas women are able to take care of relationships (Thomas & Kim, 2011).

There are several criticisms of Hofstede’s (1980, 1991) work. One such criticisms is

whether the dimensions developed from data collected between 1968 and 1973 were

specific to the period of analysis (Wallace et al., 1999). Others argued that the subjects are

representative only of the middle class in each country (Chiang, 2005). In spite of these

criticisms, Hofstede’s study is one of the few models providing obvious dimensions to

consider the impact of culture (Kang & Moscardo, 2006).

The most widely utilised dimensions of culture are the five dimensions developed by

Hofstede (Crotts & Erdmann, 2000). For instance, Litvin and Kar (2003) used one of

Hofstede's dimensions (i.e. individualism/collectivism) to study the influence of culture on

a sample from Singaporean tourists. The results confirmed that the greater the degree of

congruity between ideal self-image and destination image, the greater the visitor

satisfaction. The relationship between these variables is intensified for collectivists’ culture

compared to individualists' culture. Individualists have been found to possess considerably

higher levels of satisfaction than collectivists (Litvin & Kar, 2003).

To examine the influence of culture on Arab tourists' perception and motivations, three of

Hofstede's cultural dimensions will be used. The three dimensions selected include

46

collectivism/individualism, power distance, and uncertainty avoidance. The fourth

dimension (i.e. masculinity/femininity) has been excluded for its low score in Hofstede's

work and the replicated studies in the Arab context (Bjerke & Al-Meer, 1993). It was also

decided to exclude the fifth dimension (long/short-term orientation) since it was not used

by other similar studies in the Arab context (Al-Twaijri & Al-Muhaiza, 1996).

Even though there is a plethora of research that highlights the importance of the cultural

dimension in the field of tourism, a consistent theme throughout the literature reviewed

was the need for more research on the influence of culture on destination image. A

significant gap in previous research on destination image is the lack of studies that have

empirically analysed the importance of tourists’ perceptions and motivations, as well as the

impact of cultural background on tourists’ perceptions and motivations, especially within

the Arabian market.

The aim of this research study is to apply a cross-cultural perspective to identify and

explore Arab tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations to visit, Australia. The broad aim

consists of the following five key research objectives:

1. To explore and understand how the Gold Coast is presented to Arab tourists;

2. To analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on Arab websites corresponds

with the image that is promoted by key DMO (destination marketing organisation)

websites;

3. To identify the characteristics of Arab tourists who visit the Gold Coast;

4. To examine perceptions and motivations of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast,

Australia; and,

5. To examine the influence of Arab culture and other factors on Arab tourists’

motivations and perceptions.

Based on a review of previous studies with similar objectives, this research adapts

Hofstede’s model (1980, 1991) to achieve the overarching research aim and key objectives.

47

2.7 Chapter Summary

The relevant literature for this study was reviewed in this chapter, showing the basic

concepts and definitions that provide the theoretical background for this study. The chapter

was divided to four sections, namely tourism marketing, destination brand, destination

image, motivation and cross-cultural communication. Each section was also divided into

sub-sections in order to create a deeper understanding of each sub-topic.

The chapter began with a review of the tourism marketing literature identifying how

tourism marketing has a range of different objectives, which vary because of the multitude

of tourist activities. The analysis of the relationship between tourism marketing and

perceptions revealed that an understanding of tourists' perceptions of a destination is

essential for developing successful marketing strategies, and tourism marketers should pay

close attention towards the image of destination. The section concluded by presenting the

important challenges that face tourism marketing, where it was found that appealing to

tourists from different cultural backgrounds is one of the most important challenges facing

tourism marketing.

The second section explored the concepts surrounding the process and outcomes of

destination branding. The section started with a brief outline of destination brand as well as

its importance. The process of building a destination brand was addressed, and it was

shown that this important stage of the destination branding process is dependent upon

making tourists aware of value of the main brand of the place. Moreover, the challenges

for destination branding were highlighted, where the development of a unique identity for

destination is more critical than ever.

The third section was about destination image, highlighting the destination image concept

and its importance. Also, the section addressed the theoretical orientation of previous

research as well as factors that influence destination image, including how stimulus factors

(information sources and previous experience) and personal factors (psychological and

48

social) have significant the influence on destination image. At the end, the section outlined

the influence of culture and nationality on destination image. This section concluded that

there are great differences in destination image formation due to the different cultures and

nationality of the tourists.

Tourism motivation was the fourth section that presented an overview of our understanding

of tourism motivations. The section began with a brief explanation of the concept of

tourism motivations, and then highlighted the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ factors that reveal the ways

in which the individual chooses a destination as well as their travel behaviour. In addition,

a short explanation about tourists’ motivations and tourism marketing was provided in this

section. Hence by understanding tourists’ motivations, tourism marketers can understand

the attributes of their destination that attract tourists.

The fifth and final section highlighted concepts around the cross-cultural communication.

The section presented a brief discussion of cross-culture communication. Also previous

research on cross-cultural communication in tourism was referenced in this section.

According to this research, ‘culture’ has often been cited as an important variable that can

be expected to influence the tourists’ behaviour and on tourist holiday experiences.

Hofstede's Model of culture and its dimensions were outlined, with a discussion of how

this model has been applied in previous research.

This chapter concluded by presenting the aims and objectives of the research, with the key

aim of applying a cross-cultural perspective to identify and explore Arab tourists’

perceptions of, and motivations to visit, Australia. Addressing this aim will contribute to

existing theory by examining the influence of cultural background on tourists’ perception

of, and motivations to visit a destination.

49

3 CHAPTER THREE: THE RESEARCH CONTEXT: ARAB

TOURISTS AT THE GOLD COAST, AUSTRALIA

3.1 Introduction

As outlined in the previous two chapters, this thesis investigates Arab tourists' perceptions

of, and motivations for visiting, the Gold Coast, Australia. As an interlude between those

introductory chapters and the methodology (Chapter 4), this current chapter introduces the

study site of the Gold Coast, and provides a description of Arab tourists to this Australian

destination.

3.2 Tourism Marketing in Australia

This section provides an overview of the structure of the destination marketing system in

Australia. The researcher considers this study to be a natural extension of previous studies

that have sought to explore the destination image of Australia, as this work focuses more

on the Australian destination image in general and the Gold Coast’s image in particular.

3.2.1 Destination Marketing Organisations (DMOs)

In the 21st century, has seen an increased competition between destinations for market

share. This competition requires an effective marketing organisation to highlight the

different characteristics of each tourist destination, and to determine specific roles to

develop marketing strategies that attract tourists. In Australia, the responsibility for

destination marketing is divided between the destination marketing organisations, many of

which are funded and supported by Local Government Authorities (LGAs) and State and

National Tourism Offices (STOs and NTOs) (Prideaux & Cooper, 2003). These

organisations are structured to promote destinations through a variety of different

50

information sources including, though not limited to, trade, media and travel industry

channels.

There are a number of functions carried out by Tourism Australia, the most important of

which are to increase the awareness of both domestic and international tourists about the

different destinations Australia has to offer. Tourism Australia carries out research and

analysis of international and domestic travel, as well as reporting on trends in international

and domestic travel derived from both an International (IVS) and National Visitor Survey

(NVS) conducted annually. Tourism Australia also advocates for the interests of the

tourism industry, and raises awareness within Australia of the contribution that tourism

makes to the economy, society and environment in Australia (Allert, 2009).

Tourism Queensland (TQ), as one of several state-based DMOs, is a statutory authority of

the Queensland Government. It enhances the development and marketing of Queensland

tourism destinations in partnership with industry, government and the community. Tourism

Queensland is located in Brisbane, the capital city of the state of Queensland (Tourism

Queensland, 2010). Tourism Queensland works to attract international and domestic

travellers to travel to and disperse throughout Queensland. It also works to identify and

promote important events for the State. The organisation collaborates with other the

government departments and industry sectors to identify opportunities to increase tourism

to and within Queensland as well as conduct research into tourism in Queensland.

Gold Coast Tourism works to market and promote the Gold Coast to travellers and

potential visitors, be they domestic or international. One of Gold Coast tourism’s expressed

goals is to develop and grow the tourism industry through enhanced liaison and

communication with all of its stakeholders. In addition, Gold Coast Tourism works to grow

the number and length of visits by tourists to the Gold Coast as well as enhance their

expenditure. It also seeks to identify and attract investment in Gold Coast tourism as a way

to stimulate industry growth as well as to build the capacity of the Gold Coast Convention

Bureau (Tourism Queensland, 2010).

51

3.2.2 The Development of Australia’s Brand Image

Tourism Australia (and its former iteration, the Australian Tourist Commission) has

worked since 1967 at marketing Australia internationally as a tourist destination (Tourism

Australia, 2011b). During this time, Australia established a reputation as one of the most

popular tourist destinations in the world, building an iconic brand on the world stage

(Tourism Australia, 2011a). In addition Australia’s image emerged through four key

tourist attractions, referred to widely as the ‘4 Rs’, namely: the Roo (the marsupial family

of kangaroos and wallabies); the Roof, indicating the Sydney Opera House; the Reef,

referring to the Great Barrier Reef; and, finally, the Rock—Uluru is the largest monolithic

rock in the world (Edelheim, 2005). Over time, there has been an increase in tourist

numbers arriving in Australia because of its reputation built by its brand image. One of the

most important events that contributed to Australia’s reputation was the Olympic Games

held in Sydney, Australia in 2000. This level of global exposure allowed Australia to offer

a total branding package to the world (Blackadder, 2006).

Tourism managers have used movies and celebrities in promotion campaigns to market

Australia as one of the best tourist destinations in the world. One of the most successful

and memorable international campaigns for Australia was the success of the ‘Crocodile

Dundee’ movies in the 1980s and the international fame of its star, Paul Hogan. These

movies contributed to a significant increase in visitor numbers (Glover, 2009). More

recently, in 2004, the then Minister for Tourism launched the ‘Australia: A Different

Light’ advertising campaign, featuring a variety of Australian celebrities from the fields of

sport, media, arts and entertainment where it used images of Australian tourism icons and

other Australian images.

The year 2006 saw the emergence of one of the most significant tourism campaigns used in

the promotion of Australian tourism which was presented in the TV advertisement ‘Where

the bloody hell are you?’ This campaign provoked much controversy, both criticism and

praise, but through publicity and notoriety helped in achieving its objective of promoting

Australia and some of its features such as the beaches, rainforests and the Opera House

52

(Hong, 2008). Moreover, in 2008 the movie Australia added to the list of promotions. The

story of the film had a powerful resonance for the marketing of tourism in Australia

(Baker, 2011).

In 2010 a new campaign was created for tourism in Australia for Australians. This

campaign was presented under the slogan ‘There's Nothing like Australia’. Australians

participated in this campaign by broadcasting their personal stories and photos about their

holidays in Australia to show the world why they should visit Australia, where the load

amounted to about 30,000 stories and photos at www.nothinglikeaustralia.com. The entries

from this campaign were used to create an interactive digital map of Australia, made up of

all the features Australians think are special about their country (Tourism Australia,

2011b).

At the beginning of 2011, floods in Queensland and northern New South Wales, coupled

with major cyclonic events, had a devastating impact on the tourism sector in these areas.

This led to work on the revitalisation of this sector. Queensland was one of the areas most

affected by these events (Zappone, 2011). One of the most important tourist cities in the

state of Queensland is the Gold Coast. This city has worked with Tourism Queensland

(TQ) to promote tourism through a range of advertising campaigns. This campaign, called

‘Famous for Fun’ (Bentley et al., 2010), started in 2010. The strategy of these

advertisements focused on four key areas of the Gold Coast: fun/beaches, theme parks,

entertainment and the hinterland.

In August 2011 a new advertisement for Islamic people was introduced. This

advertisement called ‘Marhaba!—Welcome to Australia's Gold Coast’(Tourism

Queensland, 2011). It focused on some of the habits of Muslims in the month of Ramadan

that falls in August in this year, and highlighted the most important sites for Halal

restaurants in this city. This advertisement sought to attract many Muslims to visit the Gold

Coast during this religious month.

53

3.3 Gold Coast City

3.3.1 An Overview of the Gold Coast

Gold Coast City is located in the southeast of the state of Queensland and is situated about

an hour’s driving distance south from Brisbane, the state’s capital. According to a census

in 2009 the population of the Gold Coast is about 578 000, making it the sixth largest city

in Australia (Gold Coast Council, 2010b). The Gold Coast is also one of Australia's fastest

growing cities (Bosman & Dredge, 2011; Faulkner & Tideswell, 1997) and what

distinguishes this city is its coastal location, which claims to have some of the best and

cleanest beaches in the world. The Gold Coast has about 70 kilometres of beach along the

east coast of the continent, stretching along the southernmost part of Queensland (West &

Bayne, 2002). This, in addition to warm weather most of the year, as well as subtropical

rainforest in the hinterland, part of which is listed as World Heritage (Dredge & Jamal,

2013), are all factors that play a significant role in attracting tourists to this city. Figure 2

was taken from an Arabic Web site, and displays the location of the Gold Coast in

Australia.

Figure 2: A Map of Gold Coast, Australia

Source: Arabic Web site “http://www.iraqplayer.com”

54

There are several industries that contribute significantly to the GDP of the Gold Coast ,

such as construction, real estate services, business services, transport and tourism,

accommodation, cafes and restaurants. The Gold Coast is the third largest city for film

production in Australia, behind Sydney and Melbourne (Gold Coast Council, 2010a). The

Gold Coast is heavily dependent on tourism, and characterised by rapid economic and

population growth (McLennan, 2012).

Tourism activity has a strong influence on this city. Tourism is considered to be one of the

largest generators of economic activity and employment, as the focus is largely on the

investment activity programs for development and construction in the city (West & Bayne,

2002). The Gold Coast attracted approximately 41% of all international visitors to

Queensland and 19% of the domestic market (Tourism Australia, 2009). Moreover,

tourism is considered the main driver of the economy of the Gold Coast, where it was

estimated that nearly one dollar of every five dollars generated is related to tourism (Gold

Coast Council, 2010b). The tourism sector in the Gold Coast contributes about 20% to the

Gross Regional Product (GRP) (Tourism Australia, 2009).

3.3.2 A History of the Gold Coast as a Tourist Destination

The Gold Coast’s history begins in prehistoric times in which the area was continuously

inhabited by Australian Aborigines for at least 23,000 years. In the late 1700s, European

explorers discovered the area and named it ‘Southport’, borrowing the name of the city of

Southport in England. Southport was established as a town in 1902, it became not only a

resort town, but the business centre of the Gold Coast as well a fashionable resort town for

the wealthy and influential. Hotels sprang up to accommodate the increasing number of

visitors. One of these early hotels was the Surfers Paradise Hotel that was built in 1925 in

an area known as Elston. The name of Elston was changed to Surfers Paradise in 1933 and

it soon became Australia’s most famous beach resort town (Russella & Faulkner, 2004).

55

In 1936 an emergency airport was established at Coolangatta for planes between Sydney

and Brisbane, in the same location that is now the Gold Coast Airport. This coastal town

became nationally and internationally famous for many Australian and American soldiers

who came for leisure leave during World War II. In 1950 the development work of this

town increased rapidly, where holiday apartments and shopping precincts were built. With

the growing tourism industry, the Gold Coast became the new name for the town, and in

1959 the State Government of Queensland gave the town of the Gold Coast higher status

as a city in its own right.

Following this, the Gold Coast became a popular destination and tourist development work

continued; more entertainment and tourist resorts places were established. The first

entertainment park (Sea World) opened in 1971, and Dreamworld was opened in 1981. In

1995 the hinterland and northern areas of the Albert Shire Council were merged with the

Gold Coast, to create the current form of today’s City of the Gold Coast, making it the

seventh-largest city in Australia as well as one of its most famous tourism destinations.

In the 1980s, the Gold Coast became a popular destination in particular for Japanese

tourists and foreign investment. During this time, Japan was one of the Gold Coast's largest

tourist markets. The increase in Australian product diversity and the development of new

products for the Japanese market led to the increase of Japanese tourists to Australia in

general and the Gold Coast in particular (Hajdu, 2005). Also, Japanese property investment

contributed to a change in Gold Coast infrastructure, with high-rise developments and golf

resorts. Marketing campaigns were designed to improve Japanese awareness about tourism

on the Gold Coast (De Nardi & Wilks, 2007).

Due to the global economic crisis in Japan, inbound tourism arrivals from Japan decreased

markedly. In the mid-late 1990s, the Gold Coast region saw a considerable growth in a

new Asian market: Chinese tourists, who have become one of the largest market segments

to this destination. The Gold Coast has also been a popular location for Chinese buyers of

residential property in Queensland from the early 1990s (Australia China Business

Council, 2012). The growth of Chinese business and tourists at the Gold Coast led tourism

56

management to develop skills in Mandarin required to deal with visitors from this market

(Campbell, 2013).

In 2000, the Gold Coast created one of its key destination brands which was ‘The Coast

with the Most’. This campaign was developed in order to help in the rejuvenating process

of the Gold Coast destination (Pike, 2004). With general dissatisfaction with the results of

this campaign, the new brand was launched in November 2004. The ‘Very GC’ brand was

created to mark a new direction for this destination with a higher level of sophistication

(Pike, 2012). In order to refresh the Gold Coast’s image, the new brand of the Gold Coast

was created which is ‘Gold Coast - Famous For Fun’ in 2010.

3.3.3 Tourism at the Gold Coast

As a result of the importance of this sector, the Gold Coast has developed a number of

strategies designed to contribute to raising the level of awareness of tourism in this city,

with a focus on cooperative approaches to marketing and provision of appropriate

information to target tourists (West & Bayne, 2002). This is in addition to working at

promoting the city's image as a tourist destination (through marketing, promotion of events

and media coverage) (Kume, 2008). Plans were also developed to contribute to the

development of tourism infrastructure in order to meet the expectations and demands of

tourists.

Although development of the tourism sector in Gold Coast City is robust, the sector still in

fluctuates and experiences periods of instability. According to Australian Bureau of

Statistics 2010, the number of tourists, whether domestic or international, continued

growing until 2007 when it reached about 4.2 million visitors. From the available data it

was observed that the number of international tourists during the period from 2001 to 2010

did fluctuate up and down with the lowest level in 2003, when the number of visitors was

about 678,000, while 2001 showed the highest rate of international visitors which was

about 861 000 visitors. Thus, from these numbers it can be seen that there is a large

fluctuation in the growth of the tourism sector in Gold Coast City. The following table

57

(Table 3) illustrates this volatility in the preparation of visitors to Gold Coast City

‘domestic and international’.

Table 3: Domestic and International Visitors to Gold Coast

Year Domestic Visitors International Visitors

2001 3,539,000 861,000

2002 3,541,000 764,000

2003 3,611,000 678,000

2004 3,574,000 811,000

2005 3,516,000 819,000

2006 3,582,000 829,000

2007 3,707,000 858,000

2008 3,316,000 795,000

2009 3,206,000 813,000

2010 3,396,000 817,000

Source: Australian Bureau of Statistics 2010

Figure 3: Domestic and International Visitors to Gold Coast Between 2001 – 2010

Source: Tourism Queensland, 2010

According to the Bureau of Tourism Queensland, 817,000 international tourists visited the

Gold Coast in 2010. Most tourists came from New Zealand (NZ), Europe, China and

0

500000

1000000

1500000

2000000

2500000

3000000

3500000

4000000

2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010

Domestic Visitors

International Visitors

58

Japan. Table 4 below shows more details about the nationality of international visitor

arrivals to the Gold Coast in 2010.

Table 4: The Nationality of International Visitor Arrivals to the Gold Coast in 2010

Country of

Origin Number of Visitors

NZ 195,000

Europe 146,000

China 119,000

Japan 109,000

UK 68,000

America 46,000

Others 134,000

Source: Tourism Queensland, 2010

As shows above, the majority of tourists, numbering about 195,000, came from New

Zealand (NZ), with 146,000 arriving from Europe. America ranked sixth with only 46,000

visitors.

3.4 Arab Outbound Tourists

3.4.1 An Overview of the Arab World

The commonly termed ‘Arab world’ is both a geographical and a political term to describe

a region that has a history, language and culture in common. The Arab world includes 22

countries and is located at the junction of two continents; the southwest Asian continent

and the continent of Africa (Briney, 2011). As such, the Arab world is located in one of the

most important strategic regions of the world, extending from the Atlantic Ocean in the

west to the Arabian Gulf in the east and the Arabian Sea in the south to Turkey and the

Mediterranean Sea to the north, covering a total of 13,487,814 square kilometers. Almost

22% of the Arab world is located in Asia and 78% in Africa, with the coastline for 22,828

kilometres. Figure 4 presents one version of a map of the Arab World.

59

Figure 4: A Map of the Arab World

Source: Arab Trade Financing Program (http://www.atfp.org.ae)

According to the statistics of 2009 the population of the Arab world is 335 million (Rabia,

2009). Despite the spread of the Arabs into several countries, many Arabs consider

themselves a part of one nation. The Organization of the Arab League is one of the factors

that develops and strengthen the unity of the Arab world. In addition this organisation is

one of the largest regional organisations in the world, with the league founded on the

twenty-second of March 1945.

The Arab world has civilisations that have been active for over five thousand years. The

three most famous of these civilisations are the ancient Egyptian civilisation (Paranoiac

civilisation, which began 250 thousand years ago BC the prehistoric) in Egypt and the

civilisations of Mesopotamia in Iraq (Babylonian civilisation, Babylonian civilisation

emerged between centuries 18-6 BC, it has achieved significant achievements in

astronomy, mathematics, of Medicine) as well as Civilisation Mediterranean coasts

(Phoenician civilisation). This civilisation dates back to four thousand years BC, and

extends from Libya to Tunisia to Morocco.

The official language in all of these countries is Arabic. The Arabic language is one of the

most widely used languages in the world, spoken by more than 422 million people

(Zarawi, 2013). In addition, is an official language in Chad and Eritrea; it is also one of the

60

six official languages of the United Nations Organization, and is spoken in countries with

Arabic neighbours including Turkey and Senegal. Moreover, the Arabic language has

importance for Muslims, it is a sacred language (the language of the Koran), essential for

prayer (and worship) in Islam. Arabic is also the language of ritual in a number of

Christian churches in the Arab world, with a multiplicity of dialects spoken amongst

Arabs. Despite the existence of the Christian religion, Islam is the most prevalent language

in most of these countries. Islam is also the official religion in the majority of these

countries (Kuru, 2013).

3.4.2 Islam: The Arab Religion

Islam is the second largest religion in the world after Christianity (Robinson, 2012).

Although the Arabic World is the cradle of the three religions (Judaism, Christian and

Muslim), Islam is today the dominant religion in the Middle East and North Africa where

the percentage of Muslims in some of these countries, such as Saudi Arabia, Bahrain and

Yemen, totals almost 100 percent (Alali, 2006). Muslims believe that Mohammed

Messenger is the best human ever born in the world, chosen by God to spread his final

message, reserved in a heavenly tablet, the Koran (Qureshi, 2006). The Islamic religion

began in the city of Mecca in Saudi Arabia, and within a century, followers of Islam,

known as Muslims, had spread their faith as far as North Africa, Spain and France. The

rise of Islam is considered to be one of the most important events in the history of human

civilisation. By 2002, there were 1.3 billion Muslims worldwide (Saleh, 2003), together

constituting around 22 percent of the world's population. As a result of the spread of the

Islamic religion, mosques now exist in most countries around the world, to enable Muslims

to practise their worship and the performance of their prayers. Australia is one of these

countries where there are mosques in various Australian States (Hilaly, 2002).

The religion of Islam is based on five basic pillars that emphasise the unitary oneness of

God "There is no god only Allah and that Muhammad is the Messenger of Allah", prayer,

almsgiving, fasting during Ramadan and Hajj. Prayer is one of the rules of the Islamic

religion and every Muslim must perform five prayers a day and night (Alajmi, 2007).

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Muslim prayer should be practised in a quiet and clean place. Therefore the availability of

prayer sites in public places such as parks and markets will provide one of the most

essential needs of the Arab traveler, and Muslims in general. In addition, fasting during

Ramadan is also required by the Islamic faith, which involves abstaining from food and

drink all day long, from dawn to sunset during this holy month (Laldin, 2006). The

Ramadan month is special month in Arab World and has impact on behaviour – for

example Arab people prefer to spend this month in their country of origin with their family

and friends. Therefore their travel rate often decreases during this month.

3.4.3 Arab Culture

The Arab culture consists of two main components: the Arabic language and Islam, for this

reason some scholars insist on calling it the Arab-Islamic culture (Al-Qaradawi, 2001).

Therefore in the Arab world, most of the traditions and customs, whether in dress, eating or

social relations, emerge from the Islamic religion. Further, the clothing of Arabic women is

affected by the Islamic doctrine, which recommends women wear loose clothes that cover

their body and hair. The ‘Hijab’ is what differentiates Muslim women from other women.

As a majority of women in Arab countries wear the hijab and cover their hair, they want to

visit countries that are tolerant to their custom of wearing the hijab, and are looking for

markets that sell this type of clothing. Australia is a country where Muslim women can

roam Australian cities wearing the hijab without any harassment (Mahmoudian &

carmichael, 1998).

Arabic food includes vegetables, fruits, legumes, dates and meat, but the Arabic diet is also

influenced by the Islamic doctrine. Most Arabs eat halal meat, which is slaughtered in

accordance with the slaughter of Islamic law (Barazi, 2011). In addition, they eat halal

cheese (which does not contain pork fat or any of its components), plus a variety of other

foods. The majority of Arabs seek out food and restaurants that accommodate the doctrine

of the Islamic religion and Arabic culture. In some Australian cities, these restaurants are

available, especially in Sydney, Melbourne and the Gold Coast, and the most famous of

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these restaurants is ‘Nandos’ (one of international restaurants that offering chicken meat

cooked different ways). The availability of Halal foods is an important factor to consider

for Arabs who are wanting to visit Australia (Nushwan, 2011).

Also the Islamic religion impacts on inter-personal relations for Arab travellers (Qureshi,

2006). For instance, Islam encourages people to strengthen the relations with relatives,

neighbours and friends. So, cohesive social ties are one of the most important qualities of

the Arab world (Al-Qaradawi, 2001). The most prominent habits that indicate these links

include visits where gifts are exchanged, visiting the sick, greetings, and feed the needy

and sharing meals and extending invitations to eat as well as for picnics and holiday travel.

Arab customs and traditions are also associated with religious events such as Ramadan, Eid

al-Fitr and Eid al-Adha, and also special social occasions such as weddings and funerals.

The importance of the Arabic language has led to its spread and wider use as an official

language throughout the Arab world, and is considered to be a unifying link among the

peoples of the Arab world. Although there are other languages that have spread in some

Arab countries such as Tamazight (Libya and Algeria) and the Armenian language (Syria

and Lebanon) (Mrchillaan, 2012), still the Arabic language is the more commonly used.

The Arabic language originated from the Arabian Peninsula six centuries ago (Awad,

1995), it was - and still - is close tied to the identity of Arab nation, and its presence was

characterised by the retention of its original features in its methods and compositions, and

basic rules of grammar as well as much of its vocabulary and terminology (Zayed, 2003).

The Arabic language, since ancient times, was the language of the people of Mecca (which

was considered as the center of trade and exchange of goods and also people before Islam

had come to visit the Kaaba in Mecca) (Altwaijri, 1998), thereby, the Arabic language was

spread in neighbouring areas, such as Syria and Iraq, and it superseded other indigenous

dialects including Aramaic and Syriac (Meouch, 2011). With the advent of Islam, this

increased the spread of the Arabic language in most of the areas to which Arab peoples

settled.

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Arabic is the language of the Koran (the Muslim holy book). Islam has assisted Arabic to

grow in international prominence since the middle Ages, and is considered as one of the

major world languages (Al-Hamad, 1999). In the Koran, it is required that religious verses

must be spoken and read in their original language (Arabic) in order to complete daily

rituals including prayer. Thereby, Arabic has left a tremendous impact on the languages of

some Islamic nations such as Iran, Afghanistan and India (Krizm, 2001). Approximately

30 percent of the vocabulary in these languages are sourced from Arabic languages as well

as the language used in the Persian alphabet related to Arabic alphabet (Al-Hamad, 1999;

Ibrahhim, 2007). Moreover the Arabic language has played an important role in preserving

the cultural heritage of the Arab people. Thus the spread of Islam in the Arab world led to

increased cohesion and link with Arabic language and used it as the official language in all

of these countries.

The culture of the Arab world reflects the strength of their personality; and it is considered

to be the real mainstay and a point of unity for the Arab world as well as a catalyst for the

preservation of its heritage and its transmission between generations.

3.4.4 Arab Tourists

In the 21st century there has been an increase in the number of Arab tourists visiting

various countries throughout the world, including Australia. Although the Arab world has

several potential tourism destinations that are rich in cultural monuments (archaeological,

historical and religious sites), beaches and tourist resorts (Mustafa, 2010), more and more

Arab tourists choose to visit foreign countries, particularly those in Europe and Asia

(Prayag & Hosany, 2013).

Since the September 11 terrorist attacks in the United States in 2001, the number of Arab

tourists in Australia increased as many changed their tourism destination to countries other

than the United States, France and Britain. Primarily this occurred due to difficulties

passing through customs and obstacles with their visas that were faced by Arab tourists

who wished to holiday in the United States or Europe (Mick, 2007). At first Arab tourists

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turned their interest to Southeast Asian countries such as Malaysia and Singapore, both of

which have Islam as one of their religions. Malaysia is now considered one of the most

popular destinations for Arab tourists, especially those who are coming from the Arabian

Gulf. There are several reasons for this shift in focus. Malaysia is considered an Islamic

culture, despite the existence of other religions, therefore, Arab tourists can exercise their

worship smoothly and peacefully (Mahameed, 2011). This is in addition to existing

facilities and services that suit the Arab tourists, such as the hotels, apartments,

transportation, markets, and halal food being freely available (Sulaiman, 2010). Also

security and stability have increased the number of Arab tourists to Malaysia.

More recently, the numbers of Arab tourists have been gradually increasing and their

destination of choice has been expanding. For instance in 2010, 790,000 tourists from the

Middle East spent £101 billion in Britain (Osaimi, 2011); while 123,000 tourists from the

Gulf countries visited Switzerland, realising a 19.7% increase in Arabian tourists to the

region (Aljamosee, 2011). In the same year, the Tourism Authority of Singapore

announced that the high numbers of visitors from the Middle East to Singapore increased

by 21.23%, reaching nearly 55,000 visitors (Husseini, 2010). Moreover, in 2011 Turkey

saw an increase of 75% in the number of Arab tourists. The increase in Arab tourists varies

from country to country, ranging from 21 percent of UAE nationals and 51 percent of

Moroccans (Jibrak, 2011 ). Furthermore, Arab tourists have shown interest in visiting

Australia or Brazil in order to discover new areas relatively far from the Arab countries

(Nushwan, 2011).

3.4.5 Desires and Needs of Arab Tourists

While the type of tourism that appeals to Arab tourists varies, the most favoured types of

tourism include entertainment, adventure and shopping. Leisure tourism is the most

common among Arab tourists, where the main purpose of the holiday is entertainment and

enjoyment (Firyaan, 2011). This type of tourism attracts all segments of Arab society,

including children and adults. Thus, adventure tourism such as scuba diving, mountain

climbing, surfing, horseback riding, paragliding and gliding, and hunting are often sought

65

by the Arabian tourists (Alcciaga, 2008). Generally, Arab tourists are looking for

destinations that offer different kinds of water entertainment resorts or wilderness

opportunities where they can enjoy family, fun and entertainment. Importantly, Arabs

usually travel with their family, preferring to rent private cars rather than use public

transport, and stay at hotels that are equipped with interconnected rooms and/or suites or

apartments (Mick, 2007).

Shopping, however, is perhaps the most popular and desired tourist activity among Arabs

(Alsheikh, 2006). As some Arab tourists, especially those from the Arab Gulf countries,

prefer destinations that possess an abundance of different types of markets that compete

with the finest brands in the most important world markets, and especially those that have

goods at affordable prices (Akoum, 2011). This is in addition to the popular and historic

markets that distinguish one tourism destination from another. Therefore, shopping centres

are an important priority for Arabian tourists. Providing a diverse shopping centre is

essential to attract Arab tourists, who are famous for their propensity to purchase jewellery

during high spend shopping expeditions (Jibrak, 2011). Overall, the level of spending by

Arabs is relatively high (Ammari, 2010). One study estimated that about 15,000 visitors

from the Middle East were spending $78 million on the Gold Coast each year, compared

with 114,000 Chinese tourists spending $67 million. This makes the Middle East tourist

group the largest spending group per capita on the Gold Coast (Meers, 2011).

3.4.6 Previous Studies on the Motivations of Arab Tourists

To date, there has been scant attention paid by researchers towards the motivation of

outbound tourists from Arab countries (Alghamdi, 2007; Michael &Beeton, 2007; Rohmi,

2010). However there are a number of notable exceptions. One such studies was

undertaken by Bogari, Crowther and Marr (2004). Their research was conducted in Saudi

Arabia and examined both the ‘push’ and ‘pull’ domestic tourism motivation in Islamic

and Arabic cultures on the basis that cultural variables play a significant role in tourism

motivation. Factor analysis revealed nine ‘push’ motivational categories: cultural value,

utilitarian, knowledge, social, economic, family togetherness, interest, relaxation, and

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convenience of facilities. There were nine ‘pull’ motivational categories that resulted from

factor analysis (safety, activity, beach sports/activities, nature/ outdoor, historical/cultural,

religious, budget, leisure, and upscale). By far the most important of the ‘push’ and ‘pull’

factors for Saudi tourists are cultural and religious values. Moreover, Alghamd (2007)

investigates the implicit and other motivations for Saudi outbound tourism, as well as the

influence of Saudi culture, demographic variables and tourists’ motivations on destination

selection. Factor analyses were conducted to identify tourism motivation and cultural

factors of Saudi society. The findings indicate that the tourism motivations, cultural factors

and demographic variables have an influence on destination selection. Thus, most studies

on Arab tourists’ motivations found that Arab tourists’ culture and religion impact on their

motivations and destination choice.

3.5 Chapter Summary

In this chapter an overview of the case study for this research was provided. The discussion

in this chapter was divided into two main sections. The first section identified that

Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism were the most important destination

marketing organisations in Australia. Also, it highlighted the different stages of

development of Australia’s image brand as well as the Gold Coast’s image brand. In

addition, important tourism attractions on the Gold Coast were presented in this section, as

well as an outline of the increase in the number of tourists in this city. The second section

provided some information about Arab outbound tourists. It began with an overview of

Arab world and its important characteristics. Arab culture was addressed, including the

significant proportion of Arab culture that is based upon their observance of the Islamic

faith. In this section Arab tourists’ motivations were outlined, as well as the previous

studies about the characteristics and motivations of Arab tourists.

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4 CHAPTER FOUR: RESEARCH METHODOLOGY

4.1 Introduction

Chapter Four identifies, justifies and describes the methods applied to achieve the aim and

five key objectives of the research. As discussed in the literature review, this study intends

to explore Arab tourists’ image of their destination, including their perceptions and

motivations, for visiting the Gold Coast, Australia. This chapter begins with review of

methods used in previous studies, before identifying the overarching paradigm that guides

this research. Following from this discussion, this chapter identifies and justifies the

research method applied in this study.

An overview of the research case study is then presented, the case study that refers to

Australia in general, and to the Gold Coast in particular. After that, the research design is

highlighted, in which the author identifies the specific methods that are used in order to

achieve the research objectives. This section provides an explanation of this method such

as interview process, questions, participant recruitment and selection as well as pilot study

and data analysis. Next the method used for the analysis content on Australian and Arabic

websites is presented. This section addresses website selection as well as why the method

for content analysis was selected for this research. This chapter also presents a review of

the survey section as one of the important tools that was employed in collecting the

necessary data for this study. This section outlines the instrument design and participant

recruitment and selection process. In addition, there was a discussion of the pilot testing

procedure as well as the tests’ reliability and validity. The chapter is concluded by

addressing ethical considerations.

4.2 Previous Studies on Destination Image

This section describes and summarises the methods used in previous studies on destination

image. This section divided to subsections that include the collection of previous studies,

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background to previous studies, commonalities and differences in methods of assessment

and implications of previous studies for research design.

4.2.1 Collection of Previous Studies

A selection of previous studies on destination image examined in this review of research

methods were identified by searching the university database (EBSCO databases) and

Google Scholar. This process demonstrated that there is a great wealth of previous studies

that have examined destination image. According to Pike (2002) there had already been

142 studies on the subject of tourism destination image (Pike, 2002). Although there have

been a significant number of studies on this subject, the current review has a narrower

focus, zeroing in on destination image in an explicit travel context particularly studies that

investigated the impact of tourists’ perception and motivations on destination image as

well as studies that addressed the tourists’ cultural background. The author also chose the

most recent research because it is more inclusive and current. As a result of this process, 20

publications on destinations were analysed to inform the method selected in this research.

4.2.2 Commonalities and Differences in Methods of Assessment

As outlined in Chapter Two, studies on subject of the destination image began over four

decades ago. Early studies on destination image were largely based in the United States of

America, where Gunn’s (1972) study is considered to be one of the first studies of image

concept (Kim & Yoon, 2003). Building upon this early foundation, the concept of

destination image become one of the most popular subjects for researchers in other

locations, including Australia, the United Kingdom and China.

A review of the methods implemented by 20 studies on destination image undertaken

between the period 1990-2013 was conducted. Table 4 presents a summary of the findings,

where studies have been presented in chronological order. In order to analyse the

similarities and dissimilarities in methods of assessment in previous destination image,

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certain criteria have been used. These criteria included the type of research method and

instrumentation applied, and the population sampled in previous studies.

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Table 5: Previous Studies on Destination Image

Author & date Method Instrument Scale/Analysis technique Sample population

(Danna, 1996) Qualitative Methodology Interview Thematic Analysis Visitors to Barbados in the Caribbean

(Baloglu, 1997) Mixed Methodology

Questionnaire and

interview

Five-point Likert-type scale.

A Duncan multiple range test

was performed for analysis of

the data

West German overseas visitors

(MacKay & Fesenmaier, 1997) Mixed Methodology Focus groups and survey

Likert-Type Methodology.

A series of t-tests were

performed

Manitoba, Canada

(Santos, 1998) Qualitative Methodology Content analysis N/A People's Republic of China

(Chaudhary, 2000) Quantitative Methodology Survey

Likert scale was used.

A group mean t -test analysis

was conducted

The tourists had travelled or stayed in India

(Joppe et al., 2001) Quantitative Methodology Questionnaire (4 point Likert scale) and

(5 point Likert scale). Visitors in Toronto, Canada

(Lee et al., 2002) Mixed Methodology Survey and Interview (4 point Likert scale)

German Consumers registered in the

records of the Canadian Tourism

Commission and the United States Travel

and Tourism Administration

(Kim & Yoon, 2003) Quantitative Methodology Questionnaire.

A 5-point Likert scale was used

The LISREL analysis was

performed as well as Chi-

square test

Overseas travellers in Seoul, South Korea

(Konecnik, 2004) Mixed Methodology Survey and Interview

A five-point Likert scale

Comprised tourist experts from all over the

world, attended the International Tourismus

Boerse (ITB) in March 2003 in Berlin

(Hanlan & Kelly, 2005) Qualitative Methodology Interviews Thematic analysis International backpackers on Australia’s

northern New South Wales Coast

(Bonn et al., 2005) Mixed Methodology Survey and Interview A 10-item, 9-point Likert type Visitors to the Tampa Bay region in Florida

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SPSS 10.0 was used to allow

for a more manageable data set

were personally interview

(O'Leary & Deegan, 2005) Qualitative and Quantitative

Methodologies

Content Analysis And

Questionnaire

Five point Likert scale

Paired t-tests were carried out French visitors to Ireland

(Chen & Tsai, 2007) Quantitative Methodology

Questionnaire

A five-point Likert-type scale.

An exploratory factor analysis

as well as structural equation

modeling (SEM) technique was

used for analysis data

Tourists in the Kengtin region of Taiwan

(Kattiyapornpong & Nel,

2009)

Qualitative and Quantitative

Methodologies

Survey and Content

Analysis

SPSS analysis is applied

The Leximancer program can

be used to compare the web site

content of destinations

The Australian population

(Jetter & Chen, 2011) Quantitative Methodology Questionnaire

A 1–5 Likert scale was used

The frequencies, means, and

percentages carried out

Tourism industry professionals that

attended the Tennessee Governor’s

Conference on Tourism held in Knoxville

in September 2006

(Kesić & Pavlić, 2011) Quantitative Methodology Questionnaire A 7-Point Likert Scale Tourists who stayed in the Dubrovnik

(Sirichote, 2012) Quantitative Methodology Questionnaire

The research instrument was a

5-point Likert scale.Data was

analysed via exploratory factor

analysis, using SPSS

Tourists in Thailand

(Cai & Murphy, 2012) Quantitative Methodology Questionnaire

7-point Likert scale and 5-point

scale was used. The analysis

was by SPSS.

Senior management from two key

stakeholder groups directly involved in the

consumer purchase process of travel to

Australia in USA

(Klabi, 2012) Qualitative and Quantitative

Methodologies

A qualitative Research and

Survey

7-point Likert type scale was

used. A t-test approach used for

the analysis

Tourists in Tunisia

(Mariutti et al., 2013) Qualitative Methodology Interview Thematic analysis

Travel agents and tourism experts located

in the cities of New York, Miami, Orlando,

and Atlanta

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Table 5 demonstrates some similarities and differences in the methods of assessment used

by previous studies on destination image. Quantitative methods were the most common

methods used in the studies on destination image displayed in Table 5, as well as an

increasing prominence of mixed methods approaches. Of the 20 articles that were

collected, twelve used a quantitative approach and five used a mixed-methods approach.

The most popular data collection technique used was surveys. In addition, most of the

research population was drawn from international tourists. However, some of these studies

have been applied to regions, others to cities, while some were applied to an entire country,

rather than a city or a region.

Although some studies did not mention the exact types of scales that were used explicitly,

it can observed that most tended to use Likert-type scales, with five-point Likert scales the

most frequently utilised in order to solicit perceptions of the destinations’ attractions as

well as to identify tourists’ attitudes towards the destination. Seven-point Likert scales and

four-point scales were also used by previous studies. These scales measured various

numbers of attributes, based on the author and study objectives. Also, between 10 and 31

items were used in previous studies to assess the perceptions of tourists and their attitudes.

Finally, according to Table 5, SPSS the program that is most commonly utilized for

analysis of survey data. Various types of descriptive statistics and factor analysis were the

most popular forms of data analysis utilised to evaluate the perceptions of tourists.

4.2.3 Implications of Previous Studies for Research Design

According to the findings of analyses in previous research that studied destination image,

quantitative and qualitative research methodologies have been used to collect data from

participants. In addition, the most popular method used for obtaining data from

respondents is the questionnaire (survey), interview and content analysis method. Research

Objective One focuses on the Gold Coast’s destination image and tourism marketing

strategies, whereas Research Objective Two analyses whether or not the perceived image

of the Gold Coast as a tourism destination corresponded with the image promoted by the

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marketers of Tourism. Research Objectives Three, Four and Five focus on Arab tourists’

characteristics, perceptions, motivations and their cultural backgrounds.

As a result of the analysis of previous research a mixed method design was selected to

achieve the aims of objectives of this research. Consequently, in order to achieve the first

and second objectives (exploring whether or not the perceived image of the destination

corresponds with the image that is promoted) a qualitative, inductive approach was

selected and a semi-structured approach and content analysis were chosen in order to

obtain a more in-depth and nuanced view. To achieve the objectives that focus on

perceptions and motivations of tourists towards the image of the destination (3, 4, and 5), a

quantitative survey was selected.

By reviewing previous studies on destination image, a decision was made to select and

implement a mixed method approach to achieve the objectives of this research. A survey

will be used to identify the perceptions; motivations and image that Arab tourists have of

the Gold Coast, Australia. The use of interviews and content analysis will identify the

image portrayed of the destination.

4.3 Research Approach

This section describes, explains and justifies the research methods selected for this study.

At the beginning, this section presents the research paradigm with brief overview of the

most commonly used paradigms in the field of social science. A mixed methods approach,

of all of those available, was selected in order to achieve the aims and objectives of this

research, and the author has illustrated the reasoning behind this decision. Justification of

the research methodology is also presented in this section; and finally, research case study

is explained.

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4.3.1 Research Paradigm

To conduct research in any field, it is important firstly to identify the paradigm within

which that research is conducted, and how this influences the values and actions of the

research. The paradigm determines the kind of approach that permits study subjects to give

meaning to their situation (Fossey et al., 2002). Morgan (2007) has referred to paradigms

as ‘world views’, ‘epistemological stances’ and beliefs about the nature of reality,

knowledge and values. A research paradigm helps to explain the way in which the research

is designed (Morgan, 2007). Moreover, the paradigm reflects how to collect data, the

method of analysing this data, as well as how research results are presented. It is important

that the researcher is aware of his or her own the research paradigm and

ontological/epistemological views, where it allows them to identify their role in the

research and determine the course of the project that is being studied (Fossey et al., 2002).

Paradigms are traditionally derived from a basis in ontology, epistemology and

methodology. Ontological considerations relate to the view of the nature of reality or what

is the researcher’s perception of the nature of reality (Sale et al., 2002). Epistemological

issues address the nature of the relationship between the researcher and the subjective or

objects of research Methodological factors refer to the way in which the researcher should

go about finding out knowledge (Jennings, 2010). Within the social sciences field, a

number of paradigms have developed based on the different ways researchers approach

inquiry. The most commonly used frameworks for social science and tourism research are

interpretivism, positivism, post-positivist and critical theory (Creswell, 2007). This

research is grounded within a post-positivism paradigm. Before discussing this paradigm, a

brief overview of these paradigms is outlined below.

The positivist paradigm affirms that the only ‘true’ knowledge is that is based on rational

testing, measurement and positive verification (Dash, 2005). The beliefs of the positivist

paradigm are realist ontology [assumes that there is an objective reality] and

representational epistemology [assumes that people can know this reality and use symbols

/numbers to accurately describe and explain this objective reality] (Kura, 2012). According

to the tenets of positivism, social phenomena are subject to laws that people discovered

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through a logical way via empirical testing, using inductive and deductive hypotheses that

were obtained from a set of scientific theories. Its methods thus rely heavily on testable,

quantitative measures (O'Brien, 1998). Despite the popularity of this paradigm, particularly

in tourism management research, it has been subject to more recent criticism by those

advocating a more qualitative, interpretive approach. The most important of these

criticisms is the absolute objectivity or absolute certainty that it is difficult to obtain

absolute truths in the social sciences because these sciences deal with people (who have

different behaviours and varied perceptions). Hence, theories cannot obtain a real truth, but

can only move closer to the truth (Salmani & Akbari, 2008). Relying on quantitative

methods only, therefore, cannot avoid the inherent disadvantages of these methods.

The interpretivist paradigm is characterised by a subjective viewpoint to the social world,

by focusing on interpretation in the subjective consciousness of social participants rather

than as an objective observer (Williamson, 2006). Interpretive social science allows the

discovery of ‘embedded meaning’, helping the researcher to get the real perspective of the

participant (Laing & Crouch, 2005). Denzin and Lincoln (1994; cited in Jennings, 2001)

have argued that this paradigm assumes a relativist ontology (there are multiple realities), a

subjectivist epistemology (knower and subject create understandings), and a naturalistic (in

the natural world) set of methodological procedures. Qualitative methods are used in

interpretive paradigm. This paradigm also has some criticisms, one of the criticisms of this

paradigm is that study a small group of cases, but cannot be applied to the population as a

whole. This means that interpretivism paradigm does not allow for generalisations (Kiim,

2003; Mack, 2010).

Critical theory shares some ideals with the interpretive paradigm. However, it differs in

that critical social scientists believe that in addition to the importance of understanding the

lived experience of real people in context, persons can perceive reality outside them and

represent that reality with language. The beliefs of critical theory paradigm are a historical

ontology (assumes there is a reality created by social, political, cultural, economic, ethnic

and gender-based forces that have been crystallised over time into social structures that are

taken to be natural or real) (Tse, 2009), and a subjectivist epistemology (there is

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inextricably tied in the interaction between a particular investigator and a particular object

or group) (Cohen, 2008). The critical paradigm explores the social world and seeks to

enable the individual to overcome social problems in the world. It helps people to

understand how society functions and methods that can change the aspects of non-

satisfactory (Dash, 2005). Moreover in critical research the neutrality of the researcher is

not expected, but rather the researcher becomes a politically active part of the research

process, in an effort to bring about positive changes or actions in society. Researchers in

such a situation have started to focus on processes rather than tools and the final results of

the research (Belbase, 2007). In the critical paradigm, the dichotomy between quantitative

and qualitative methods is therefore replaced by an approach that is considered appropriate

given the research topic (Krauss, 2005), so, in this paradigm can use both qualitative and

quantitative methodologies as appropriate to the subject of the research.

The post-positivist paradigm, which was used in this research and with which the author

feels most comfortable working, is an extension of the positivistic (or scientific) approach

to research, in that it remains firmly grounded in the tenets of logical empiricism, cause

and effect, and determinism (Creswell, 2007). In the post-positivist paradigm, the choice

of a research method is guided by the research questions and can incorporate mixed

methods (Prayag, 2009). In this paradigm, the knowledge can be discovered through a

scientific methodology that engages quantitative with some qualitative methods. The

researcher can use the post-positivist philosophy to explain more fully human behaviour by

studying a phenomenon from more than one standpoint. This is because the mixed method

can give a more detailed picture of a phenomenon this method involves a cross

examination of data collected from multiple sources (Yee-Lee et al., 2011).

Overall, the researcher believes that her values and beliefs about inquiry fit most clearly

with the post-positivist paradigm, which is reflected in how the study of Arab tourists’

perceptions and images of the Gold Coast was approached. A mixed methodology

approach allows for the best and most pragmatic way to explore the significance of Arab

culture in the development of destination brand image marketing strategies. Furthermore,

this research adopts the post-positivist paradigm in order to gain knowledge about how the

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Gold Coast’ image was described as a tourism destination by Arab tourists and their

motivations. This adds to our understanding of the impact of their cultural background on

motivations, perceptions and destination image.

4.3.2 Research Method

This section discusses the research method selected to achieve the aim and objectives of

the research. There are many approaches that can be used in social research to obtain ‘data’

or ‘results’, and the most commonly used in social research are: descriptive research,

which is aimed at providing the accurate description of the phenomena (Abdel-Hadi,

2006); explanatory research, which is aimed at finding correlations between different

factors, seeking to find connections between variables or factors (Jennings, 2010); and

exploratory research, which is used when there is not much known about the subject. The

main purpose of exploratory research is to reach a better understanding of the problem to

enable the researcher to formulate a problem in such a way that it can be tested and

examined. A causal approach is focused on specific hypotheses about the effects of

changes of one variable on another variable. It deals with cause and effect relationships

(Pride & Ferrell, 2005).

In order to achieve the aim and research objectives this thesis used a combination of

descriptive, exploratory and explanatory approaches. These approaches have been selected

for this research due to their importance in humanities research in general, and tourism

research in particular (Carlsen & Charters, 2006). Descriptive research treats variables in

their natural state, and is a common approach in studies that profile particular market

segments (Shuttleworth, 2008). As there was a need to profile the Arab market segment, a

descriptive approach was selected for certain components of the research.

Explanatory studies search for explanations of relationships between certain variables.

Consequently, this research applied an explanatory approach to examine the impact of

culture on Arab tourists’ motivations and perceptions by using the three cultural

dimensions of Hofstede's model (power distance, individualism versus collectivism, and

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uncertainty avoidance). Finally, an exploratory approach was also adopted to obtain

knowledge on how Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism work strategically to lure

Arab tourists to the Gold Coast. The exploratory approach was selected to seek new rich

insights through the interviews and document analysis to try to understand the way that

tourism is promoted to the Arab market. It is this convergence of descriptive, explanatory

and exploratory approaches that provides a unique lens to fully understand the impact of

culture of Arab tourists’ perceptions and motivations.

4.3.3 Justification of the Research Methodology

Ultimately, the choice of research methodology depends on the type of data being studied,

where the specific data that is needed determines which of these methodologies is the most

appropriate and suitable to meet the objectives of this research. The common research

methods in social research include the quantitative method, qualitative method and mixed

method (Bazeley, 2002). Quantitative methods are used primarily by positivist and

post-positivist researchers and often use highly organised methods such as questionnaires

scale items and structured observations (Sale et al., 2002). Qualitative methods, employed

by interpretive and critical researchers, seek to explore the phenomena through the use of

semi-organised methods such as in-depth interviews and focus groups (Mack et al., 2005).

Due to the nature of the aims and objectives, this research employed a mixed method

approach, drawing on both qualitative and quantitative methods (Andrew & Halcomb,

2009; Hesse-Biber, 2010; Morgan, 2007). Mixed methods focus on collecting, analysing

and mixing both quantitative and qualitative data in a single study or series of studies

(Johnson & Onwuegbuzie, 2004). The mixed methods approach is used as a means to

assist in bridging the division between qualitative and quantitative research. The researcher

will introduce the mixed method approach in order to understand Arab tourists’

perspectives about the image of the Gold Coast as a tourist destination.

The use of a mixed method approach to focus on the same phenomenon will enhance the

authenticity and accuracy of the data and the conclusions drawn from the research

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(Bazeley, 2002; Bryman, 2006). This is what the researcher was seeking to achieve

through the study of the perceived image of the Gold Coast held by Arab tourists, their

motivation to visit and the impact of their culture on their motivation. Moreover, the mixed

method approach benefits from the advantages of using qualitative and quantitative

approaches and reduces their weaknesses (Koller, 2008). The mixed methodology

approach has been used and recommended in a number of previous studies of tourism, and

in the context of destination marketing, and branding (Jennings, 2010).

4.3.4 Case Study Research

Case study approaches have been used extensively in tourism research (Ritchie et al.,

2005). The use of case studies is considered to be very appropriate, in order to seek a deep

understanding of complex social phenomena (Eisenhardt, 2002). In addition, the case study

allows for the subject to be studied within its natural context. The data collection process is

usually interactive as the researcher relates to person involved in the ‘case’ under

consideration (Yin, 2003). Moreover, the use of case studies enables the use of multiple

methods for data collection and analysis (Darke et al., 1998). This explains why the

method of case studies helps in gaining a deeper understanding of the situation and the

factors that interact with it. This study applied a case study approach the Gold Coast, an

iconic Australian tourism destination.

As identified in Chapter Three, the Gold Coast is one of the most famous Australian cities

in the Arab world, and it has one of the highest rates of Arab travellers to Australia.

Thereby the study helps to aid our understanding the perspectives and motivations of Arab

tourists in choosing Australia as a tourist destination; as well as exploring the impact of

their cultural background on their choice of destination.

According to the previous discussion about mixed methods, this sub-section has addressed

each of the objectives of this study that drive the research methods that were selected and

applied. A map that explores the overall use of the mixed methods design, consisting of

two stages of research, is displayed in Figure 5.

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Figure 5: Research Design and Methods

The above stages are derived from the study aim, which is to identify and explore Arab

tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations to visit, the Gold Coast, Australia. Accordingly,

this research has two stages, constructed to achieve the overarching aim and objectives of

this study. The first phase uses two methods, namely semi-structured interviews and a

content analysis of websites. The semi-structured interviews were conducted with tourism

marketers in both Gold Coast Tourism and Tourism Queensland. Content analysis was

used to analyse Australian tourism websites and Arab websites in order to obtain

knowledge about the image of the Gold Coast as a tourist destination.

Research Aim: To identify and explore Arab tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations to visit, the Gold Coast, Australia.

Objectives One and Two: 'To explore and understand how the Gold Coast is presented to Arab tourists', and 'To analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on Arab websites corresponds with the image that is promoted by key DMO (destination marketing organisation) websites'.

Stage One: Semi-structured interviews with Queensland Tourism and Tourism Gold Coast, and Content Analysis of Australian tourism websites and Arab tourism websites.

Objectives Three, Four and Five: ‘To identify the characteristics of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast’, ‘To explore Arab tourists’ perceptions and motivations to visit Australia’, and ‘To examine the influence of Arab culture and other factors on Arab tourists’ motivations and perceptions’.

Stage Two: Survey with Arab tourists who visit the Gold Coast.

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Semi-structured interviews were used to achieve Objective One (to explore and understand

how the Gold Coast is presented to Arab tourists), whereas the content analysis method

was utilised in order to achieve Research Objective Two (to analyse if the perceived image

of the Gold Coast on Arab websites corresponds with the image that is promoted by key

DMO websites).

In the second stage, a survey was distributed and later collected from Arab tourists who

visited the Gold Coast. The questionnaire was used in order to achieve Objectives Three,

Four and Five. Those were: (to identify the characteristics of Arab tourists visiting the

Gold Coast), (an exploration into Arab tourists’ perceptions and motivations to visit

Australia); and (to examine the influence of Arab culture and other factors on Arab

tourists’ motivations and perceptions). The following sections provide further clarification

for each method that used in this study.

4.4 Research Method

This section provides a detailed explanation of methods that have been used in this

research. This section has been divided into three sub-sections: interview, content analysis

and questionnaire. Each of these sections is also divided into parts in order to understand

how each method has been applied, and in order to obtain a clearer understanding of each

of these methods.

4.4.1 Interview

4.4.1.1 In-Depth Interviews

Interviews allow respondents to convey their own personal perspectives of a phenomenon

in an informal setting (Eruera, 2008). Moreover, the advantage of in-depth interviews is

that they allow the interviewer to adapt the questions to suit the interviewees’ expertise,

backgrounds and languages (Abdel-Hadi, 2006). In addition interviews assist to build up a

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valuable trust and empathy bond between researcher and participant (Keats, 2000). Further,

in-depth interviews also provide the opportunity to ask supplementary questions and

encourage people to talk in more detail. Moreover, an interview allows sufficient flexibility

for the respondent (Miller & Glassner, 2010)

This study sought an understanding of the marketing strategies that are followed in order to

support the brand in general and also in order to know strategies used to attract Arab

tourists to the Gold Coast. Therefore the in-depth interview method was identified as

appropriate for Objective One of the research.

4.4.1.2 Interview Design

Interviews were semi-structured, meaning that the questions broached different themes of

interest and lead to extensive and open discussions. The purpose of using such a method is

to let the interviewee talk openly (Elliott, 2012). In addition, despite the presence of

specific questions, semi-structured interviews allow further investigation to seek

clarification and elaboration of the participant’s own ideas, aspirations, and feelings while

generating detailed, ‘rich’ context, qualitative data (Long, 2007). This flexibility allowed

an extension of the interviews into other matters that were not originally included in the

lists of the interview, but nonetheless helped to address the study research questions. For

example, if an interviewee presents an interesting point during the interview that was not

initially included in the list of topics to be explored, the interviewer may absorb it for

clarification or clearly addressing the research questions.

Interviews began with an explanation of the research context and some general questions

designed to create a suitable and relaxed atmosphere. Interview questions were designed

from a review of the relevant literature. The flow of interviews had some sense of natural

conversation, which meant that the atmosphere was friendly and respondents were offered

comfort and flexibility. The naturalness conversations during interviews are considered to

be more like talking, and talking is generally natural (Morrison, 2009).

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Semi-structured interviews were limited to eighteen broad questions derived from the

literature review. In order to obtain the necessary information on marketing strategies that

are followed, these questions were derived from previous studies (Cretu & Brodie, 2007;

Janonis et al., 2007; Ng et al., 2007; Obaidat, 2008; Prayag, 2009). In addition, the

interview questions tried to establish the tourism marketing strategies that are followed to

promote the Gold Coast as tourism destination. Also, the interviews sought to gain

knowledge of their information about Arab tourists’ perceptions, motivations, special

requirements/needs and their cultural background, and about their strategies to target the

Arab market. The information collected was divided into two parts: the first part was about

the destination image, while the second part was about their knowledge of Arab tourists

and their strategies to target this market.

4.4.1.3 Interview Recruitment and Selection

In this study the interviewees were selected through a purposeful sampling method.

Purposive sampling is a commonly used qualitative approach employed in tourism

research (Laing, 2006; Weiler & Yu, 2006). One of the ways in which purposive sampling

can be applied to research is by sampling informants with a specific type of knowledge or

skill (Tongco, 2007). Abaidat (1999) defined purposive sampling as a type of non-

probability sampling in which the researcher selects specific subjects for inclusion in the

study to ensure that the subjects will have certain properties relevant to the study (Abaidat

et al., 1999). Using this method of sampling ensures that the researchers can extract the

greatest amount of information from a limited sample and choose the subjects according to

the objectives of the research project (Khalid et al., 2012).

There are no defined rules as to sample size for qualitative research (Tuckett, 2004). More

important for qualitative research than the sample size is the detailed description of the

data (Brey et al., 2011). As the interviews had a very specific focus, only a small number

of staff could be identified as suitable informants from the participating organizations, and

thus were purposively sought. Especially, the researcher sought out marketing staff who

were involved the Arab region in particular for Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast

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Tourism. This was done in order to understand the tourism marketing strategies that are

followed to improve the Gold Coast’s destination image in general and their strategies

directed to Arab markets in particular.

4.4.1.4 Interview Setting and Procedures

In order to obtain the required information, the researcher selected four key marketing

personnel from Tourism Queensland, being working directors of: Marketing, Brand &

Marketing, Market Activation & Publicity and Director of Gulf countries. At Gold Coast

Tourism, the researcher also selected four marketing staff. These were working directors

of: International Marketing, Brand-Communications and Marketing Services and

International Marketing (Asia and Middle East).

An initial request for contact several emails were sent to these staff, requesting an

interview with them (See Appendix C). These emails included the necessary information

about the purpose of the interview and provided a background to the overall research.

Despite the efforts made by this researcher to arrange an interview with these employees a

number of emails were sent back apologising for not granting interviews because this

research was not in their field and they advised the researcher to restrict the interviews to

the official marketers of the Arab region from each of the respective organisations.

According to their view, marketers for the Arab region had the necessary information

about adopted marketing strategies in general, and strategies directed to the Arab region in

particular. Therefore the researcher was only able to secure two interviews with a

marketing staff member, one from TQ and other from GCT. It must be noted, however,

that multiple people from each organisation identified these two participants as the most

appropriate person to participate in interviews.

The roles of the respondents were slightly different. The respondent from TQ was the

International Director for India, Korea, and Gulf Countries, whereas the interviewer’s

respondent from GCT was Manager of International Operations. The interviews took place

at the subjects’ work place. Interviews were recorded and the researcher took written

records of their answers. Each interview took approximately one hour to complete.

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Although information sheets were given to the participants, at the beginning of each

interview the researcher reiterated the purpose of the study and the types of questions that

would be asked. The purpose of the explanation was first to seek the awareness of the

interviewees and also give them a broad knowledge of what the study was about. The

researcher used open-ended questions in a semi-structured dialogue format to elicit the

participant’s views concerning research areas. All these interviews were recorded and

transcribed.

The information that was collected was divided into three parts. The first part was about

the destination image of the Gold Coast, the second part about their knowledge outline

Arab market and the third part focused on marketing to Arab visitors. The aim of including

all three parts was to present clear information about the tourism marketing strategies that

are followed and what the important dimensions were of the Gold Coast’s destination

image. Also it sought to gain knowledge of their information about Arab tourists’

perceptions, motivations, special requirements/needs and their cultural background and

about their strategies to target the Arab market.

4.4.1.5 Interview Data Analysis

The analysis of the data collected from interviews included a number of interrelated stages,

including classification, comparison and combination of original material to extract the

meaning and implications. Although there are a variety of techniques for interview

analysis, the technique of Miles and Huberman (2002) is the one most commonly used

(Dooley, 2007), and also suited the aims and objectives of the research. Thereby the

analysis of interview was reviewed and processed was based on Miles and Huberman

(2002). Therefore, in this research four stages were used in order to analyse the data

gathered from the interviews. Firstly, themes and thoughts were collated after each

interview. Secondly, the interviews were transcribed and organised. Thirdly, data was

linked to objectives. Finally, conclusions were drawn. Figure 6 displays these stages.

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Figure 6: Interview Data Analysis Stages

In this research, themes and thoughts were collated after each interview. In other words, at

the end of each interview, the obtained information was assembled and interpreted. Then a

report was written that summarised and interpreted the information obtained. After that, the

obtained information was transcribed and organised. In this stage, data was being coded –

the coding starts with closely text reading and search for frequent meanings in the text,

then outlining the main words for each interview. After that, these codes were organised

and assembled into suitable themes or categories that are consistent throughout all of the

interviews. Based on this, a new name is created for each new category of themes. Through

this, the researcher is able to link the information provided by the interviewees to the

objectives of the study. Finally, conclusions are made about the results of the interviews.

4.4.2 Content Analysis

4.4.2.1 Concept of Content Analysis

Content analysis is popular in fields such as history, political science, anthropology, as

well as tourism (Stepchenkova et al., 2009). Content analysis is a common method used in

social science research where the focus of inquiry is the messages or meanings within a

particular ‘text’ for research. Content analysis is used widely to explain the meaning of the

data contained in the text (Hsieh & Shannon, 2005). There are generally two ways to use

content analysis: quantitative content analysis and qualitative content analysis. Quantitative

content analysis relies on a more interpretive and often critical description of the

• Themes and thoughts were collated Stage One

• Interviews were transcribed and organised Stage Two

• Data linked to objective Stage Three

• Conclusion Stage Four

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characterisation of the phenomenon under consideration and analysis of the multiple

dimensions of this phenomenon (Riffe et al., 2008). Qualitative content analysis creates

possibilities to apply the qualitative content analysis as a textual interpretation method in

human and tourism research (Kohlbacher, 2006). Qualitative content analysis emphasises

an integrated view of speech/texts and their specific contexts. In addition, it allows

researchers to understand social reality in a subjective and scientific manner and can show

the different possibilities of interpretation of ‘multiple connotations’ (Hsieh & Shannon,

2005); and it can be used both ways in the same research as a mixed content analysis.

Many researchers in the tourism field use content analysis, whether quantitative or

qualitative (Echtner & Prasad, 2003; Hudson & Miller, 2005; Stepchenkova et al., 2009).

Indeed a number of previous studies have used a content analysis to examine and analyse

the content of tourism websites on the Internet. According to Han and Mills (2006)

organisations began to use the Internet as a marketing tool in 1995 (Han & Mills, 2006).

The rapid development of information technology has contributed to government and

tourism organisations using the Internet to display information and the characteristics of

tourist destinations. This communication tool is considered to be an effective means to

gather information for both tourists and tourist destinations (Govers & Go, 2005). For

instance, the information presented on the Internet has been identified to help tourists in

their decision-making in choosing a destination. As some tourists do not have sufficient

knowledge about the various tourist destinations, they are using the Internet to obtain

information that will help them make an appropriate decision about a destination which

will suit their wishes (Zhou & DeSantis, 2005). On the other hand, the Internet is an

important tool for tourism marketing where tourism websites highlight attractions of the

destination such as location, culture, features and characteristics of tourist destinations

(Choi et al., 2007). To be successful, tourism websites depend on good design (Govers &

Go, 2005), which in turn supports the competitive position of the destination.

Murphy et al. (1996) were among the early researchers who studied the effectiveness of

online marketing in the hospitality and tourism sector. This study evaluated 36 restaurant

websites by using the categories of email contact, reservations, email newsletter,

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franchising and others. Since then, interest in the subject has increased, and many

researchers have studied this subject in many respects and different fields such as hotels,

airlines and resorts (Benckendorff & Black, 2000; Morrison, Taylor, Morrison, &

Morrison, 1999; Selza & Schuberta, 1997; Weeks & Crouch, 1999).

In the tourism field, previous studies have investigated the photographic or textual contents

of promotional materials (Day et al., 2002; Mackay & Fesenmaier, 2000). Govers and Go

(2004) conducted an exploratory study on the content analysed of online textual

representations of Dubai, in order to identify the central concepts promoted online by the

Dubai based tourism industry. The finding shows that private sector players still focus on

facilities and activities and that the promotion of the rich culture, heritage and identity of

Dubai is clearly left to the destination marketing organisation. This shows there is a

general lack of sensory or emotional cues, and as a result, the experiential nature of the

product is hardly reflected (Govers & Go, 2004).

In addition, Stepchenkova and Morrison (2006) studied the online content of travel agents

websites about Russia. This study compared American and Russian website materials

related to travel to Russia in order to determine whether the two sides differed in the most

frequently mentioned places and descriptions of Russia as a travel destination. This study

suggested that US tour operators are positioning Russia as mainly being a historic and

cultural destination. Technically and content-wise, the Russian websites required the

greatest improvements. They tended to be loaded with information and not particularly

well targeted to specific countries of visitor origin or market segments by travel interests

(Stepchenkova & Morrison, 2006).

In order to understand the gaps and shortcomings in the marketing strategies, a mixed

content analysis undertaken on data collected from key tourism organisations, responsible

for projecting images of the Gold Coast, such as Tourism Australia, Tourism Queensland

and Gold Coast Tourism, as well as an analysis of some Arabic language websites.

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4.4.2.2 Website Selection

In this research, content analysis was used to achieve research Objectives Two, which was

to analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on Arab websites corresponds with the

image that is promoted by key DMO (destination marketing organisation) websites.

With regard to the Australian tourism websites, the sample websites include: Tourism

Australia (TA) “http://www.tourism.australia.com/en-au”; Tourism Queensland (TQ)

“http://www.queenslandholidays.com.au”; and, Gold Coast Tourism (GCT)

“http://www.visitgoldcoast.com”. The purpose of searching these websites was to know

how they marketed the Gold Coast as a tourist destination. Only these three websites were

selected as these organisations were identified as responsible for creating the projected

destination image of Gold Coast portrayed by the overt induced agents, and thus directly

responsible for projecting an image of the Gold Coast to potential visitors.

In contrast, the Arab travel websites that presented Gold Coast’s image as a tourist

destination were also investigated in this research. Then, these websites were classified

into three subcategories according to the websites' identities:

Travel Blogs

http://www.alwahoob.com

http://travel.maktoob.com

http://www.almethaqalaraby.net

http://www.masrawysat.com

Online Travel Magazines

http://www.altayyargroup.com

http://forum.z7mh.com

http://www.alittihad.ae/columnsdetails.ph

Travel Trade Websites

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http://www.sfari.com

http://www.sawah-mag.com

http://www.travelzad.com

The Arabic websites were examined to gain an understanding of what kinds of images,

attractions and experiences were offered to potential tourists.

4.4.2.3 Data Analysis

Content analysis is common in tourism and destination-image research to analyse textual

and pictorial materials from the Internet. Building off a similar used in previous studies

(Day et al., 2002; Mackay & Fesenmaier, 2000), the content of the websites was manually

coded and analysed for common themes by the researcher in this study. It should be

mentioned that, in order to better understand and interpret the complex categories webs

data, the researcher manually analysed the data and generated categories by using the

outline feature in Microsoft Word.

The researcher visited a number of key Arab travel websites under the headings of “Gold

Coast as tourist destination", “Surfers Paradise", “Australia destination". These websites

are considered as special Arab travel webs, such sites are, ‘‘Travel Trade’’,

‘‘Travelogues’’, ‘‘Magazine’’, and ‘‘News and Media’’. Although there are many Arab

websites that mentioned Australia and the Gold Coast as a tourist destination, some of

these sites contained little of their own information about Australia and the Gold Coast and

some of them just indicated it as a tourist destination. The top ten from the search results

were selected. The researcher strategically selected those websites that were popular with

Arab tourists and provided information about the Gold Coast as a tourist destination. The

content of these websites were categorised and analysed by modifying approaches

implemented in studies with similar objectives (e.g. Henderson, 2001; Echtner, 2002;

Echtner & Prasad, 2003; Hudson & Miller, 2005).

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Ten Arab websites were located and saved in a Favourites folder, using Microsoft Internet

Explorer’s “Offline Web Pages” tool. Subsequently the pages on every site was browsed

and scanned for its textual content and photos. After that, the frequency of words as they

appeared in the text was noted, as well as the pictures. For this part of the analysis the

content was divided to two parts; analysis of textual information and analysis of visual

information.

The information that was analysed consisted of pictures, logos and words, based on the

search words ‘Gold Coast’, ‘Surfers Paradise’ and ‘South-East Queensland’. The narrative

and visual information was analysed through content analysis. The researcher reviewed the

text, and attractions and keywords were organised for consistent results. In addition, the

information being analysed was displayed and compared according to the most frequently

used words and images for each website. The findings also showed the combined total

frequencies for all categories of websites. Thus, using secondary data assisted in the

development of the questionnaire as well as helping the researcher to gain greater access to

more accurate results and clarity for this study. Consequently, the content analysis method

was applied on the two sides: Australian side and Arab side. These sets of information

were analysed by comparing the most often repeated words and images.

Accordingly, based on an approach by Pavlović and Belullo (2007) the following steps

were used to conduct the content analysis:

I. Identify the most frequently used words describing the Gold Coast as a tourism

destination on Australian tourism-related websites, and compare them with online

Arab websites.

II. Identify the most frequently used visual information on Australian tourism-related

websites, and compare them with the online Arab websites.

III. Examine of the similarities and/or differences between the image of the Gold Coast

portrayed by Australian tourism websites with the image promoted by Arab

websites.

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4.4.3 Survey

4.4.3.1 Instrument Design

Surveys are a commonly utilized method in scientific research. The advantages of using

surveys include: a lower cost of data collection, the respondent can answer all questions

freely and it does not require a large number of data collectors (Sato, 2005). Survey

questions vary according to the research approach and also according to the research type.

One of the main types of questionnaires are closed-ended questions (containing a limited

number of options for the respondent to select); whereas open-ended questionnaires

contain ‘questions which allow freedom to answer the question and leave a vacuum in

order to write the answer’ (Kumar, 2005). If the approach is an experimental method, it

uses a questionnaire with closed questions; and if the research follows a descriptive

approach, then it may use multiple methods of collecting data (Bohsh & Dhunaibat, 2001).

To enhance the reliability of the data collected, respondents were encouraged to carefully

read the questions before answering, and potential areas requiring clarification can thus be

rectified. Also, the researcher created an introduction in the questionnaire that explains the

importance of this research to make respondents aware of its purpose. This research used a

survey to achieve objectives 3, 4 and 5, which were to:

To identify the characteristics of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast’; ‘

To explore Arab tourists’ perceptions and motivations to visit Australia’, and,

‘To examine the influence of Arab culture and other factors on Arab tourists’

motivations and perceptions.

In order to gain both depth and breadth of understanding, the questionnaire was divided

into four parts (see Figure 7):

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Figure 7: Questionnaire Elements

Part One: Characteristics (Demographic and background). Previous research has

investigated the impact of demographic characteristics on tourists’ behaviour and

motivations in different countries and cultural contexts (Ke, 2011; Raktida Siri,

2009; Sun, 2005/2006). Nevertheless there has been a lack of attention among

researchers to investigate the demographic characteristics of Arab tourists and their

perceptions. Therefore the primary objective of this section is to identify the effects

of Arab tourists’ demographic characteristics on their perceptions and motivations,

and to contribute to the literature of tourism by investigating the effects of Arab

tourists’ demographic characteristics on their perceptions and motivations. This

part discusses the demographics of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast and their

behavioural background with regard to the size of the travel group and the length of

their stay.

Part Two: Motivations. The second part is about what motivates Arab tourists to

travel, and what motivates them to visit the Gold Coast in particular.

Part Three: Perceptions. The third part concerns the perceptions of Arab tourists of

the Gold Coast as a tourist destination.

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Part Four: Cultural background. This part reflects the culture of Arab society in

relation to Hofstede's Model of Culture (the model has five different dimensions,

but in this research, consideration is given to just three dimensions: power distance,

individualism versus collectivism, and uncertainty avoidance). Figure 7 shows

these elements.

The dimensions or items in Part 4 were selected depending upon on how suitable they are

for the study of Arab culture. Items that were eliminated relate to those that may not be

linked with or be suitable to Arabian culture (Alghamdi, 2007). This part consisted of 21

items that were developed on the basis of a review of the related literature and were

modified to suit Arab culture. The questionnaire was adapted from other questionnaires

used in similar studies (Alghamdi, 2007; Sun, 2005/2006; Zou, 2007). It was also based on

the theory of cross-cultural communication through the knowledge of the cultural

background of Arab tourists and through the development of some of the questions that

highlight this culture. The researcher benefited from using this method because the survey

was distributed to a large number of Arab tourists, as it was difficult to contact them

personally.

The items that were adopted in terms of cultural background are based on Hofstede’s

general items and do not belong solely to Arab culture. To use Hoftstede’s model

effectively and show similarities to previous research, these general questions needed to

be asked to demonstrate the cultural background of the individual as per Hofstede's Model.

In other words, this study did not adopt items that are found to be related to an ‘Arab’

cultural orientation. It should be recalled that the research is interested in studying culture

in general, and how this culture relates to tourists' motivations and perceptions.

Therefore, the survey applied Hofstede’s cultural model to then demonstrate its ability to

understand the traits of Arab culture, and ascertain how this culture is linked to tourism

motivations and perceptions; the selection of the items has been based on this assumption.

Items have been selected based on how they describe the society and on how suitable or

otherwise they may be for the study of Arab culture.

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4.4.3.2 Pilot Testing Procedure

A pilot test was conducted in December 2011, at Surfers Paradise Beachfront Markets in

Gold Coast using a random sampling approach. Printed survey questionnaires were

distributed to, and collected from, the Arab tourists’ respondents who had visited the place

during the pre-test period. Overall, 20 Arab respondents were asked to answer and critique

the questionnaire to capture whether the respondents understood all of the questions, to

compute the preliminary reliability of the questionnaire's items, and to estimate the amount

of time necessary to complete the questionnaire. The questionnaire was pre-tested to

identify potential areas of confusion for respondents, and to remove errors and to correct

omissions by the researcher (Jopp, 2012).

To ascertain the accuracy of the translation, the questionnaire was translated from English

into Arabic by the researcher. With each participant, the researcher distributed the English

version first, and after being completed, the researcher also provided the Arabic version for

them to fill in. To ensure a correct translation, the answers in Arabic were compared with

those in English for each participant. Based on the results of the pilot test and respondents'

suggestions, some modifications were conducted on the questionnaire. In relation to the

accuracy of the language translation, the results were positive. However some minor

changes were made to the questionnaire, most of these amendments involved improvement

to the language used in the questionnaire as well as make the purposes of the questionnaire

as a dot point instead paragraph in order to make them more clearly. In addition, many

participants felt they were reflecting on something complex, thus limited time would be

inappropriate for data collection, so the time required for filling the questionnaire was

changed from 10 to 15 minutes.

4.4.3.3 Participant Recruitment and Selection

Participants in this study were Arab tourists who visited the Gold Coast during the period

of study. Participants were selected randomly, where the questionnaire distributed to 200

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Arab tourists at the Gold Coast. This number was adequate to obtain the information

required for this search and to assist in obtaining clear results from statistical methods

(Israel, 2009; Whitley & Ball, 2002). The survey was conducted between the end of March

to the middle of June 2012 at key tourist areas on the Gold Coast, such as some parks,

beach and shopping centres, as well as at the mosque as most Arab tourists usually go to

the mosque every Friday. These locations were chosen because they are among the most

visited tourist destinations in the Gold Coast (McG, 2012), that Arab tourists frequently

visit. This type of sampling is used in exploratory studies, with the main objective of

detecting diversity between its participants in various locations (Karamustafa et al., 2013) .

The researcher's husband and four research assistants distributed the survey, as people

from Arab cultures often prefer to deal with members of the same gender. In other words,

men tend to prefer dealing with men and women tend to prefer dealing with women, which

is an important Arab traditions (Nasserie, 2011). This culturally sensitive and aware

approach gave the participants a feeling of comfort while filling in the survey. Also, with

this assistance, the researcher was able to collect a larger number of surveys in less time.

Prospective participants were approached and asked whether they would like to participate

in a survey. The researcher and the team explained to them the purpose of the survey and

then distributed a questionnaire for the subject to complete. Although the researcher

prepared the survey in both languages, Arabic and English, most participants preferred to

answer the questionnaire in the Arabic language. This was because some respondents

experienced problems with English, while others liked to be sure that they understood all

of the survey questions.

Furthermore, during the distribution of the questionnaire, the researcher waited on-site

until the surveys were completed and returned. The largest number of participants were

tourists who went to the mosque, also a large number of them were in the commercial

markets on the Gold Coast, such as Pacific Fair, Oasis Shopping Centre and the Surfers

Paradise Beachfront Markets. The period in which the surveys were collected was a

suitable time to reach the largest possible number of Arab tourists. This was because

survey collection was between autumn and winter in Australia while this period is between

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the spring and summer in the Arab world. Summer is more a season of increasing

outbound travel in the Arab world, where this season is represents school holidays. When

the questionnaires were completed, 200 of the surveys were collated. A total of 187

surveys were completed by Arab tourists who were visiting the Gold Coast and thus were

utilised for data analysis, while 13 surveys were removed from the dataset as they were

incomplete.

4.4.3.4 Reliability and Validity

Validity refers to the questionnaire's ability to measure what the researcher plans to

measure (Saunders et al., 2009). This evaluation was conducted in three phases including:

content validity, construct validity and predictive validity (Kulshreshtha, 2011). The first

phase examines whether or not the validity of the content that has been done through the

collection and analysis of research in order to ensuring complete coverage of the data from

the research questions. The second phase indicates the construct validity, which involves a

rigorous pilot testing procedure. The pilot study was conducted in the form of 20 Arab

respondents who filled out a random survey in the presence of the researcher. The third

phase is predictive validity; this phase was conducted through a statistical analysis of the

relationship of responses received.

In contrast, reliability refers to the consistency of a measure of a concept. In other words, it

assesses whether or not if the same method was repeated on a different sample, it would

generate the same results (Saks, 2012). Thus, stability is the key factor that indicates

whether or not the measure is stable over time. To increase the reliability of the data

collected on Arab tourists’ motivations and perceptions of the Gold Coast, the method was

clearly worded and designed and a pilot survey was tested.

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4.5 Ethical Considerations

The empirical collection of data for this research included human participants; therefore

the ethical concerns associated with this research type must be addressed. The researchers

at Southern Cross University (SCU) must comply with ethical standards and procedures set

and assessed by the Human Research Ethics Committee (HREC). HREC ensures that the

ethical conduct of research must be considered. The current research was granted ethical

approval from HREC of the Southern Cross University (ECN-12-035). In line with this

approval, some procedures were implemented for the participants including the

communication of the reasons and the context of the research to all of the participants.

Also, participants were made aware that they had the right to privacy as well as

confidentiality. Where data was collected, this did not include participant details such as

names or addresses. Therefore, all data collected from interviews and survey

questionnaires were considered to be confidential. In addition, the respondents were

provided with an information sheet. Furthermore, participants were informed that their

contribution was voluntary and they could withdraw from it at any moment. Also, because

the researcher belongs to the same nation as the participants, this meant that the researcher

had sufficient knowledge about their behaviour as well as the knowledge of the appropriate

ways to deal with them and how encourage them to participate in this research. Thus, in

order to ensure that this research did not pose any ethical risks of participants, some moral

procedures were followed.

4.6 Chapter Summary

In this chapter, the researcher has sought to explain and explore the research methodology

and processes adopted for this study. These methodologies and processes provide an

appropriate and adept means to critically analyse the image of the Gold Coast held by Arab

tourists. However, prior to addressing the methodology, previous studies on destination

image were reviewed to inform the selected of the method employed in this research. In

addition, this chapter has explained that the current research is a mixed methods study,

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conducted in accordance with the post-positivist paradigm. The case study method of

research was presented, as it enables the use of multiple methods for data collection and

analysis. The case study of this research refers to the Gold Coast in Australia. Moreover,

this chapter introduced the sequential design of research, where three research methods

were introduced that has been included in this research in detail (interview, content

analysis and a survey). Each of these methods was discussed; and then finally, ethical

issues were considered.

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5 CHAPTER FIVE: STAGE ONE RESULTS

5.1 Introduction

Chapter Five presents the findings from Stage 1 of the study, including the interviews and

content analysis. The purpose of the interviews and content analysis was to partially fulfil

objective 1 and to achieve objective 2 of this research. Through semi-structured interviews

and content analysis, the researcher has tried to explore the image of the Gold Coast

projected in current marketing strategies, and to analyse if the perceived image of the Gold

Coast on Arab websites corresponds with the promoted image by Australian Tourism

websites. To achieve these objectives, this section is divided into two further sections, each

comprising a number of subsections.

Section 5.2 presents the findings of the semi-structured interviews in order to seek

knowledge about the Gold Coast brand. A secondary purpose of the interviews was to

understand participants’ knowledge about Arab tourists and strategies to target this market.

Section 5.3 provides the findings of the content analysis. This was done in order to explore

the image of the Gold Coast from both sides: the supply side (Australian Tourism) and the

demand side (Arab tourists' perceptions).

5.2 Results of Interviews

This section overviews the purposive sample of two key informants who participated in

interviews from Gold Coast Tourism and Tourism Queensland. The table below provides a

brief overview of each participant’s interview.

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Table 6: Interview Participants

Pseudonyms Organisation Functions

John

Tourism

Queensland (TQ)

- Looks after marketing tourism Queensland in general and

for the Gold Coast in particular, as one of most important

tourism destinations in the state of Queensland.

- Encourage tourists from the target market(s) to visit

Queensland.

Peter Gold Coast

Tourism (GCT)

- Operations of management of marketing international

overseas with three target markets (Middle East, China and

Japan).

As displayed in Table 6, a purposive sample of two key informants was selected to

participate in the interviews. The key selection criterion was a key role in the development

of Gold Coast image to the marketing strategies of the destination.

5.2.1 Promoting the Destination Image of the Gold Coast: Fun and

Family Friendly

As discussed in Chapter 2, destination image plays an important role in stimulating tourists

to visit a destination. As a result, to be enticing, a destination image should be carefully

constructed to ensure the tourist would remember that place for all the right reasons.

Therefore ‘John’ from TQ confirmed that:

“The Gold Coast markets itself as a family friendly destination. This brand makes

the Gold Coast a suitable destination for those who travel with family or with a

group. In short, it is suitable for any age (children, youth and elderly people).”

Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism have joined together to form the destination

brand, “Gold Coast - Famous for Fun”. This brand offers a new vision for the Gold Coast

as a tourist destination and focuses on the things that this city is famous for, including

surfing on the beaches, playing in the theme parks and walking in the rainforest. ‘Peter’

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from GCT confirmed this strategic focus with respect to destination image, confirming

that:

“This brand image means that the visitors can enjoy their holidays in the Gold

Coast attractions. There are many fun places to experience. In addition it is a big

deal for their holiday, like beaches and theme parks.”

Respondents from TQ and GCT believed that this brand introduces a strong image for this

destination that reflected a city that emphasises fun and entertainment. Strong brands

influence people's perceptions of particular destinations (Stepchenkova, 2005) and

destination marketers need to differentiate the destination in a favourable way in order for

the targeted visitors to notice it. In this stage, according to the two respondents, what

differentiates the Gold Coast from other destinations are its golden beaches that are

suitable for surfing, as well as the rainforest and diversity of theme parks. The presence of

this combination of unique features distinguishes the Gold Coast from all other tourist

destinations in Australia.

In addition, knowing the significant destination characteristics that attract tourists to a

destination leads to the portrayal of an effective and strong destination image. In this

regard, the participants, from both Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism,

mentioned characteristics that can be considered as the important components or key

dimensions of the Gold Coast’s destination image. ‘John’ from TQ indicated that:

“Important characteristics of the Gold Coast as a tourist destination are beaches,

theme parks, rainforest, shopping centres and mild weather.”

Participants considered the Gold Coast to be a destination of great diversity where there

are many places to visit and its brand is based on this diversity of attractions. ‘Peter’ from

GCT confirmed that:

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“Gold Coast is a diversity destination, since there many places to visit such as

different theme parks, natural environment of rainforest and beaches.”

Thereby the diversity of this destination is an important characteristic of attractions at the

Gold Coast. Thus, destination branding is not just about creating a logo; it is also about

capturing the distinct characteristics of the destination in the brand (Gras, 2008).

There is a distinction between destination image and identity: “an image that is held by

tourists, while identity is an image that the tourism marketing offers" (Zahra, 2012). The

image and the identity of destination have a significant impact on the effectiveness of

tourism marketing strategies. Therefore, the difference between GC’s image and its

identity will affect the tourism marketing strategies of this destination. ‘John’ from TQ

believed the image and identity of the Gold Coast were closely matched, stating:

“There is no difference between GC’s image and its identity because the Gold

Coast brand is about a family friendly destination and the tourists are coming for

honeymoon, couples, families and groups. So the purposes of tourists’ trips are

reflected by the brand of the Gold Coast.”

However, ‘Peter’ from GCT thought a little differently, believing there may actually be a

slight disconnect between the image and identity of the Gold Coast:

“The tourists’ image of the Gold Coast is slightly different in two aspects. Firstly;

the image as held by tourists is slightly outdated, because the Gold Coast now has

high quality services, and it is more modern than before. Secondly, many people

think that the Gold Coast is Surfers Paradise, where this is just one place, and they

are unaware of the other attractions of the Gold Coast.”

Although there are differences of opinion between the respondents from the two

destination marketing organisations, this difference could be due to the different ways of

thinking. For instance, the respondent from Tourism Queensland considers there is a

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degree of compatibility between the identity and the tourists’ motivation in visiting the

Gold Coast. On the other hand, the respondent from Gold Coast Tourism perceived a

degree of disconnect between the tourists’ perception of the destination and the reality.

Where a gap exists between the image and the identity, this can result in a decline in the

market position (Saraniemi, 2011).

5.2.2 The Growth and Importance of the Arab Market as a Source of

Out-bound Tourists

As outlined in Chapters 1 and 2, the growth in the number of Arab tourists around the

world has led to increased interest by some tourism marketers and destination marketing

organisations in attracting them. Some countries, such as Turkey, Thailand and Malaysia,

have used deliberate strategies in order to encourage Arab tourists to visit their

destinations. These include visa-free deals for some Arab countries (such as Turkey) and

special deals during the month of Ramadan (in Thailand) (Al Balushi, 2009; Alabtah,

2010).

The interviews with both TQ and GCT demonstrate these marketing organisations have

been targeting the Arab tourist market at the Gold Coast. ‘John’ from TQ indicated that

they’ve been “working with Arab market for 15 years…The growth rate is good where it

was about 10%, but due to Ramadan month is decreased to 7%.”

Although the number of Arab tourists is not high if compared with some Asian countries, it

was perceived to be growing at a rate considered as a good rate “10%”. ‘Peter’ from GCT

adds:

“Although they had special offers and advertisements for the Ramadan month in the

Hilton hotel (dinner time), the numbers of Arab tourists decreased this year. Also,

Arab tourists like to stay for a long time, but Ramadan month became in the

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middle of the summer season in the Middle East region in this year, thereby this

month comes at the middle of their holiday.”

According to the opinions of both TQ and GCT, the reason for this decrease is the desire of

Arab tourists to spend Ramadan in their home countries.

Further, the participants were asked to describe the characteristics of Arab tourists’ coming

to the Gold Coast. This was done in order to gain knowledge of their perceptions of Arab

tourists' characteristics, which will in turn assist in designing appropriate tourism

marketing strategies that target the Arab market. ‘John’ from TQ indicated that:

“The best characteristic of the Arab tourist traffic is high tourism yield because

Arab tourists stay a long time, sometimes 30 days, and they have a higher spending

level, when they spend for their meals, accommodation and visiting places.”

The participant from GCT also pointed out that the most important characteristics of Arab

tourists are the high level of spending and the length of stay. Though the informant from

GCT added further information:

“Arab tourists prefer to travel with a large group as a family or multiple families,

also they like to stay at apartments because is better for the big family and the long

stay and Arab tourists like to have a busy schedule where they like to visit many

places and stay active all the time.”

This information showed that the important characteristics that distinguish Arab tourists

include: long stay, travel with group, high spending, special accommodation and high

levels of activity. These characteristics make the Arab market different from other markets,

meaning the need to develop appropriate offerings that meet their needs and attract more of

them, in order to take advantage of their high spending.

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In addition, respondents from both TQ and GCT indicated that the most important factors

affecting Arab tourist traffic coming to the Gold Coast were the month of Ramadan and the

airlines. ‘John’ from TQ said:

“Important factors that have influence on Arab tourists flow are Ramadan month

and airlines. Also the long trip between Arab countries and Australia affect their

traffic coming to the Gold Coast….popular airlines used by Arab tourists are

Etihad Airways, Emirates Airlines, Qatar and Malaysian Airways.”

Most of the Islamic people are fasting during the day in Ramadan. In addition, airlines are

very important. The most popular airlines used by Arab tourists are Emirates, Qatar and

Malaysia. Owing to the long distance between the Arab region and Australia, some of

these airplanes take transit stops in some places, which led to extend the time of travel and

the length of these trips. In addition, ‘Peter’ from GCT added:

“…the high value of the Australian dollar has effect on flow of Arab tourists. Also

Arab tourists prefer to go to Europe countries for holiday due to a short travel.”

Thus the month of Ramadan, choice of airlines and the high value of the Australian dollar

are important factors that affect the flow of Arab tourists to the Gold Coast.

5.2.3 Marketing to Arab Visitors

Interviews revealed that GC Tourism and TQ actively target Arab tourists because they are

aware of the importance of Arab tourists to the tourism yield. In addition, the participants

indicated the presence of interest by marketers of tourism in Australia in general and on the

Gold Coast in particular. GC Tourism and TQ actively target Arab tourists because they

are aware of the importance of Arab tourists to the tourism industry.

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“During the last year Tourism Australia has done some market research about the

Arab market in order to assemble more information about Arab tourists’ behaviour

and needs. The most important information which they received was Arab tourists

are more available in the summer season of June to September and that they focus

on the Gold Coast, the Islands (Hamilton Island, Hayman Island) and Cairns

(Great Barrier Reef).” (TQ)

‘Peter’ also added that the Gold Coast had the most prominent Australian tourism operator

servicing the Middle East which is Law and Travel. Respondents from TQ and GCT

considered the most important feature attracting Arab tourists is the Gold Coast’s image as

a family friendly and friendly place. Connected to this theme, elements identified as

particularly important include the theme parks, natural parks, the beach, shopping and

sunny and mild weather which is suitable for holiday times.

According to the respondents from both TQ and GCT, the GC’s brand image has not

altered in any way for the Arabian market because it is general and they think “Famous for

Fun” is suitable for any target market. However, there are some strategies for every market

they deal with. GC Tourism and TQ have the ability to make themselves known in Arabic

countries through the use of effective strategies to promote the Gold Coast to Arab Gulf

countries in particular. For that the respondent from TQ refers to some strategies they used

which were:

“…working closely with their office in Dubai, airlines travel to that area and travel

agencies are there. In addition they use the web to contact Arab countries, where

they use facebook for Arab Gulf countries. For example they have provided a

competition in English language, which was designed to gain an understanding of

Arabian tourists’ needs. There were 25,000 people participating in this competition,

most of them from UAE, Saudi Arabia, Qatar and Bahrain.”

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Moreover, the participant from GCT mentioned that they invited some Arab media to visit

tourist places at the Gold Coast and a function for the last Ramadan dinner that they

provided.

For the Arab market, the cultural aspect has an important effect on strategies that target

Arab tourists. This is because the culture of the tourism destination has significance for

Arab tourists’ needs. Respondents from TQ and GCT understood the importance of

tourists’ cultural background. The participant from GCT indicated that:

“Culture has a high effect on Arabian tourists because the culture is one of the

important keys for this market. Ramadan is one example for that, where tourism

marketers have to understand Arab tourists’ behaviour in this month and their

needs.”

Thus TQ and GCT make a genuine attempted to understand Arab culture in order to know

their special needs for services. Furthermore TQ and GCT believe that there are some

special needs and services that need to be taken in consideration for the Arabic market.

‘John’ from TQ indicated that:

“…prayer rooms are one of the important needs of Arab tourists, therefore some

accommodations and theme parks at the Gold Coast are providing these rooms.

This in addition to Halal food - for that some hotels looking for Halal food for Arab

tourists. …the Paradise Hotel sometimes provides a special bus to take Arab

visitors to the Gold Coast mosque every Friday in order to do their prayers as well

as provides family suites which have two or three bedrooms.”

In addition, Peter from GCT added that “…providing Halal restaurants beside the markets

is one of Arab tourists needs. Also, providing staff for hotels who understand the Arab

market.”

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According to the interviewees, the most important needs for Arab tourists include prayer

rooms in the accommodations and parks, Halal food, availability of mosques and family

suites that have two or three rooms in the hotels. Some hotels on the Gold Coast try to

provide Halal foods in their meals. In addition, there are some Halal restaurants in

shopping centres.

Finally, the most important comments that the TQ made were about the complex

procedures for acquiring visas for visitors from some Arab countries. For this, ‘John’ from

TQ indicated that the:

“Main problem that they face is get visa for some Arabic countries. In addition

sometimes could not make the statistics for some Arab whose coming to visit their

relative or friends in Australia.”

Thus, there have been reported instances where some Arab tourists try to get the tourism

visa to visit Australia but because of the complexity of the visa they change their minds

about their travel destination.

In sum, on the side of tourism marketing strategies in general, tourism marketers in these

organisations develop targeted marketing strategies in order to improve the tourism sector

in Gold Coast. One of the most important of these strategies is the Gold Coast brand “Gold

Coast - Famous for Fun”. This brand reflects what in this city provides fun and

entertainment places which visitors can enjoy during the time of their vacation. Also this

brand reviews the excitement, fun and joyous feeling that visitors will get from the holiday

on the Gold Coast. Although this is a strong destination image, participants indicated that

there might be a slight difference between the image of the Gold Coast and its identity.

These potential differences were concentrated in three areas: improved services, the rate of

progress and the Gold Coast becoming more modern, and the diversity of destinations

beyond Surfers Paradise are among those characteristics. In addition, participants from

both Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism mentioned that of the many features of

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the Gold Coast that attract tourists, the most important of these are the beaches, theme

parks, and weather.

Interviews revealed that the Arab market is considered to be one of important markets for

inbound tourists to the Gold Coast. There is growth in the number of tourists coming to

Australia from Arab countries. Although numbers of Arab tourists are increasing, the

growth rate has decreased in recent years, primarily due to Ramadan falling in the middle

of the Arab holidays. The most important characteristics of Arab tourists identified by the

two respondents included a high level of spending, the length of their stay, in addition to

other characteristics such as their pattern of travel with a large group as a family or

multiple families, and their preferences for staying in apartments rather than hotels because

these are better suited for the big family and the long stay. In addition, during their stay, it

has been observed that Arab tourists like to stay active.

Furthermore, the interview participants outlined some information about marketing to Arab

visitors. The respondents said that the theme parks, natural parks, the beach, shopping and

sunny and mild weather were all very important characteristics that attracted Arab tourists

to visit the Gold Coast. Furthermore, participants were conscious of the impact of tourists'

cultural backgrounds on their perceptions and needs. As a result, the participants identified

that there were some special needs and services that needed to be taken in consideration for

the Arabic market. The most important needs were: prayer rooms in the accommodations

and parks, halal food, availability of mosques and family suites that have two or three

rooms in the apartments and hotels.

The interviews demonstrated that GC’s brand image has not altered in any way for the

Arabian market because it is general and they think “Famous for Fun” is suitable for any

target market. However they recommended some strategies for targeting the Arab market

including working closely with their office in Dubai, having preferred airlines that travel to

that area and travel agencies there. In addition, they use the web to contact Arab countries,

where they use the ‘Facebook’ for Arab Gulf countries. Also they invited some Arab

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media to visit tourist places at the Gold Coast. Moreover, there is some marketing research

that has been conducted by Tourism Australia.

According to the interview participants, there are some factors affecting the number of

Arab tourist coming to the Gold Coast. The most important factors affecting Arab tourists

coming to the Gold Coast are the month of Ramadan, the airlines and the extent of the

difference in currency, the high value of the Australian dollar, as well as the complex

procedures of obtaining visas from some Arab countries.

This section has presented the results of the interviews with participants from TQ and

GCT. As mentioned in Chapter 1, one of the research objectives is to explore how the

Gold Coast is projected to Arab tourists, Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism.

The following content analysis of Australian tourism marketing websites will explore the

Research Objective Two, which is to analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on

Arab websites corresponds with the image promoted by Australian destination marketing

organisations.

5.3 Results of Content Analysis

As discussed in the method chapter, content analysis provides a means to analyse visual

and documentary information (or ‘text’) about the Gold Coast, as presented on both Arab

and Australian tourism websites.

In the context of this thesis, content analysis was crucial in understanding the attractions,

factors and stimuli provided by different information sources, as well as the opinions of

Arab visitors and potential Arab visitors toward the Gold Coast. The focus was to identify

the compatibility between the images projected by the official Gold Coast tourism website,

and those of the Arab websites and online travel publications that mentioned the Gold

Coast image. According to Mackay and Fesenmaier (2000) images determined by visitors

reflect individual differences in information interpretation, while determined images by

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destination reflects the actuality of the destination. Therefore, it is important to examine if

the images presented in promotional materials are consistent with those held by visitors.

To examine the promotional image of the Gold Cost and its image held by Arab tourists,

this section is divided into three subsections. The first subsection focuses on Australian

websites portraying the Gold Coast image. The second subsection narrows in on Arab

websites that describe the Gold Coast image. The third subsection compares the two forms

of websites: Australian tourism websites and Arab tourism websites. The narrative and

visual information was analysed through content and correspondence analyses.

Both quantitative and qualitative forms of content analysis can be applied, depending on

the specific purpose of the research. This allows the data to be presented in a statistical or

an interpretive form (Govers & Go, 2004). The analysis of their images and text was based

primarily on quantitative assessments through using accounts and percentages by the

author based on repetition.

5.3.1 Australian Destination Marketing Organisation Websites

Previous studies have examined the pictorial and verbal contents of promotional materials

(Stepchenkova & Morrison, 2006). In this research the focus is to determine the frequency

of the attributes (by textual and visual) used by the Australian Government to market and

promote the Gold Coast as a destination. Thereby, a sample of websites was selected based

on the three key destination marketing organisations relevant to this study, namely:

Tourism Australia, Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism in terms of how they

market the Gold Coast. Table 7 below provides clarification on these websites.

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Table 7: Sample of Australian Tourism Websites

Website DMO Location Functions

http://www.tourism.australia.com Tourism

Australia

(TA)

Sydney,

New South

Wales and

Canberra,

ACT.

Tourism Australia is the

Australian Government agency

responsible for:

- Attracting international

visitors to visit Australia.

- Encouraging Australians to

travel domestically, both for

leisure and business.

http://www.queenslandholidays.com

.au

Tourism

Queenslan

d (TQ)

Brisbane,

Queensland.

Tourism Queensland is the

official visitor site for Tourism

and Events Queensland. The

targets of this organisation are:

- Deliver the best visitors

experience.

- Provide the most helpful

information on Queensland

destinations, experiences,

accommodation and cultural

events.

http://www.visitgoldcoast.com

Gold Coast

Tourism

(GCT)

Gold Coast,

Queensland.

Gold Coast Tourism is

destination marketing

organisation structured to

promote the city as a leisure

and business event destination.

The analysis consisted of two steps. First, the researcher browsed the websites as well as

scanned its pages manually in order to know their textual and image content that

mentioned the Gold Coast as a tourist destination. Second, the gathered information

divided into two parts that are textual information and visual information. The following

sub-sections are explanation of the analysis of these parts.

5.3.1.1 Analysis of Textual Information

The text and image contents of brochures have a significant role in assisting the

conceptualisation of a place (Govers & Go, 2005). To analyse the textual element of the

websites, web pages were browsed manually in the three Australian websites. The research

focused on the most important of the Gold Coast attractions, which are used by these

websites to promote this city. Then, words were combined with the same meaning or with

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similar meanings under the one heading. For instance, Sea World and Dream World both

were indicated to be entertainment landmarks in this city, therefore entertainment was

considered as the keyword of these words. The five most commonly used keywords in the

text was selected and organised in the frequency table with its percentages. Table 8 shows

the rank of the each keyword frequency in the each websites.

Table 8: Most Frequent Keywords in Rank Order

Rank Tourism Australia Tourism Queensland Gold Coast Tourism 1 Entertainment Accommodation Beach

2 Natural Environment Natural Environment Natural Environment

3 Beach / Accommodation Entertainment Accommodation

4 N/A Beach Entertainment

5 Shopping centres Shopping centres Shopping centres

Accordingly, on the Tourism Australia website, the words used most frequently to describe

the Gold Coast as a tourist destination is variety of entertainment places. One possible

explanation is that Tourism Australia is attempting to distinguish the Gold Coast image

from other destinations that it describes as entertainment destinations. The use of phrases

such as “There are international theme parks” and “Spend a day of fun at a theme park

such as Dreamworld, Wet ‘n’ Wild”, can infer that the Gold Coast is projected as a city

destination that has many theme parks.

The Tourism Queensland website describes the Gold Coast as one of famous destinations

in the state of Queensland. The most frequently used words that appeared to characterise

the attractiveness of the Gold Coast is the accommodation. Here the phrases of Gold Coast

accommodation is repeated several times in different phrases such as: “Choosing from the

amazing range of accommodation on the Gold Coast adds to the fun of your holiday” and

"The five star resort offers a bird’s eye view of the beaches from a towering high-rise". The

TQ website also mentioned its natural environment, "it is fringed by rainforest hinterland”

and "is attractive environment".

The Gold Coast Tourism Website had a greater explanation about the attractiveness of the

city. These attractions include: beaches, theme parks, shopping centres, green rainforest

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and enjoying the events. This site referred to many of the tourist attractions in this city.

However, the most frequently or repeatedly used ideas to describe the attractiveness of this

city are the beaches and the natural environment, especially the Surfers Paradise beach.

Here the advertisements of these attractions used many of the phrases such as "the iconic

Surfers Paradise beach to the sophisticated dining precincts of Main Beach and Broad

Beach", "The world-famous Surfers Paradise beach and breathtaking skyline remains a

major draw card for millions of Gold Coast visitors each year", "green Hinterland, there’s a

new experience waiting for you", "world-renowned beaches and year-round sunshine", "a

destination which is as scenic and peaceful" and "Surfers Paradise encapsulates all of the

energy and excitement that only a unique and evolving location by the sea can offer".

From Table 8 it can be seen that despite the use of the most frequent keywords "attraction

factors" was different in the three Australian websites, they gave the same rank to the

natural environment attractions of the Gold Coast. Based on this, the frequency rate for

each keyword in all categories was calculated and these were used in order to confirm the

rank of these attractions in all of three websites (See Table 9).

Table 9: Frequency Rates of Keywords – All Websites (in relation to the Gold Coast)

Keywords Number Percentages

Accommodation 72 33.96%

Natural Environment 52 24.52%

Beaches 44 20.75%

Entertainment 32 15.09%

Shopping Centres 12 5.66%

Total 212 100%

Table 9 shows the frequency of the top five attractions in all websites. The most frequent

was for accommodation (33.96%), where a variety of luxury accommodation was

displayed, followed by natural environment (24.52%) as Australian websites showed that

the natural environment was of major attractions to tourists. Beaches were the third most

frequently used word (20.75%), since these websites showed that the Gold Coast beaches

have great importance for tourists. Entertainment was the fourth most frequently used

word (15.09%), where there were many mentions given to theme parks such as Dream

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world and Sea World. The least frequent keyword was for shopping centres (5.66%), as the

websites gave only a few mentions to shops like Marina Mirage and Harbour Town. Thus

it can be seen that the accommodation, natural environment and beaches were of the most

important attractions of the Gold Coast that were displayed through the three websites

(Tourism Australia, Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism).

5.3.1.2 Analysis of visual information

Images or pictures on the three websites were also analysed. The most frequent images

from these websites were collected and categorised into the five categories, these

categories also mentioned in the interviews, which are natural environment, beaches,

accommodations, entertainment and shopping centres. The rank and percentages of these

categories was showed below in Table 10.

Table 10: Five Characteristics from Websites

Keywords Tourism

Australia Tourism

Queensland

Gold Coast

Tourism

Total

n % n % n % n %

Accommodation 13 39.39% 347 49.78% 358 48.31% 718 48.81%

Natural

Environment

9 27.27% 163 23.38% 170 22.94% 342 23.24%

Beaches 11 33.33% 101 14.49% 120 16.19% 232 15.77%

Entertainment - - 42 6.02% 48 6.47% 90 6.11%

Shopping Centres - - 44 6.31% 45 6.07% 89 6.05%

Total 33 100% 697 100% 741 100% 1471 100%

Table 10 shows the most frequently used images that refer to attractions of the Gold Coast

on the three Australian websites. The table demonstrates that the images of

accommodation places at the Gold Coast have taken the forefront on all of websites, which

represented (48.81%). The natural environment takes second place with (23.24%). The

beaches images were ranked third with (15.77%), and images of entertainment places had

obtained the ranked fourth by (6.11%). The last rank was obtained by the Shopping

Centres in this city, at (6.05%). The results displayed in the table found that the highest

percentages were for accommodation and the natural environment images of the Gold

Coast. Many of the images related to the variety of accommodation, such as private villas,

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luxurious hotels and motels, a self-contained apartment, farm stay, and camping and

caravans. In addition, the natural city image was also displayed by the analysis of visual

information on these websites. There were more visual images of the natural environment

(landscape, pictures of koalas and kangaroos, Greenmount and Lamington National Park).

Although the main picture of the Gold Coast website was the Surfers Paradise beach,

however the beaches images take third place overall. Furthermore, the relatively few

images of entertainment places and shopping centres was evident in these websites.

In summary, the result of textual and visual analysis of the three Australian websites

(Tourism Australia, Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism) indicated that the most

frequently displayed text and images that characterised the attractiveness of the Gold Coast

were represented in its accommodations and natural environment where they promoted the

Gold Coast destination as boasting a variety of luxurious accommodation options, iconic

rainforests and an attractive environment. The beach of Surfers Paradise also was

mentioned by texts and images many times as a one of the most important attractions of the

Gold Coast. These attractions give tourists a feeling of what it might be like to hold a

koala, walk in a rainforest, learn how to surf or relax in luxury accommodation.

5.3.2 Arab Travel Websites

Travel websites such as travel blogs, trade travel websites and others are becoming one of

the most important tools for exchanging information among tourists. Travel blogs are

written by people who have had real experiences with the destination, and thus represent

organic agents of image. Such blogs enable travellers to share travelogues, photos, features

and recommendations with others (Wenger, 2008). Thereby, many tourists conducted

search on travel blogs when they planning to trip (Pavlović & Belullo, 2007). Therefore, a

travel blog shows a tourist’s experience at a specific destination and can be used as a mean

to understand tourists’ perceptions towards that destination (Lia & Wanga, 2011).

The sample consisted of 10 Arab websites. As mentioned in the methodology chapter, the

websites were strategically selected from those that were popular with Arab tourists and

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provided key information about the Gold Coast as a tourist destination. These websites

were classified into three categories: a total of 3 travel blog websites, 4 online travel

magazines and 3 travel trade websites. Table 11 below shows these websites.

Table 11: Category of Arab Websites

Category Websites Translate name to

English

Travel

blogs

- http://www.alwahoob.com

- http://travel.maktoob.com

- http://www.masrawysat.com

-Hosts Alwahoob

-Maktoob for travel

-Egyptian Satellite

Travel

magazines

- http://forum.z7mh.com

- http://www.sawah-mag.com

- http://www.alittihad.ae/columnsdetails.ph

- http://avb.s-oman.net/forum

-Zahma Magazine

-Sawah Magazine

-Alittihad Magazine

-Sblt Oman

Travel

trade

- http://www.sfari.com/forums/sfari32/travel

- http://www.travelzad.com

- http://www.almethaqalaraby.net

-Safari Travel

-Zad Travel

-Al mithaq al araby

5.3.2.1 Analysis of Textual Information

Based on an approach by Li and Wang (2011) a quantitative approach was selected, where

content analysis was appropriate for research objective. The most frequently used words or

phrases that appeared more than twice were grouped and were cut and pasted into a

separate word document for every website. Then words that were repeated at each site

were collected after keywords have been developed for each of these words. The analysis

of results revealed that 6 of the keywords that were reportedly mentioned either by directly

or by implication in the ten sites were selected. These keywords included: beach, shopping

centres environment, accommodation, entertainment and weather. Table 12 shows the most

frequently used keywords in rank order as they appeared on Arab travel websites.

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Table 12: Most Frequent Keywords (relating to the Gold Coast) in Rank Order

Rank Blog Magazine Travel Trade

1 Beach Beach Beach

2 Shopping centres Shopping centres Accommodation

3 Entertainment Environment/ Accommodation Shopping centre

4 Accommodation Entertainment Environment

5 Weather Weather Weather/ Entertainment

The frequency rate for each keyword in all categories was calculated and these were used

as a distance measure among the frequently occurring words. (See Table 13)

Table 13: Frequency Rates of Keywords for all Website Category (in %)

Keywords Number Percentages

Beach 25 32.89 %

Shopping Centres 20 26.31 %

Accommodations 13 17.10 %

Entertainment 9 11.84 %

Environment 6 7.89 %

Weather 3 3.94

Total 76 100%

Table 13 shows three relevant groups of websites (Blogs, Travel Magazines and Travel

Trade) that appeared to be similar, as proven by their relative distance from each other.

This indicates that each of websites categories presented the similar information about the

Gold Coast.

In terms of special attractions in this city, the beach was one of the most frequently

mentioned landmarks on the Gold Coast, especially Surfers Paradise beach. The beach of

the Gold Coast received higher percentages of frequency rates, which is 32.89%. Among

the sentences that described this beach are "Surfers Paradise is the heartbeat of the Gold

Coast", and "to give your family a wonderful time, you can choose one of the main beaches

in the heart of the Gold Coast city". Thus most frequently word that referred to the

attractions of the Gold Coast was beach.

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Although Surfers Paradise beach was at or near the top of the list of attractions for all ten

websites, the shopping centres were also given prominence by these websites. The words

‘shopping centres’ takes the second place with 26.31%. This was expressed in many

different ways including: “Most beautiful markets are Harbour Town Outlet Shopping

Centre Labrador and Pacific Fair”, and “shopping centres are some of the best complexes

that offer the best goods and prices”.

In addition, some other attractions been mentioned including accommodation: “it has great

variety of hotels and motels "; entertainment: “for an exceptional experience do not miss

the opportunity to visit Dream World" and environment: "natural green tourism, where

you can learn a lot about the Australian environment". The weather was the lowest ranked

item. Thus beaches and shopping centres were the most important attractions that were

mentioned in all of ten Arab websites.

5.3.2.2 Analysis of Visual Information

Visual information, mainly referring to photographic images, was also analysed on the

websites of the three different categories. As explained in the methodology section, in

order to understand the Gold Coast image that held by Arab tourists, all the pictorial

images from the sampled websites were collected in separate file according to the category

to which they belong. Then the most frequently used photos were chosen (Pavlovic,

2007). After that, these photos was categorised into the five categories: namely beach,

shopping centres, accommodation, entertainment and environment. (see Table 14)

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Table 14: Visual Information on the Three Categories of Website Image: Blogs,

Travel Magazines and Travel Trade

Keywords Blogs Magazines Trade Total

n % n % n % n %

Shopping centres 5 11.36% 3 6.81% 46 51.68% 54 30.68%

Accommodation 17 38.63% 12 27.27% 20 22.47% 49 27.84%

Beaches 8 18.18% 5 11.36% 13 14.60% 25 14.20%

Environment 10 22.72 12 27.27% 3 3.37% 25 14.20%

Entertainment 4 9.09 12 27.27% 7 7.86% 23 13.06%

Total 44 100% 44 100% 89 100% 176 100%

Images on the 10 Arab websites pictured the Gold Coast as a beautiful tourism destination.

The most frequent images on all sample Arab websites was shopping centres images

30.68% that indicated to diversity of shopping centres at the Gold Coast such as Harbour

Town, Pacific Fair and Surfers Paradise markets. This was followed by accommodation

that reached 27.84%. The beach and environment reached 14.20% and entertainment

13.06%. From this it can be demonstrated that the most frequently images showed

shopping centres, various hotels and a beautiful beach Table 13. However, by contrast,

there were fewer images related to its environment and entertainment. The images shown

on environment displayed some of the Gold Coast natural environment such as the Hinze

Dam and O'Reilly’s Mountains. In addition about 23 pictures showed some theme parks

such Dream World and Sea World.

In summary, in spite of the result analysis of the text and visual information presented the

slightly differences in the rank of the top three attractions, it can be seen that the beaches,

shopping centres and accommodations are the most important attractions of the Gold Coast

that were mentioned on Arab websites. Websites also mentioned the Surfers Paradise

beach as the most famous and favourite beaches in the world. They further indicated some

famous shopping centres in the Gold Coast like Harbour Town and Pacific Fair as well as

some luxury hotels and motels such as Hilton Surfers Paradise and Q1. Thus the most

famous attractions of the Gold Coast on Arab websites are shopping centres, beach and

accommodations.

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5.3.3 Comparing Australian and Arab Websites

Compatibility between the promoted image and the perceived image has been given

attention by other researchers (Govers & Go, 2005; Lia & Wanga, 2011; Pavlović &

Belullo, 2007) . Destination image contributes to building a destination’s brand and to its

success in the market. A brand is more than image, and to build a strong brand; the

promoted destination image has to fit with the perceived image. In this context, the current

research analysed whether or not the perceived image of the Gold Coast tourism

corresponded with the image promoted by Australian Tourism. Thereby, the analysis of

textual and visual information of both sides (Australian tourism websites and Arab

websites) that presented the image of the Gold Coast as a tourist destination was assessed

in this research.

The analysis of the Australian and Arab websites showed that attractions of the Gold Coast

were presented in a similar fashion by both sets of websites. According to the Australian

tourism websites, these portrayed the image of the Gold Coast as a suitable place for fun.

These websites indicated to common attractions such as luxury accommodation, a natural

environment, beaches, shopping centres, and theme parks. Although the frequency of

phrases that describe these places and the images presented did vary, all of these websites

were more focused on accommodations and natural environment as being basic

representative of the Gold Coast than other attractions.

On the Arab websites, overall, there was also a positive image portrayed of the Gold Coast.

Arab websites presented and displayed the many attractions of the Gold Coast. However,

these websites focused on Surfers Paradise beach as the main attraction at this city, in

addition to some shopping centres and accommodation. Consequently, it can be asserted

that there is a similarity between the image portrayed by the DMO tourism websites and

the image held by Arab websites, as both of them indicated similar attractions available on

the Gold Coast.

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Although there were similarities between both sets of websites, it was found that there

were also slight differences. Figure 8 below presents a pictorial representation of the

differences between the perceived and promoted image in the case of the Gold Coast as

tourism destination.

Figure 8: Analysis of the Perceived Image (by Arab) and the Promoted Image (by

Australian)

This shows that Australian websites promoted the Gold Coast destination through a variety

of luxurious accommodation options and an attractive natural environment. However, Arab

websites focused more on Surfers Paradise beaches and the diversity of shopping centres in

this city. Moreover, Arab websites had limited information about the Gold Coast as a

tourist destination. Also, they mentioned two or three attractions that distinguish this city,

while it has many attractions that can attract more Arab tourists to the Gold Coast. Thus it

can be seen that the image of the Gold Coast held by Arab tourists may slightly mismatch

the desired projected image portrayed by Australian tourism marketing authorities. For

that, tourism marketers should endeavour to make perceived image of the Gold Coast

tourism corresponds with the image they promoted.

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5.4 Chapter Summary

The purpose of this chapter was to showcase the main findings of Phase One. The analysis

of data collected from interviews and content analysis has been presented throughout this

chapter. The main findings that have emerged from this phase have been categorised into

two themes: interviews analysis and content analysis. These themes have been

summarised subsequently.

The interviews helped reveal various aspects of marketing strategies that have been used to

promote the Gold Coast as a tourist destination in general, and the strategies that were used

for Arab markets in particular. This section was divided into three parts in order to obtain a

clear and deep understanding of these strategies. The first part explored the destination

brand of the Gold Coast; its brand is “Gold Coast famous for fun”, as well as other aspects

of destination brand. The second part showed the extent of marketers’ knowledge about the

Arab market and Arab tourists’ behaviour. The strategies that target the Arab market were

addressed as a third part of this section, where the author presented some strategies that

have been used to attract Arab tourists.

In the content analysis section there was an examination of the perceptions of the Gold

Coast from both sides: the supply side (Australian websites) and the demand side (Arab

websites). This section highlighted how tourism marketers promoted the Gold Coast as a

tourist destination on their websites; in contrast this section also showed how Arab webs

presented the Gold Coast as one of tourism destinations. In addition, this section addressed

whether or not there were similarities or differences between both sides.

This chapter was presented in order to achieve some research objectives that are ‘analyse if

the perceived image of the Gold Coast on Arab websites corresponds with the image that is

promoted by key DMO (destination marketing organisation) websites. The next chapter

will address the finding of phase two, presenting the questionnaire results.

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6 CHAPTER SIX: STAGE TWO RESULTS

6.1 Introduction

The purpose of this chapter is to present the analysis of the survey data. The data was

collected and then processed in response to the research aim and questions posed in

Chapter One. The overarching aim of this thesis was to identify and explore Arab tourists’

perceptions of and motivations to, visit the Gold Coast, Australia. To achieve this aim,

subsidiary objectives were considered. In this thesis the questionnaire was applied in order

to achieve three of the five research objectives. Objective 1 and 2 were achieved using the

interviews and content analysis presented in the previous chapter. The third objective was

to identify the characteristics of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast. The fourth objective

was an exploration into Arab tourists’ perceptions and motivations to visit Gold Coast,

Australia. The fifth objective was to examine the influence of Arab culture and other

factors on Arab tourists’ motivations and perceptions. Each of objective 3, 4 and 5 will be

achieved through the survey.

This chapter commences by presenting a profile of Arab visitors that participated in the

research, including respondents’ demographic characteristics and travel behaviour, as well

as their experience with the Gold Coast, Australia. Then the section concerning visitors’

motivations was outlined, including an outline of important motivations that guide the

holiday destination decision-making processes of Arab tourists. In addition, visitors’

perceptions were presented in this section through outlined their perceptions towards the

Australia in general and of Gold Coast in particular. Factors influencing tourists’

perceptions and motivations were provided in this chapter, as this section provided

influence of each of gender, age, travel party and length of stay on tourists’ motivations

and perceptions. Next was section of cultural influences on motivations and perceptions,

this section being based on the three dimensions of the Hofstede Model, (individualism

versus collectivism, power distance and uncertainty avoidance).

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6.2 Visitor Profile

The primary objective of this section is to identify Arab tourists’ demographic

characteristics on their perceptions and motivations, and to contribute to the literature of

tourism by investigating the effects of Arab tourists’ demographic characteristics on their

perceptions and motivations when choosing a tourism destination.

6.2.1 Tourist Characteristics and Behaviour

This subsection outlines findings related to the respondents’ backgrounds. This provides

information about the socio-demographic variables (age and gender) and nationality as

well as behaviour of Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast with regard to the size of the

travel group and length of stay.

Table 15 illustrates the classification of participants by their background. In terms of age,

the findings reveal that most Arab visitors to the Gold Coast are young, with most aged

between 25 to 34 years. The lowest percentage of tourists who were aged more than 38

years was 2.1%. This might be due to several reasons such as the length of the trip to reach

Australia, some might prefer to go to the Hajj, (explained more fully later in next chapter).

In addition, most Arab visitors included in the sample were male, accounting for about 77

percent, and the reasons for this are more fully explored later in the next chapter (see

Chapter 7). Although the nationality of the respondents was varied between eleven Arab

countries, most Arab visitors were from Arabian Gulf countries such as the United Arab

Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. Further, the ratios show that most Arab tourists

travelled with their families or in a group, whether this group consisted of friends or

relatives or work colleagues. The length of stay was relatively long; with most Arab

visitors tending to stay in Australia for more than 3 weeks. Moreover, most Arab tourists

who visited the Gold Coast visited other countries on the continent of Asia, such as

Malaysia and Singapore (75.9 %). This was followed by Arab tourists who visited

countries in Europe such as France and Britain (50.8 %). Arab tourists who visited African

countries such as Egypt amounted to (30.5 %).

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Table 15: Respondent Background

Age Frequency (n) Respondents (%)

18-21 12 6.4%

22-25 41 21.9%

26-29 72 38.5%

30-33 38 20.3%

34-37 20 10.7%

38+ 4 2.1%

Total 187 100%

Gender

Male 144 77%

Female 43 23%

Total 187 100%

Country of Origin

Emirates (UAE) 43 23%

Saudi Arabia 40 21.4%

Kuwait 23 12.3%

Lebanon 16 8.6%

Bahrain 16 8.6%

Iraq 10 5.3%

Egypt 10 5.3%

Oman 10 5.3%

Qatar 8 4.3%

Libya 8 4.3%

Other 3 1.6%

Total 187 100%

Type of Travel Group

Family 106 57%

Other Group 57 30%

Alone 24 13%

Total 187 100%

Length of Stay

Less than one week 20 3.7%

One week 7 10.7%

Two weeks 31 16.6%

3-4 weeks 69 36.9%

More than one month 60 32.1%

Total 187 100%

Continents visited prior

North America 9 4.8%

Central and South

America

1 0.5%

Africa 57 30.5%

Europe 95 50.8%

Asia 142 75.9%

Total 187 100%

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Arab tourists were asked about the most important source of obtaining information about

the Gold Coast before the trip. The results showed that ‘friends’ were the most important

source of information, with a percentage of 86.6%.

6.2.2 Past Experience for Tourists with Australia and the Gold Coast

Survey participants were asked about their previous visits to Australia and the Gold Coast,

to identify repeat visitation to the country and destination (see Table 16)

Table 16: Previous Visits to Australia and the Gold Coast

Previous visits to Australia Frequency

(n)

Percentage

(%)

0 10 5.3%

1 56 29.9%

2 88 47.1%

3 28 15.0%

4 4 2.1%

5+ 1 0.5%

Total 187 100%

Previous visits to the Gold Coast

0 10 5.3%

1 121 64.7%

2 25 13.4%

3 27 14.4%

4 3 1.6%

5+ 1 0.5%

Total 187 100.0

Table 16 shows the number of prior visits to Australia and to the Gold Coast. With regard

to prior visits to Australia, only a small percentage (5.3%) of Arab tourist respondents had

never visited Australia before, where this was the first time they had visited Australia.

Almost a third (30%) had been just once, whereas the majority of respondents had visited

Australia 2 or more times. In terms of the Gold Coast, most respondents indicated that this

was not the first time they had visited the Gold Coast. More than two-thirds of respondents

(64%) had visited this city once before. Also, nearly one-third of Arab visitors who

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participated in the survey has been visited the Gold Coast three or more times. Only (5 %)

of the participants had never visited the Gold Coast before.

6.3 Visitors’ Motivations

This subsection explores what motivates Arab tourists to travel and what motivates them to

visit the Gold Coast, Australia, in particular. As such, it is broken into two further

subsections 6.3.1 and 6.3.2.

6.3.1 Main Reason for Visit

The primary or main objectives for travelling to a destination have been examined in

previous studies on tourism motivation (Allan, 2011; Andreu et al., 2005; Bogari et al.,

2003). Based on the measures used in previous research, a 5-point Likert-type scale was

selected. Five items were selected from the preceding stage of interviews and the literature

including: opportunities for adventure, attendance at local cultural festivals, gaining

knowledge of local customs and traditions, visiting entertainment places and shopping. In

order to provide a better understanding of the data, the mean and standard deviation was

utilised (see Table 17).

Table 17: Main Reason to Travel (Push Factors)

Motivating Factors Mean Std. Deviation

Adventure 3.83 0.698

Gain knowledge of local customs and traditions 3.86 0.652

Attend local cultural festivals 3.76 0.663

Visit entertainment places 4.29 0.691

Shopping 4.5 1.577

As seen in Table 17, shopping was very important (mean=4.5) for Arab tourists. The

second ranking was for visiting entertainment places, by (mean = 4.29). This was followed

by the gaining knowledge of local customs and traditions (mean= 3.86). The opportunities

for adventure took fourth position (mean=3.83), and attendance at local cultural festivals

was the least favoured reason for travel (mean= 3.76).

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6.3.2 Characteristics that Attract Arab Tourists to the Gold Coast

Nine items were used to measure the characteristics that attract Arab tourists to the Gold

Coast. These items were developed on the basis of a review of the related literature and the

currently research interviews. Table 18 shows these items

Table 18: Destination Attributes of the Gold Coast that Attract Arab Tourists (pull

motivations)

Destination Attributes Mean Std.

Deviation

Beauty and landscape 4.10 0.588

Beaches and marine environment 4.14 0.618

The weather 4.09 0.599

Theme parks 3.62 0.726

Sense of peace and security 3.37 0.702

Quality of services 3.33 0.660

Entertainment 3.42 0.686

Hinterland/rainforests 3.82 0.655

Shopping 3.93 0.626

The most important of characteristics that attract Arab tourists to the Gold Coast are the

beaches and marine environment (mean=4.14), whereas the beauty and landscape was

ranked second in the importance of these characteristics (mean= 4.10), followed by the

weather (mean=4.09), shopping (mean=3.93), hinterland/rainforests (mean=3.82), theme

parks (mean=3.62), entertainment (mean= 3.42) and sense of peace and security

(mean=3.37). The least important characteristic that attracted Arab tourists to the Gold

Coast was quality of services (mean=3.33). From this table it can see that the most

important of the Gold Coast characteristics that attract Arab tourists are the beaches and

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marine environment, whereas the quality of services was the last ranked in the importance

of these characteristics.

6.4 Visitors’ Perceptions

Tourists’ perceptions of a place give meaning to the tourist destination and play an

important role in shaping the destination’s image. Therefore, this section examines Arab

tourists’ perceptions of the Gold Coast, Australia.

6.4.1 Arab Tourists’ Perceptions about Australia and the Gold Coast

The purpose of this section was to collect information about the respondents’ perceptions

towards Australia and the Gold Coast, based on four key questions. The first question

asked respondents how they perceived Australia as a tourist destination prior to their visit.

The question was measured on a five point Likert-type scale from ‘not at all attractive’ to

‘very attractive’. The mean of respondents’ results was 3.21 indicating Arab tourists

considered Australia to be between neutral and attractive prior to their visit. The second

question asked respondents if their perception of Australia was different after their visit to

Australia, with 93.3% of Arab visitors reporting it was. The third question asked

respondents how they perceived the Gold Coast as a tourist destination prior to their visit.

The question was also measured on a five point Likert-type scale. The mean of

respondents’ results was 3.31, indicating Arab tourists considered the Gold Coast to be

between neutral and attractive prior to their visit. The fourth question asked respondents if

their perception about Australia was different after their visit to Australia, with 90.9% of

Arab visitors reporting “yes”, the visit had changed their perceptions. When they explained

their answers they stated that they changed their perceptions of Australia and the Gold

Coast because they found it more beautiful and attractive than the image that they had

previously.

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6.4.2 Three Words that Describe the Gold Coast

The participants were asked to describe the Gold Coast by writing down three key words

that arise in their mind when thinking about the Gold Coast. Table 19 presents a summary

of the three key words respondents used to describe the Gold Coast. The most frequent

word in the description of this city was the word exciting (27.19%); followed by wonderful

(20.92%), while only a small percentage (0.06%) of Arab tourist respondents had written

(Imaginary). In addition most of the respondents wrote words with a similar meaning, such

as beautiful, wonderful, exciting, and amazing, and other words that reflect the extent of

their admiration for this city.

Table 19: Words Mentioned in the Description of the Gold Coast

Words to Describe the Gold Coast Frequency

(n)

Percentage

(%)

Exciting 130 27.19%

Wonderful 100 20.92%

Beautiful 75 15.69%

Entertaining 52 10.87%

Attractive 48 10.04%

Fun 23 4.81%

Amazing 14 2.92%

Distinctive 12 2.51%

Exhilarating 9 1.88%

Fascinating 7 1.46%

Great 5 1.04%

Imaginary 3 0.06%

Total 478 100%

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6.4.3 Impression of the Gold Coast as a Tourist Destination

This question aimed to elicit respondents’ current perception towards the Gold Coast as a

tourist destination. The question was measured on a five point Likert-type scale from

‘extremely negative’ to ‘extremely positive’. The largest percentage was “very positive”

(88.8%); in contrast the lowest percentage was for “somewhat negative” (1.1%). These

percentages show that most respondents have positive impressions towards the Gold Coast

as a tourist destination. Also, items to feature in reporting: mean ( ̅=3.96) and standard

deviation of (0.379), which indicates overall positive impressions.

6.4.4 Future Travel to the Gold Coast

Participants were asked about their likelihood to return to Australia. This was measured on

a five point Likert-type scales from not at all likely to very likely. Responses indicate that

the highest percent was for "undecided / I don’t know" (72.7%), while (24.1%) said it was

possible that they would travel to the Gold Coast in the future. Only (3.2%) answered ‘it is

not likely’. From these percentages, it can be seen that the percentage of respondents who

responded that they would be likely to travel back to the Gold Coast in the future showed

the highest probability, and this reflects the extent of their admiration and attraction to this

city and therefore it can be said that these people have a positive image of the Gold Coast

as a tourism destination.

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6.5 Influences on Tourist Motivations and Perceptions

6.5.1 Influence of Gender on Push Motivations

To examiner if the main objectives for travelling to the Gold Coast are dependent on

gender, the mean and standard deviation was used to analyse the data. (see Table 20)

Table 20: Influence of Gender on Push Motivations

Tourists objectives Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Sig.(P-Value)

To have opportunities for adventure Male 144 3.88 0.695

0.057 Female 43 3.65 0.686

To gain knowledge of local customs

and traditions

Male 144 3.90 0.687 0.123

Female 43 3.72 0.504

To attend local cultural festivals Male 144 3.81 0.661

0.123 Female 43 3.63 0.655

To visit entertainment places Male 144 4.24 0.719

0.035* Female 43 4.49 0.551

To visit Shopping Male 144 4.54 1.781

0.322 Female 43 4.81 0.394

The results displayed in Table 20 indicate a difference between males and females on one

factor which is 'visiting entertainment places'. This result indicates that Arab females

( ̅=4.49) were more interested in the ‘visiting entertainment places’ than males ( ̅=4.24),

and hence were more likely to be motivated by this factor than males.

6.5.2 Influence of Gender on Pull Motivations

This subsection examined if there were significant differences between the mean scores

assigned to the motivations factors for the Gold Coast characteristics that attract Arab

tourists by gender. The results are displayed in Table 21 below.

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Table 21: Influence of Gender on Pull Motivations

GC Attributes Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Sig.(P-Value)

Beauty and landscape Male 144 4.06 0.623

0.083 Female 43 4.23 0.427

Beaches and marine environment Male 144 4.11 0.660

0.179 Female 43 4.26 0.441

The weather Male 144 4.03 0.625

0.015 * Female 43 4.28 0.454

Theme parks Male 144 3.66 0.749

0.175 Female 43 3.49 0.631

Sense of peace and security Male 144 3.40 0.741

0.340 Female 43 3.28 0.549

Quality of services Male 144 3.40 0.692

0.008 * Female 43 3.09 0.479

Entertainment Male 144 3.50 0.739

0.004 * Female 43 3.16 0.374

Hinterland/rainforests Male 144 3.81 0.682

0.631 Female 43 3.86 0.560

Shopping Male 144 3.90 0.651

0.373 Female 43 4.00 0.535

*Significant at the 0.05 level

Regarding the Gold Coast attractions, the result of the mean and standard deviation shown

in Table 21 found that there were significant differences between males and females for

three attractions. Findings indicate Arab males are less interested in ‘The weather’

( ̅=4.03) than females ( ̅=4.28), while Arab males are more interested ‘Quality of services’

(mean=3.40) and on the ‘Entertainment’ ( ̅=3.50) than females, where the means

respectively were ( ̅=3.09 and ̅=3.16). According to the results for entertainment places it

can be seen that there is some inconsistency between this result and the result obtained in

the previous table. This result might be due to the sample size of females being smaller

than males. Also, it may be due to the males' impression towards entertainment places in

Gold Coast in particular. Thus table result suggests that males were more likely to be

136

attracted by these characteristics (‘Quality of services’ and 'Entertainment') to travel to the

Gold Coast. For the rest of the factors, no significant differences were found. This suggests

that male and female Arab tourists to the Gold Coast were attracted to this destination by

similar characteristics.

6.5.3 Influence of Gender on Perception Variables

Gender was also used to examine if differences exist between male and female perceptions

of the attractiveness of Australia and the Gold Coast as a tourist destination. Table 22

below shows the result.

Table 22: Gender on Perception Variables

GC Attributes Gender N Mean Std. Deviation Sig. (P-Value)

How did you perceive Australia

as a tourist destination before

your visit?

Male 144 3.26 .614

.024*

Female 43 3.05 .213

How did you perceive Gold

Coast as a tourist destination

before your visit?

Male 144 3.36 .744

.067

Female 43 3.14 .467

In general, what impression do

you have of the Gold Coast

overall as a tourist destination?

Male 144 3.94 .423

.233

Female 43 4.02 .152

How likely is that you will

travel to the Gold Coast for a

vacation in the future?

Male 144 3.22 .605

.200

Female 43 3.35 .573

*Significant at the 0.05 level

According to the table above, males were significantly more likely to perceive Australia

more positively before their visit. This may be due to the lifestyle in the Arab countries

that gives more freedom to men than to women to go out, travel and make friends. Thereby

they have a variety of experiences and many sources of information.

137

6.5.4 Influence of Age on Motivations

In order to look for statistically significant differences in mean values of age influences on

motivation factors, an ANOVA statistical technique was run. When evaluating motivations

(push and pull motivations) in respect to age of respondents the results of analysis revealed

that the only significant difference between the age groups was in terms of how attractive

they found entertainment on the Gold Coast (p=0.025). This result revealed that young

people were more likely to be motivated by entertainment factors. Table 23 and Table 24

displays the results from the ANOVA exploring the influence of age on push and pull

motivations.

Table 23: ANOVA (Comparing Age with Push Motivations)

Mean Square F Sig. (P-Value)

To have opportunities for

adventure

Between Groups .375 .767 .575

Within Groups .490

Total

To gain knowledge of local

customs and traditions.

Between Groups .349 .816 .539

Within Groups .427

Total

To attend local cultural festivals

Between Groups .569 1.307 .263

Within Groups .435

Total

To visit entertainment places

Between Groups .420 .876 .498

Within Groups .479

Total

To visit shopping

Between Groups 4.599 1.893 .098

Within Groups 2.429

Total *Significant at the 0.05 level

138

Table 24: ANOVA (Comparing Age with Pull Motivations)

Mean Square F Sig.( P-Value)

Beauty and landscape

Between Groups .108 .306 .909

Within Groups .352

Total

Beaches and marine environment

Between Groups .155 .400 .848

Within Groups .389

Total

The weather

Between Groups .216 .597 .702

Within Groups .362

Total

Entertainment

Between Groups 1.332 2.637 .025*

Within Groups .505

Total

Sense of peace and security

Between Groups .421 .852 .514

Within Groups .494

Total

Quality of services

Between Groups .149 .336 .891

Within Groups .444

Total

Theme parks

Between Groups .730 1.573 .170

Within Groups .464

Total

Hinterland/rainforests

Between Groups .721 1.712 .134

Within Groups .421

Total

Shopping

Between Groups .036 .089 .994

Within Groups .402

Total

6.5.5 Influence of Age on Perceptions

An ANOVA statistical technique was utilised to examine if there are significant

differences in mean values of age as an influencer on perceptions. Table 25 shows these

results.

139

Table 25: ANOVA (Comparing Age with Perceptions)

ANOVA (comparing age with perceptions)

Mean Square F Sig.( P-Value)

How did you perceive Australia as a

tourist destination before your visit?

Between Groups .502 1.653 .148

Within Groups .304

Total

How did you perceive Gold Coast as

a tourist destination before your visit?

Between Groups 1.571 3.461 .005*

Within Groups .454

Total

In general, what impression do you

have of the Gold Coast overall as a

tourist destination?

Between Groups .018 .121 .988

Within Groups .147

Total

How likely is that you will travel to

the Gold Coast for a vacation in the

future?

Between Groups .416 1.165 .328

Within Groups .357

Total

*Significant at the 0.05 level

The result of One-way ANOVA for differences in perceptions by age indicated that there

were significant differences between the age groups in how they perceive the Gold Coast

as a tourist destination before their visit (p = 0 .005). This finding suggests that younger

people more likely to hold a previous image for the Gold Coast as a tourist destination

before they visit it.

6.5.6 Influence of Travel Party on Motivation

The result of one-way ANOVA analysis, shown in Tables 26 and 27, depicts important

differences between motivations of different travel parties. Specifically, the result revealed

that there were significant differences in most Arab tourists’ motivations (pull motivations)

towards the Gold Coast regarding their travel party composition. Where the type of travel

party visited seemed to significantly influence the attractiveness of each of the weather, a

sense of peace and security, quality of services, theme parks and the hinterland/rainforests.

Thus type of travel group has important influence on the Gold Coast attractions that

motivate Arab tourists to visit.

140

Table 26: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Push Motivations by Travel Party Mean Square F Sig.( P-Value)

To have opportunities for

adventure

Between Groups .853 1.767 .174

Within Groups .483

Total

To gain knowledge of local

customs and traditions.

Between Groups .155 .362 .697

Within Groups .428

Total

To attend local cultural festivals

Between Groups .135 .304 .738

Within Groups .442

Total

To visit entertainment places

Between Groups .131 .272 .762

Within Groups .481

Total

To visit shopping

Between Groups 6.248 2.554 .081

Within Groups 2.447

Total *Significant at the 0.05 level

Table 27: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Pull Motivations by Travel Party Mean Square F Sig.( P-

Value)

Beauty and landscape

Between Groups .457 1.328 .267

Within Groups .344

Total

Beaches and marine

environment

Between Groups .824 2.183 .116

Within Groups .377

Total

The weather

Between Groups 2.418 7.199 .001*

Within Groups .336

Total

Entertainment

Between Groups .903 1.726 .181

Within Groups .523

Total

Sense of peace and security

Between Groups 1.594 3.320 .038*

Within Groups .480

Total

Quality of services

Between Groups 3.127 7.686 .001*

Within Groups .407

Total

Theme parks

Between Groups 9.019 23.846 .000*

Within Groups .378

Total

Hinterland/rainforests

Between Groups 1.395 3.332 .038*

Within Groups .419

Total

Shopping

Between Groups .488 1.247 .290

Within Groups .391

Total

141

6.5.7 Influence of Travel Party on Perception

The one-way ANOVA statistical technique was run in order to find the significant

differences in mean values of the travel party influences on perceptions (see Table 28).

Table 28: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Perceptions by Travel Party

Mean Square F Sig.P-Value)

How did you perceive Australia as a

tourist destination before your visit?

Between Groups 2.857 10.162 .000*

Within Groups .281

Total

How did you perceive Gold Coast as

a tourist destination before your

visit?

Between Groups 5.500 12.808 .000*

Within Groups .429

Total

In general, what impression do you

have of the Gold Coast overall as a

tourist destination?

Between Groups .261 1.835 .163

Within Groups .142

Total

How likely is that you will travel to

the Gold Coast for a vacation in the

future?

Between Groups 1.804 5.261 .006*

Within Groups .343

Total *Significant at the 0.05 level

The results displayed in Table 28 suggest that tourists’ perceptions vary significantly by

travel party. Where the type of travel party significantly influences how Australia was

perceived before visit, how the Gold Coast was perceived before visit and how likely it is

visitors will travel to the Gold Coast in the future. Thus the travel party has important

influences on respondents’ perceptions.

6.5.8 Influence of Length of Stay on Motivations

This subsection examine if there were significant differences between the mean scores

assigned to the motivations (push and pull) by length of stay. The results are displayed in

the Table 29 below:

142

Table 29: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Push Motivations by Length of Stay

Mean Square F Sig.( P-Value)

To have opportunities for adventure

Between Groups .553 1.140 .339

Within Groups .485

Total

To gain knowledge of local customs and

traditions.

Between Groups .576 1.364 .248

Within Groups .422

Total

To attend local cultural festivals

Between Groups 1.304 3.105 .017*

Within Groups .420

Total

To visit entertainment places

Between Groups .645 1.361 .249

Within Groups .474

Total

To visit shopping

Between Groups 2.491 1.001 .408

Within Groups 2.488

Total *Significant at the 0.05 level

Table 30: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Pull Motivations by Length of Stay

Mean Square F Sig.( P-Value)

Beauty and landscape

Between Groups .547 1.603 .175

Within Groups .341

Total

Beaches and marine environment

Between Groups .051 .131 .971

Within Groups .390

Total

The weather

Between Groups .657 1.869 .118

Within Groups .352

Total

Entertainment

Between Groups .996 1.928 .108

Within Groups .517

Total

Sense of peace and security

Between Groups 1.568 3.347 .011*

Within Groups .469

Total

Quality of services

Between Groups 2.669 6.897 .000*

Within Groups .387

Total

Theme parks

Between Groups 3.085 7.459 .000*

Within Groups .414

Total

Hinterland/rainforests

Between Groups 1.743 4.356 .002*

Within Groups .400

Total

Shopping

Between Groups .394 1.005 .406

Within Groups .392

Total *Significant at the 0.05 level

143

The results revealed in Tables 29 and 30 indicated that the length of stay was significantly

related to tourists’ motivations, where the type ‘length of stay’ significantly influences

motivations to attend local cultural festivals (push motivations). Also, length of stay

significantly influences the pull factors includes attractiveness of sense of peace and

security, the attractiveness of quality of services and the attractiveness of theme parks as

well as it influences the attractiveness of hinterland/rainforest.

6.5.9 Influence of Length of Stay on Perceptions

The results of one-way ANOVA analysis depicted the importance of differences between

perceptions of different length of stay (see Table 31). Importantly, there were significant

differences in most Arab tourists’ perceptions of the Gold Coast depending on their length

of stay. Arab tourists’ length of stay significantly influences how Australia was perceived

as a tourist destination prior to visit as well as it significantly influences how likely it is

they will return to the GC in the future. Thus length of stay has important influence on

tourists’ perceptions.

Table 31: One-way ANOVA for Differences in Perceptions by Length of Stay

Mean Square F Sig.( P-Value)

How did you perceive Australia as a

tourist destination before your visit?

Between Groups 1.079 3.697 .006*

Within Groups .292

Total

How did you perceive Gold Coast as

a tourist destination before your

visit?

Between Groups .842 1.768 .137

Within Groups .476

Total

In general, what impression do you

have of the Gold Coast overall as a

tourist destination?

Between Groups .284 2.017 .094

Within Groups .141

Total

How likely is that you will travel to

the Gold Coast for a vacation in the

future?

Between Groups 1.239 3.653 .007*

Within Groups .339

Total *Significant at the 0.05 level

144

6.5.10 Cultural Influences on Motivations and Perceptions

This section examines the culture of Arab society in relation to Hofstede's Model of

Culture (the model has five different dimensions), but this research considers just three

dimensions likely to apply for Arab visitors, specifically individualism versus collectivism,

power distance and uncertainty avoidance. This part consists of 21 items that were

developed on the basis of a review of the related literature and were modified to suit Arab

culture. These items represent a range of factors that fall under the three main dimensions

in this study. The factors were labelled according to the commonality of the items loading

on each factor, they were labelled as follows: Collectivism vs. Individualism, Power

Distance (there are no differences among groups in society and inequalities and hierarchy)

and Uncertainty Avoidance.

Statistically, Principal Component Factor Analysis as well as means and standard

deviations were utilised to analyse the data. To evaluate the dimensionality of the scales, a

Principal Component Factor Analysis was conducted. The Principal Component Factor

(PCF) Analysis is a variable reduction technique which is used to examine the relations

between a large numbers of variables as well as to determine the possibility of

summarising a large group of variables by smaller set of components.

6.5.10.1 Compilation of Cultural Factors Items

In this research, the PCF analysis identifies the latent constructs (or factors) that manifests

among the 21 characteristics. A Varimax Rotation of the factor analysis was conducted to

more clearly illuminate the factor structure, helping to explain how the 21 characteristics

load onto each of the three components revealed, and how strongly correlated each

component is to the original 21 characteristics. The results obtained from the PCF analysis

with varimax rotation was used for the data analysis. In deciding to retain an item, the

communality (r>.5, where r is the correlation of respondents’ scores) of each item was

examined (see Table 32).

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Table 32: Respondent Background

No Variable Factor2 Factor1 Factor3 Uniqueness

Xd01 One does better working in a group than

alone

0.5228 0.5865

Xd02 When faced with a difficult personal

problem, one should consult one’s

friends and relatives widely

0.7823

0.5865

Xd03 I like to live close to my good friends 0.7789 0.3933

Xd04 I would help, within my means, if a

relative told me that he or she was in

financial difficulties

0.7824

0.3854

Xd05 Aging parents should live at home with

their children

0.6582 0.5170

Xd06 Children should live at home with

parents until they get married

0.7683 0.3916

Xd07 When faced with difficult personal

problems, it is better to decide what to

do yourself rather than follow the advice

of others

0.7510

0.3710

Xd08 I would struggle through a personal

problem by myself rather than discuss it

with my friends

0.8423

0.2827

Xd09 One should live one's life independently

of others as much as possible

0.8339 0.2945

Xd10 It does not matter to me how my country

is viewed in the eyes of other nations

0.6780 0.5373

Xd11 In Arab society people are not identified

by their position in the social networks

to which they belong

0.8865

0.2136

Xd12 People are not identified independently

of the groups they belong to

0.8199 0.3199

Xd13 0.6643

Xd14 Hierarchy is something that does not

exist in our society and is not accepted

0.5514 0.6635

Xd15 There does not exist an underlying

conflict between the powerful and the

powerless

0.5906

0.6167

Xd16 0.9605

Xd17 It is important for me to work in a well-

designed job situation where the

responsibility and requirements are clear

0.6085

0.6111

Xd18 It is very important for me to have long

term security of employment.

0.6908 0.4989

Xd19 Society's rules are very strict and have to

be adhered to rigorously

0.7224 0.4637

Xd20 Tolerance of different behaviours and

opinions are adhered to rigorously.

0.6918 0.5000

Xd21 Within society there exist clear

instructions which have to be followed

0.6022 0.5281

146

Table 32 showed that variables 13 and 16 fall out of the analysis, where it can be seen that

variable 16 has a 96% uniqueness score, suggesting that 96% of its variance is explained

by some other factor. Based on the PCF analysis, three scales were developed based on the

factor loadings in Table 31 that are applicable to Arab tourists. High loadings, like those

evident in the case of Xd01, Xd02, Xd03, Xd04, Xd05 and xd06 within factor 1, indicate

that these items are interrelated with each other. Therefore the following factors were

created:

Factor One “Collectivism”: It includes Xd01 (One does better working in a group than

alone), Xd02 (When faced with a difficult personal problem, one should consult one’s

friends and relatives widely), Xd03 (I like to live close to my good friends), Xd04 (I would

help, within my means, if a relative told me that he or she was in financial difficulties),

Xd05 (Aging parents should live at home with their children) and Xd06 (Children should

live at home with parents until they get married).

Factor Two “Power Distance”: Is involves Xd07 (When faced with difficult personal

problems, it is better to decide what to do yourself rather than follow the advice of others),

Xd08 (I would struggle through a personal problem by myself rather than discuss it with

my friends), Xd09 (One should live one's life independently of others as much as

possible), Xd10 (It does not matter to me how my country is viewed in the eyes of other

nations), Xd11 (In Arab society people are not identified by their position in the social

networks to which they belong). Xd12 (People are not identified independently of the

groups they belong to), Xd14 (Hierarchy is something that does not exist in our society and

is not accepted) and Xd15 (There does not exist an underlying conflict between the

powerful and the powerless).

Factor Three “Uncertainty Avoidance”: aligns with each of Xd17 (It is important for me to

work in a well-designed job situation where the responsibility and requirements are clear),

Xd18 (It is very important for me to have long term security of employment), Xd19

(Society's rules are very strict and have to be adhered to rigorously), Xd20 (Tolerance of

147

different behaviours and opinions are adhered to rigorously) and Xd21 (Within society

there exist clear instructions which have to be followed).

6.5.10.2 Identifying Arab Culture

Hofstede's Model of Culture was used to identify Arab cultural background. Three

dimensions were considered for analysis (individualism versus collectivism, power

distance and uncertainty avoidance). As described above, these three factors were

identified from the data and labelled according to the commonality of the items loading on

each factor, they were labelled as follows: Collectivism (social interdependence, helping

others and family relationship) vs. Individualism, Power Distance (there are no differences

among groups in society and inequalities and hierarchy) and Uncertainty Avoidance.

I- Dimension (1): Collectivism vs. Individualism:

Collectivism vs. Individualism represents the level of integration between individuals and

groups. In collectivist societies, when people are born, they are integrated into a very

extended family. The family frequently includes uncles, aunts, grandparents, cousins and

other members of the extended family. In these societies, for example, decisions are made

collectively by the group of family members as a whole. There is respect for elders and

other members of family. Also, at work, they take everyone’s opinion into account. In

contrast, in individualistic societies everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his

immediate family, for example his children and partners. In these societies, peoples’

individual views are more important than the group. There is little consultation at the level

of the individual, and this also applies in the workplace. People focus on what they are

supposed to do, but very little on its relationship to what others are doing. (For more

information please see chapter 2 section 5).

As there are three factors “collectivism”, “power distance” and “uncertainty avoidance" are

tested within this case, Cronbach's alpha test was used. Cronbach's alpha was used to

inspect the internal consistency of test items. The Cronbach's alpha value should > 0.7 that

148

to be considered acceptable and for high reliability standard. Table 33 shows Cronbach’s

alpha test on the first factor “collectivism”.

Table 33: Collectivism Scale Inter-item Correlations and Cronbach's Alpha

Table 33 presents the inter-item correlations (covariance) and Cronbach’s alpha results for

the Collectivism scale. The Collectivism index received an overall reliability coefficient

(Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.819. The alpha score considered as a good score and suggests the

variables “hang together” well (Santos, 1999). In addition, to confirm the reliability of this

factor, Pearson’s inter-correlation was calculated for each of the items, and all were found

to be significant at .001 level of significance.

As mentioned previously, statistically the means of the items was used to analyse every

item of this dimension and the table below indicates the p-value which if significant

indicates that the mean is significantly different to the mid-point of the scale (i.e. 3). Table

34 indicates that for all items the P-Value is smaller than the value of 0.05 and the mean is

greater than 3, this means that the respondents significantly agree with all items, indicating

that the “Arab tourist” respondents all belong to collectivist societies.

Item Ob

s

Sign item-test

correlation item-test

correlation

Average item-

test correlation

alpha

Xd01 187 + 0.605 0.426 0.483 0.824

Xd02 187 + 0.796 0.683 0.400 0.769

Xd03 187 + 0.772 0.649 0.410 0.777

Xd04 187 + 0.749 0.617 0.420 0.784

Xd05 187 + 0.666 0.505 0.456 0.807

Xd06 187 + 0.761 0.633 0.415 0.780

Test

Scale

0.431 0.819

149

Table 34: Classification of Participants According To Their Belonging to the

Collectivist Societies

No. Item Mean Std. Deviation P-Value

1 One does better working in a group than alone 4.21 0.662 0.001

2 When faced with a difficult personal problem, one

should consult one’s friends and relatives widely. 4.28 0.594 0.001

3 I like to live close to my good friends. 4.29 0.617 0.001

4 I would help, within my means, if a relative told

me that he or she was in financial difficulties. 4.27 0.730 0.001

5 Aging parents should live at home with their

children 4.30 0.653 0.001

6 Children should live at home with parents until

they get married 4.27 0.750 0.001

Dimension (2): Power Distance:

Power distance refers to understanding the way people are treated in terms of

equality/inequality in their family, work and society. In a large power distance family,

sons and daughters are relatively obedient to their parents and elders who are treated as

superiors. Parents and elders make decisions for the sons and daughters as a sign of

respect. In the workplace, subordinates should expect to be instructed in what to do, not to

be consulted and not to be asked to make contributions on any role of the work plan. In

contrast one needs to consider a small power distance family. This family encourages the

sons and daughters to make or to contribute to decisions. In the workplace they see

hierarchy as being an inequality of roles established just for managing the company, and

superiors frequently will consult with subordinates when the company makes decisions.

The Cronbach’s alpha was run for the second factor “power distance” in order to measure

its reliability. The results are displayed in Table 35:

150

Table 35: Power Distance scale Inter-item Correlations and Cronbach's Alpha

According to Table 35 the Power distance scale received an overall reliability coefficient

(Cronbach’s alpha) of 0.819. Also the inter-correlation of its items was calculated, with all

being significant at .001 level of significance.

The research questionnaire develops 8 items or phrases on the Power distance construct as

shown in previous subsection. Statistically, the means and standard deviation was used to

analyse every item of this dimension (Table 36).

Table 36: Classification of Participants: Large or Small Power Distance Families

No. Item Mean Std. Deviation P-Value

7

When faced with difficult personal problems, it

is better to decide what to do yourself rather than

follow the advice of others.

1.97 1.265 0.001

8 I would struggle through a personal problem by

myself rather than discuss it with my friends. 2.09 1.051 0.001

9 One should live one's life independently of

others as much as possible. 2.05 0.912 0,001

10 It does not matter to me how my country is

viewed in the eyes of other nations. 1.99 0.861 0.001

11

In Arab society people are not identified by their

position in the social networks to which they

belong.

2.23 0.936 0.001

12 People are not identified independently of the

groups they belong to. 2.37 0.938 0.001

14 Hierarchy is something that does not exist in our

society and is not accepted. 2.73 0.871 0.001

15 There is not an underlying conflict between the

powerful and the powerless. 2.73 0.942 0.001

Item Obs Sign item-test

correlation item-test

correlation

Average item-

test correlation

Alpha

Xd07 187 + 0.720 0.624 0.516 0.882

Xd08 187 + 0.825 0.759 0.486 0.869

Xd09 187 + 0.849 0.792 0.478 0.865

Xd10 187 + 0.702 0.602 0.521 0.884

Xd11 187 + 0.868 0.817 0.473 0.863

Xd12 187 + 0.816 0.747 0.488 0.870

Xd14 187 0.597 0.473 0.551 0.896

Xd15 187 0.651 0.538 0.535 0.890

Test

Scale

0.506 0.891

151

Table 36 illustrates the classification of participants according to their belonging to a large

power distance family or a small power distance family. Since in both items the P-Value

was smaller than the value of 0.05 and the mean is smaller than 3, this means that the

respondents did not agree with both items. Here it can be said that the respondents confirm

the existence of different groups in their society. Thus, the respondents affirm the existence

of hierarchy and of conflict between the powerful and powerless.

II- Dimension (3): Uncertainty Avoidance:

Uncertainty avoidance refers to norms and beliefs concerning tolerance of ambiguity, and

how cultural influences make a member of a society feel either comfortable or

uncomfortable. A higher uncertainty avoidance culture tries to structure social systems

(political, educational, and business) in which the ability to predict is predominant. Hence

situations that are held to be risky and unacceptable should be avoided by stringent laws

and structures (Bik, 2010). In a high uncertainty avoidance society, people are governed by

strict rules and responsibilities in the workplace. In contrast, in low uncertainty avoidance

culture it is the opposite. Differences are tolerated and simple rules are used to manage

people (Mesquita & Walker, 2003). People are not governed by strict rules. (For more

information see section 5). The findings of Cronbach’s alpha test on the third factor

“uncertainty avoidance” showed the following below:

Table 37: Uncertainty Avoidance Index Inter-Item Correlations and Cronbach's

Alpha of Factor Three

Item Ob

s

Sign Item-test

correlation Item-test

correlation

Average

item-test

correlation

Alpha

Xd17 187 + 0.686 0.475 0.333 0.667

Xd18 187 + 0.713 0.515 0.318 0.651

Xd19 187 + 0.697 0.491 0.327 0.661

Xd20 187 + 0.687 0.477 0.333 0.666

Xd21 187 + 0.637 0.408 0.361 0.693

Test

Scale

0.335 0.715

152

Table 37 presents the scale’s alpha score, which is 0.715 suggesting that the variables

“hang together” well. The inter-correlation of its items were calculated, and found to be

significant. The mean and standard deviation was also used to analyse every item of this

dimension (see Table 38).

Table 38: Respondents’ Uncertainty Avoidance

No. Item Mean Std. Deviation P-Value

17

It is important for me to work in a well-designed

job situation where the responsibility and

requirements are.

4.33 0.628 0.001

18 It is very important for me to have long term

security of employment. 4.40 0.651 0.001

19 Society's rules are very strict and have to be

adhered to rigorously. 4.06 0.636 0.001

20 Tolerance of different behaviours and opinions

are adhered to rigorously. 4.16 0.589 0.001

21 Within society there exist clear instructions

which have to be followed. 4.06 0.665 0.001

Table 38 shows the respondents’ opinion about items that represent dimensions of the

uncertainty avoidance. From the table it can be seen that the mean of all items reached

higher than 3, whereas the P-Value of all items was less than 0.05. This suggests all items

are positive which means the members of the study sample "respondents" agree with the

content of the items. Thus, it is possible to describe Arab society belong to the high

uncertainty avoidance culture.

In summary from the result of the statistical analysis of the cultural dimensions and its

items, it can be recognised that most Arab tourists come from collectivist countries. The

results indicate that certain values have not altered in Arab countries. Among these values

is the alliance of the individual to a group, family or other type of association. Moreover,

the concept of unity is stressed in Islam, which is the most common religion of Arab

countries. People are encouraged to look after and assist one another on the premise that

they will be rewarded for doing so.

153

The findings show that power distance is something that exists in Arab society. While

certainly power distance can be shown in other cultures, and is not unique to Arabs, it

appears this finding is also consistent with previous studies on Arab cultures (Al-Twaijri &

AlMuhaiza, 1996; Alghamdi, 2007). Furthermore, Hofstede (1980) had categorised the

Arab countries in general as large power distance countries.

Furthermore the results show that Arab tourists come from the high uncertainty avoidance

culture. This means that Arabic people feel threatened by ambiguous situations and they

try to avoid these situations by establishing more formal rules, rejecting deviant ideas and

behaviour (Hofstede, 1980).

6.5.10.3 Developing Motivation Factors

I- The main objectives of their journey

Principal-component factor analysis with varimax rotation was conducted with five

motivation items to identify the underlying dimensions associated with the main journey

objectives. The results obtained from the PCF analysis with varimax rotation method was

used for further data analysis. In deciding to retain an item, the communality (r > .5) of

each item was examined. The five journey objective items were reduced down to two key

factors. The factor loadings represent both how the variables are weighted for each factor

and the correlation between the variables and the factor (see Tables 39 below).

Table 39: Rotated Factor Loadings and Unique Variances

No Variable Factor1 Factor2 Uniqueness

xb1_1 For adventure 0.8315 0.3087

xb1_2 Gain knowledge of local customs and traditions 0.8289 0.2634

xb1_3 Attend local cultural festivals 0.7698 0.3197

xb1_4 Visit entertainment places 0.8738 0.2206

xb1_5 Shopping 0.8288 0.2849

(blanks represent abs(loading)<.5)

From the table it can be seen that five items have been combined into two factors. Factor

One “Escape from the routine” included xb1_1 (adventure), xb1_2 (Gain knowledge of

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local customs and traditions) and xb1_3 (Attend local cultural festivals). While Factor Two

“Recreational activities” involved xb1_4 (Visit entertainment places) and xb1_5

(Shopping).

Cronbach's alpha test was undertaken for the items in two factors. Cronbach's alpha was

used to inspect the internal consistency of test items. The Cronbach's alpha value should be

> 0.7 that to be considered acceptable and for high reliability standard. The alpha score

considered as a good score that was 0.744. In addition the inter-correlation of its items had

been calculated and were found to be significant (See Table 40).

Table 40: Cronbach’s Alpha Test and the Inter-Correlation

II- The most important characteristics that attract Arab tourists to the Gold

Coast

Nine attractiveness variables were analysed using PCF analysis with varimax rotation to

delineate the underlying dimensions associated with the attractions. The same procedure

that used in section above was also applied to 9 an attractiveness items.

Table 41: Rotated Factor Loadings and Unique Variances

Variable Factor1 Factor2 Factor3 Uniqueness

xb2_01 Beauty and landscape 0.8510 0.2544

xb2_02 Beaches and marine environment 0.8860 0.1724

xb2_03 The weather 0.8917 0.1784

xb2_04 Theme parks 0.6536 0.4255

xb2_05 Sense of peace and security 0.8203 0.2914

xb2_06 Quality of services 0.8819 0.1826

xb2_07 Entertainment 0.8911 0.1983

xb2_08 Hinterland/rainforests 0.9053 0.1654

xb2_09 Shopping 0.7809 0.2434

(blanks represent abs (loading)<.5)

Item Ob

s

Sign item-test

correlation item-test

correlation

Average item-test

correlation

alpha

xb1_1 187 + 0.663 0.451 0.391 0.720

xb1_2 187 + 0.773 0.610 0.326 0.660

xb1_3 187 + 0.770 0.605 0.328 0.661

xb1_4 187 + 0.648 0.431 0.399 0.727

xb1_5 187 + 0.660 0.447 0.392 0.721

Test

Scale

0.367 0.744

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Table 41 indicates that the factor loadings group the 9 items under three factors:

Factor One “Recreational resources” involved xb2_04 (Theme parks), xb2_05

(Sense of peace and security), xb2_06 (Quality of services), and xb2_07

(Entertainment).

Factor Two “‘Natural resources” included xb2_01 (Beauty and landscape), xb2_02

(Beaches and marine environment) and xb2_03 (The weather).

Factor Three “Activities” involved xb2_08 (Hinterland/rainforests) and xb2_09

(Shopping).

Cronbach's alpha test was run on the items to test the reliability of the constructs, resulting

in a score of 0.8225. The Pearson inter-correlation was also calculated and found to be

significant at .001 level of significance (See Table 42).

Table 42: Cronbach's Alpha Test

6.5.10.4 Influences of cultural factors on motivations

Regression analysis was used to investigate the influences of cultural factors on

motivation. This analysis was applied for each of the main objectives of their journey and

the most important characteristics that attract Arab tourists to the Gold Coast (push and

pull motivations, see Tables 43, 44 below).

Item Obs Sign item-test

correlation item-test

correlation

Average item-

test correlation

alpha

xb2-01 187 + 0.6171 0.4917 0.3452 0.8083

xb2-02 187 + 0.7094 0.6057 0.3261 0.7947

xb2-03 187 + 0.6650 0.5502 0.3353 0.8014

xb2-04 187 + 0.6512 0.5332 0.3381 0.8034

xb2-05 187 + 0.6545 0.5373 0.3374 0.8029

xb2-06 187 + 0.6768 0.5649 0.3328 0.7996

xb2-07 187 + 0.6473 0.5285 0.3389 0.8040

xb2-08 187 + 0.5051 0.3593 0.3683 0.8235

xb2-09 187 + 0.6588 0.5426 0.3365 0.8023

Test

Scale

0.3399 0.8225

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Table 43: Regression of the Cultural Factors onto Push Motivation

Motivation Coef. Std. Err.

t P>|t| [95% Conf.

Interval]

Factor 1 (collectivism) -0.0345 .0730 -0.47 0.637 -0.1786 .1096

Factor 2 (Power Distance) -0.0851 .0475 -1.79 0.075 -0.1789 .0086

Factor 3 (Uncertainty

Avoidance) -0.0602 .0820 -0.73 0.464 -0.2220 .1016

_cons 4.6416 .4438 10.46 0.000 3.766 5.517 Obs=187, F(3,183)=1.27, Prob>F=0.2844, R-squared=0.0205, Adj R-squared=0.0044, Root MSE=.47282

Table 44: Regression of the Cultural Factors onto Pull Motivations

Attractiveness (Pull Factors) Coef. Std. Err. t P>|t| [95% Conf. Interval]

Factor 1 (collectivism) .0522 .0649 0.81 0.422 -0.0757 0.1802

Factor 2 (Power Distance) .0028 .0429 0.07 0.946 -0.0804 0.0861

Factor 3 (Uncertainty

Avoidance) .0734 .0728 1.01 0.315 -0.0702 0.2171

_cons 3.218 .3941 8.17 0.000 2.441 3.996 Obs=187, F(3,183)=0.68, Prob>F=0.5628, R-squared=0.0111, Adj R-squared=-0.0051, Root MSE=.41992

According to the tables above it can see that the regression of the cultural factors onto

motivation and attractiveness did not find the cultural factors to be significant predictors of

motivation or attractiveness with all the p-values being >0.05. In addition, the R-squares

for these two regressions were quite low, indicating that these are not strong models and

that some other factors are influencing motivations and attractiveness.

6.5.10.5 Relationship between Perception and Cultural Factors

To examine the nature of the relationship between culture factors and perception the

correlation and regression analysis was used. Table 45 shows the result of this analysis.

Table 45: Result of Regression Analysis of Cultural Factors and Perception

xc11 (likelihood of visiting the

GC again)

Coef. Std. Err. t

P>|t| [95% Conf.

Interval]

Factor 1 (collectivism) 0.1252 .0889 1.41 0.161 -0.0503 0.3006

Factor 2 (Power Distance) 0.2339 .0578 4.04 0.000 0.1198 0.3480

Factor 3 (Uncertainty Avoidance) 0.0036 .0998 0.04 0.971 -0.1934 0.2006

_cons 2.165 .5404 4.01 0.000 1.099 3.2313 Obs=187, F(3,183)=6.05, Prob>F=0.0006, R-squared=0.0902, Adj R-squared=-0.0753, Root MSE=.57578

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Table 47 presents the result of the regression analysis of the relationship between cultural

factors and the visitors likelihood to visit the Gold Coast again. The analysis indicated that

factor 2 “power distance” has a significant impact on Arab tourists’ likelihood to visit the

Gold Coast again. In other words, the cultural background of high power distance society

has a significant effect on a visitor’s decision to visit the Gold Coast again.

6.6 Chapter Summary

This chapter presented the findings of the survey instrument implemented on Arab tourists.

Initially the questionnaire profiled Arab tourists to Australia, revealing an Arab tourist is

likely to be young and visiting as part of a family unit. The survey also revealed that a

number of demographic characteristics influenced Arab tourists’ perceptions and

motivations, including age, travel party and length of stay. Furthermore, the survey

assessed the influence of Arab culture on perceptions and motivations. Using Hofstede’s

model, the survey revealed that culture has a minor influence on Arab tourists’ perceptions

and motivations. The next chapter will link the key findings from each of the aims and

objectives of the research with extant literature on destination marketing and branding as

well as previous studies on Arab tourists and cross cultural tourism.

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7 CHAPTER SEVEN: DISCUSSION

7.1 Introduction

The overarching aim of this research was to apply a cross-cultural perspective to identify

and explore Arab tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations to visit, Australia. Five

Objectives were investigated in order to achieve the overarching research aim, which

included:

1. To explore how the Gold Coast is presented to Arab tourists;

2. To analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on Arab websites corresponds

with the image that is promoted by key DMO (destination marketing organisation)

websites;

3. To identify the characteristics of Arab tourists who visit the Gold Coast;

4. To examine the perceptions and motivations of Arab tourists visiting the Gold

Coast, Australia; and,

5. To examine the influence of Arab culture and other factors on Arab tourists’

motivations and perceptions.

This chapter presents a discussion of the results of each of these key objectives. Section

7.2 links the findings from the in-depth semi-structured interviews with previous studies on

tourism destination image in order to achieve Research Objective One. Section 7.3 links

the content analysis findings with previous studies on tourism destination image, in order

to address Research Objective Two, while section 7.4 addresses Research Objective Three

by integrating findings from the questionnaire with visitors to previous studies on the

tourists’ behaviour and characteristics. Section 7.5 achieves Research Objective Four by

considering the findings of this objective in relation to tourists' perceptions and

motivations as well as their concepts of destination image. Section 7.6 links the findings of

the Arab tourists’ surveys with previous studies on factors that influence tourists’

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perceptions and motivations, with particular focus on the influence of cultural background

on tourists' motivations and perceptions. The final section presents an overarching

discussion that pulls all of these sections together, offering both theoretical and practical

contributions for the study of tourist perceptions and motivations in the context of cross-

cultural tourism research.

7.2 Discussion of Research Objective One

Research Objective One sought to explore the image of the Gold Coast that is projected by

key Australian tourism marketing authorities. This objective was achieved through two

semi-structured interviews combined with an analysis of key tourism websites. This

section will compare and contrast the key findings of Research Objective One with those

of previous studies with similar aims and objectives.

Research Objective One revealed that tourism marketing organisations (DMOs) attempt to

portray a unique brand for the Gold Coast as a tourist destination that is based on fun and

centred on entertainment. This was encapsulated in Gold Coast Tourism’s key brand

statement: “Gold Coast: Famous for Fun”. The brand portrays a sense of the excitement

and fun that visitors could experience from traveling to the Gold Coast. Analysis revealed

that the brand of the Gold Coast attempted to evoke a conceptual and emotional connection

to the place, reflecting a strong destination image in an attempt to attract more tourists to

this destination. These findings were similar to those in a study conducted by O’Connor,

Flanagan, and Gilbert (2010) that investigated the influence of film induced tourism and

destination branding on locations featured in films and television series. This study echoes

the findings of similar studies which have identified that destination image is composed of

the conceptual, emotional and total image (O'Connor, 2010).

Research Objective One revealed that the three important characteristics of the Gold Coast

included the beaches, theme parks, and weather. Tourism Australia, Tourism Queensland

and Gold Coast Tourism attempt to highlight these key characteristics to form the Gold

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Coast brand. This is similar to a study by García and others (2004) who conducted

research on Cuba, finding that beaches were an essential part of the image of the coastal

destinations.

Research Objective One uncovered that the portrayal of an effective destination image

requires knowledge of the significant destination characteristics that attract tourists to this

destination and distinguish it from others. This supports the findings of previous

destination image studies, which also found that for building awareness about the

destination through its brand, one destination must be distinguished from the other, in

terms of its image and activities and the benefits each one offers (Chalip & Fairley, 2002).

In essence, this research revealed that understanding destination characteristics is critical

for its marketing and for creating an effective brand. Rizvanovic (2007) also found that the

fate of many destinations depends on how they are presented and perceived by their

tourists and the potential customers (Rizvanovic, 2007).

Furthermore, the image of the brand in the market does not always match with the image

that the company plans to transmit, or the actual brand image. Therefore destinations

should ensure that there is congruence between brand identity and brand image, whereby

this congruence can enhance their brand (Nandan, 2005). In the case of the Gold Coast,

according to interview results, there are some differences between the Gold Coast’s image

and its identity. These differences include that the Gold Coast is more modern than the

perception of it, and that Surfers Paradise is just one of many places of interest among the

other attractions on the Gold Coast. This conclusion is consistent with the findings of a

number of previous studies that also found that an effective brand that reflects a

destination’s identity leads in turn to positive images of the destination; this contributes to

bridging the gap between brand identity and image (Ertörün & Suma, 2011; Knape &

Lundell, 2011). In addition, Lopes (2011) found that the destination image that is held by

tourists is significantly subjective because it is based on the perceptions each tourist has of

all of the destinations they have been to or have heard about (Lopes, 2011). So, it is

necessary to find out how tourists hold destinations in their minds (Li & Vogelsong, 2002).

Consequently, marketers should work to avoid these differences and try to harmonise the

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image held by tourists and the image that the promoters of the destination are trying to

portray to them about that destination.

Research Objective One found that both the local (Gold Coast Tourism) and state (Tourism

Queensland) DMOs have attempted to understand the Arab tourist market at the Gold

Coast, where they have been working with Arab nations for fifteen years. In accordance

with interview respondents, despite the overall increase in Arabs travelling abroad, there

has been a decrease in this rate just in the past year because of the date of the Ramadan

month. This is similar to Mat et al., (2009) who found that Malaysia has increasingly been

targeting Arabic tourists due to the growth in Arab visitors travelling abroad and the high

yield of the Arab market (Mat et al., 2009). In addition, Rutin (2010) found that there is

decreasing in the number of Arab tourists in Croatia during Ramadan month (Rutin, 2010).

Research Objective One found that marketers in TQ and GCT collected information about

Arab tourists’ behaviour and characteristics. Results of the interviews identified many

characteristics that can distinguish Arab tourists from those from other countries, including

high expenditures, length of stay, travelling with large groups, wishing to visit different

places and staying active all the time. This finding is similar to Ariffin and Hashim (2009)

who segmented Arab tourists using age, length of stay, group of travel and the major

activities.

Research Objective One uncovered a range of factors that have affected the flow of Arab

tourists coming to the Gold Coast. These factors include the placement of the month of

Ramadan, preferences for certain airlines its services, the long distance to travel from Arab

countries and the difference in currency. This finding is similar to Rutin’s (2010) study

which noted decreasing numbers of Arab tourists in Croatia during Ramadan month

(Rutin, 2010). In addition this finding is similar to Çrbaci and Çetinsoz (2009) who found

Arab tourist visitation rates fluctuate depending on distance between Arab region and

destination (Çrbaci & Çetinsoz, 2009).

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Research Objective One found that, in order for the Gold Coast to sustain its competitive

advantage as a tourism destination and attract more Arab visitors in the future, there is a

need to understand Arab travellers in general and how they are motivated and perceive

Australia as a tourist destination of particular interest. This finding supports the results of

previous research in this field. For instance, Buhalis (2000) has explained the concept of

destination and provided several models for strategic marketing and destination

management. The study has indicated that knowledge about tourists' behaviour,

characteristics and what affects them, provides valuable information for marketing

managers to be able to plan effectively, as well as assisting in developing tourism

strategies (Buhalis, 2000).

Research Objective One revealed that specific strategies are employed to target Arab

tourists to Queensland and the Gold Coast. Concerted efforts and good working

relationships between DMOs and strategic tourism organisations in the Arab world were of

key importance. These strategies included working closely with partners in Dubai, working

with airlines that travel to this area, the use of the Internet to establish contact with Arab

countries, and inviting Arab media representatives to visit tourist places at the Gold Coast.

Such strategies were helpful in attracting more Arab tourists. Thus, providing special

strategies for each market will attract more customers from target markets and will allow

for develop a more efficient of tourism marketing plans. This finding is similar to that of

Reisinger (2010) who found that culture has impact on tourism planning and indicated the

importance of providing special strategies for each market, where different tourists have

different needs, and they should be satisfied by a variety of different ways (Reisinger,

2009).

Research Objective One revealed that even though the main characteristics of the strategies

are the same, there are always country-specific and culture-specific particularities to be

taken into account, especially for the Arab market. Findings demonstrated that a universal

strategy was applied all markets, with adaptations created when it came to the marketing

mix and the focus on which aspects of the brand should be communicated to each

individual market. For that purpose, both the Queensland DMOs spoke of the importance

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of special needs and services in relation to the Arab tourist market. Such specific needs

included prayer rooms in accommodation and parking areas, halal food and availability of

mosques and family suites that had two or three bedrooms in the hotels. Therefore, when a

destination is able to meet the needs of a specific cultural tourist groups, it will likely be

perceived as attractive and is more likely to be chosen. This resonates with the literature,

which has shown that knowledge of tourists' cultural background is of critical importance

for marketing managers (Torres, 2006).

According to Research Objective One it can be seen that ‘Gold Coast - Famous for

Fun’ is the key brand message that is used in order to convey a sense of the excitement

and fun that visitors could experience from travelling to the Gold Coast. The important

characteristics of the Gold Coast were the beaches, theme parks, and weather. Australian

DMOs have attempted to understand the Arab tourist market at the Gold Coast by working

closely with their team in Middle East as well as use some strategies that target this

market. However, there are some factors that have affected the flow of Arab tourists

coming to the Gold Coast, such as Ramadan, and preferences for certain airlines.

Nevertheless, Australian DMOs are trying to increase the number of Arab tourists through

employing specific strategies that target Arab tourists to Queensland and the Gold Coast.

Understanding the perceptions and motivations of tourists leads to the use of suitable

strategies for target market. Therefore, if a destination is perceived to meet the tourists’

motivations it is more likely to be chosen by the potential tourists and eventually, and thus

may better satisfy them.

7.3 Discussion of Research Objective Two

Moving towards a broader level of investigation, Research Objective Two aimed to

analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on key Arab websites corresponded with

the promoted image by key DMO websites responsible for promoting the destination to the

Arab world: namely, Tourism Australia, Tourism Queensland and Gold Coast Tourism.

The textual and visual contents of brochures are important in the conceptualisation of place

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(Govers & Go, 2005). For this part of the study, the pictorial and textual information that

offered by Australian tourism websites and Travel Arab websites about Gold Coast were

investigated. Also, this section explores Research Objective Two by connecting the results

of Stage One with the tourism literature related to destination image.

The content analysis of text and images of Australian websites was conducted separately.

Nevertheless, results were similar in the three DMO Australian websites, where the most

common themes of the Gold Coast attractions were accommodation, and the natural

environment. There were many sentences and images that represented the variety of

accommodation on the Gold Coast such as hotels, motels, resorts and others. For the

natural environment of the Gold Coast, there were words and pictures about the natural

environment that often appeared on all the three of Australian Tourism websites.

Consequently, the results of analysis of text and images of these websites clearly showed

that the DMOs attempted to distinguish the Gold Coast as a tourism destination through its

natural environment and luxury accommodation. These features were presented and

displayed as key attractions of the city. Thus the important attractions of the Gold Coast

that were indicated in these websites were about accommodation and the natural

environment. This conclusion supports the findings of a number of previous tourism

studies, which also noted that the Gold Coast is considered as a major ecotourism venue

for the residents of southeast Queensland as well as for tourists (Weaver, David & Lawton,

Laura, 2002). The Gold Coast is also characterised by a wealth of natural attractions with

tropical rainforests as well as having well developed tourism services and infrastructure

(Brown & Raedler, 1994; Moore, 2010).

The content analysis used to accomplish Research Objective Two uncovered that the ten

selected Arab websites have similar perceptions about the Gold Coast as a tourist

destination. These websites emphasised that the Surfers Paradise beach and shopping

centres were the most mentioned landmarks on the Gold Coast. Many phrases indicated

Surfers Paradise beach and some of these websites showed personal pictures of Surfers

Paradise beach from different aspects. In addition, some of these websites showed the

shopping centres on the Gold Coast, such as Pacific Fair shopping centre and Harbour

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Town Outlet Shopping Centre as well as displaying images of these shopping centres from

the inside. Thus, the most famous attractions among Arab websites were Surfers Paradise

beach and shopping centres. This result matches the finding of Kwek and Lee (2010) who

investigated the influence of Confucian values on Mainland Chinese corporate travellers at

leisure on the Gold Coast, Australia. One of the study results was that Chinese tourists

considered the Gold Coast as one of the best destinations for rest and relaxation because of

its image as beach resort (Kwek & Lee, 2010).

The purpose of Research Objective Two was to analyse if the promoted image of the Gold

Coast on Australian tourism websites corresponds with the Gold Coast’s image held by

Arab tourists on Arab websites. It was interesting to note that although both of them

mentioned similar attractions at the Gold Coast, there were slight differences about the

important attractions of this city. In the main, Australian tourism websites showcased the

variety of accommodation and the natural environment as important attractions, whereas

Arab websites indicated the Surfers Paradise beach and shopping centres as main

attractions in this city. This conclusion is similar the findings of Knape and Lundell (2011)

who also found that although Gothenburg’s identity was fairly strong, however were a few

minor differences between Gothenburg’s identity and its image (Knape & Lundell, 2011).

Consequently, these differences might have a negative impact on the effect of the Gold

Coast image, where the image of destination is vital in tourism marketing because it

heavily influences tourists’ decision (Gras, 2008). It must be noted in this respect that

tourism marketers should take into account these differences when developing their

marketing strategies that target the Arab market.

Content analysis of both the Australian and Arab tourism websites provided a unique way

of gaining insight into how each side viewed the Gold Coast as a tourism destination. This

revealed that there were slight differences between the Gold Coast’s image and its identity.

In the main, Australian tourism websites showcased the variety of accommodation and the

natural environment as important attractions, whereas Arab websites indicated the Surfers

Paradise beach and shopping centres as main attractions in this city. Consequently,

marketers should work to avoid these differences, through a stronger collaborative

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Australian-Arab marketing relationship. Both countries’ marketing and tourism efforts

should be trying to convey similar messages about Australia and the Gold Coast, so that

perceptions are matched by actual experiences and dissatisfaction is avoided.

7.4 Discussion of Research Objective Three

Research Objective Three aimed to identify the characteristics of Arab tourists visiting the

Gold Coast. This Objective was achieved through Stage Two of this research, specifically

a questionnaire that was distributed on Arab tourists visiting the Gold Coast.

Results of the survey found that the age of tourists was concentrated in the 25 to 34 year

old group, and the majority of them were males. The small number of elderly people may

be due to that the fact that older Arabs prefer go to Mecca in Saudi Arabia for the

observance of religious customs such as Hajj and Umrah (Yassin, 2012). Further, the long

distances may not be attractive for older Arab travellers. This finding is supported by

Ibrahim and others (2009) who also found that the predominant age for Arab tourists was

from 20 to 39 (Ibrahim et al., 2009). The perceived image of the destination is the general

impression of the tourist destination and the impression plays a vital role in the decision

about which tourism destination to choose. Also, motivational factors are part of the

decision-making process, where the tourism interests of younger people may vary

enormously from that of those of older age groups. Usually, the elderly are attracted to

places of quiet and comfort, whereas younger people are looking for more adventure and

active places. Also the Gold Coast is viewed as more of a fun, active, beach destination,

which may not be as attractive for older Arab tourists. So their perceptions and motivations

are different (Jonsson & Devonish, 2008), and the holiday market is strongly segmented by

the age (Jobber, 2004). In addition, previous researchers found that gender and age

significantly affected the perceived image of tourist destinations (Baloglu & McCleary,

1999; Chen & Kerstetter, 1999; Jonsson & Devonish, 2008).

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By considering Research Objective Three, Stage Two of this research determined that

fewer females answered the surveys, where the overall proportion was 23%. This might be

due to several reasons; for example, some women may not wish to travel in groups with

men and some did not wish to answer the survey as they were busy with their children. In

this context it should to mention to some Arab cultural background of women’s behaviour.

Orabi and Alomari (2001) noted that in family affairs, even though Arab women

participate in decision-making concerning themselves and their family, but the man gives

the final decision (Orabi & Alomari, 2001). For example in the selection of travel and

vacation places, Arab women can propose the places that wish to visit and there is an

opportunity for dialogue and to express an opinion, but the final decision depends on the

approval of men. In addition, traditionally, Arab women are generally viewed as

subordinate to men in Arab society (Taha, 2004). Therefore, before asking Arab woman to

participate in the survey, the approval from the man (who she followed: father, brother,

husband) must be taken. All these cultural background factors may have impact on the

number of Arab women participating in the survey. This finding matches previous

literaure, for example, Shmmout (2007) noted that the contribution of Arab women

constituted about 24 percent of the survey participants (Shmmout, 2007). Also Baharun

and Ghalip (2008) found that although Arab tourists travel with their families, males were

the majority of respondents, who reached about 70% (Baharun & Ghalip, 2008). The

significant gender differences exist regarding travel motivations - whereas male tourists

preferred more recreation and activity in the destination, conversely female tourists liked to

enjoy relaxation and shopping (Andreu et al., 2005). Consequently gender should be taken

into account when setting up tourism programs, and this aspect would certainly warrant

further research attention in the context of research on Arab tourists, and also the gendered

interactions of Arab women on holiday in Western countries.

Addressing Research Objective Three found that the majority of Arab tourists sampled in

the study came from the Emirates, Saudi Arabia and Kuwait. There are seven Arab

countries in the Arabian Gulf region: Emirates, Saudi Arabia, Kuwait, Bahrain, Iraq,

Oman, and Qatar. In spite of the Arab world extending from the Arabian Gulf to the

Atlantic Ocean, there were only a small number of tourists in this Gold Coast study from

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other Arab countries, such as the North African countries. This finding might be due to the

absence of Australian tourist offices in that region, thereby causing the lack of targeted

marketing strategies for these countries and vice versa. This finding supports the results of

previous research in this field. Ariffin & Hasim (2009) indicated that Gulf Countries

considered as a largest contributor to the travellers from Arab area (Ariffin & Hasim,

2009). According to previous studies, the motivations and perceptions of tourists are

affected by their nationalities, while others have revealed that, in spite of different tourists’

nationalities, there were similarities in their perceptions and motivations (Alhammad,

Hysat, Al-Fawwaz, & Alnaif, 2009; Jonsson & Devonish, 2008).

The survey also revealed that more than half of all Arab tourists travelled with their

families. This finding corresponds with the results reached by Ladki et. al (2002), who

contended that Arab tourists usually travel with their immediate and extended families

(Ladk, Mikdashi, Fahed, & Abbas, 2002). They also found that most Arab tourists had

visited an Asian country such as Malaysia and Singapore and their friends were the most

important source of information. This result was supported in a study by Ariffin and Hasim

(2009) where they reported that opinion of the family and friends who had made a prior

visit to the destination played important role in the decision making of the tourist planning

their journey.

The result of Research Objective Three found that the majority of respondents had visited

Australia and the Gold Coast, where some of them had visited it more than once. In

addition, it found that Arab tourists liked to stay for long time, where for each visit; they

tended to stay for three weeks or more. Arab tourists prefer to spend almost all of their

holidays in the outdoors. This result matched the findings of a number of previous studies,

which also revealed that the Arab tourists prefer to stay for a long time and spend the

school holiday outside their countries (Ariffin & Hasim, 2009; Ibrahim et al., 2009).

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7.5 Discussion of Research Objective Four

Objective Four aimed to assess visitors’ motivations towards the Gold Coast as well as

their perceptions of this city as a tourism destination. Stage Two aimed to achieve

Research Objective Four through the questionnaires that were distributed to Arab visitors

in the Gold Coast. This section deals with Research Objective Four by connecting the

results of Stage Two with the tourism literature related to tourists' motivations and

perceptions.

In accordance with increasing competitive conditions, implementing effective tourism

marketing is unrealistic without a comprehensive understanding of tourists' motivations. In

addition, in order to increase the number of tourists, recently researchers and marketing

planners have been interested in understanding why people choose particular destinations

(Fodness, 1994; Jang & Cai, 2002; Mohammad & Som, 2010; Ross & Iso-Ahola, 1991).

Among the findings were a strong observed link between travel motivations and

destination choice. They emphasised the importance of tourists’ motivations in choosing

vacation destinations. According to these studies, it can be identified that various pull and

push factors such as natural environment and entertainment places had an important effect

on tourists’ destination choice, as well as the relative importance of such factors varies

according to the nationality of tourists. Therefore there is a need to investigate Arab

tourists’ motives for visiting the Gold Coast.

Stage Two’s results underscored that going shopping and visiting entertainment places

were the important factors that motivated Arab tourists to travel (otherwise known as push

factors). Michael et. al (2011) also found that the one of Arab tourists’ prime touristic

interests was shopping, especially at smaller outlets offering local products (Michael,

Armstrong, Badran, & King, 2011). Whereas among the most important characteristics that

attract Arab tourists to the Gold Coast (pull factors), the finding of the Objective 4 showed

that these were: the beaches, landscape, weather and shopping. This finding is similar to

Salman and Hasim (2012) study who found that 42 per cent of Arab tourists attracted by

shopping centres especially Air Arabia ‘Arab Street’ in the heart of the capital city Kuala

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Lumpur (Salman & Hasim, 2012). Also the study of Ariffin and Hasim (2009) revealed

that visiting beaches and shopping are among the major Arab tourists activates (Ariffin &

Hasim, 2009). In addition, this finding was similar to the results gathered during the

content analysis of Arab websites, where it was found that the beaches, shopping centres

and accommodations are the most important attractions of the Gold Coast that were

mentioned on Arab websites. This knowledge can be used to create marketing strategies to

support the destination in order to attract more Arab tourists by focusing on characteristics

that attract Arab tourists to the Gold Coast. It can also be used to direct more promotional

strategies for such characteristics and developing related activities to motivate Arab

tourists to visit the Gold Coast.

In addressing Research Objective Four, this research has revealed that the most of the

respondents’ perceptions about Australia and the Gold Coast (prior to their visit) were

between neutral and attractive. The largest number of them changed their perceptions

about Australia and the Gold Coast positively, ‘it is more beautiful and better than the

image that they had before’. Thus Arab tourists had a different image for the Gold Coast as

a tourist destination before they visited. This might due to their source of information,

where the perception or image is based primarily on information from non-commercial

sources, such as the media and the opinions of other people (family and friends). However,

this findings may also be because of the impact of their cultural background and religion

on their awareness of the destination image, where most of Arab culture emerges from

their religion (Islam). Cultural background has an impact on both the motives and

perceptions. Although the destination may attract Arab tourists because of its tourist

characteristics, they may have some reservation in terms of their relevance to practice

religious rites, so their perceptions of destinations affected by their cultural background.

This has been reported in other tourism studies, where tourists modified the image they had

of destinations after visiting it (Echtner & Ritchie, 2003). Echtner and Ritchie have also

noted that the information sources and cultural background had a significant impact on

tourism perceptions of destinations. Ibrahim and others (2009) indicated that Islam culture

and traditions of Arab tourists has impact on their behaviour destination choice (Ibrahim et

al., 2009).

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In addressing Research Objective Four, it was found that most Arab tourists surveyed had

positive impressions towards the Gold Coast as a tourist destination. Moreover, the results

showed that the percentage of respondents who responded that they were likely to travel in

the future showed the highest probability, and this reflected the extent of their admiration

and attraction to this city and therefore it can be said that these people had a positive image

of the Gold Coast as a tourism destination. This result supports the finding of content

analysis that provided evidence that Arab tourists were impressed with this city.

7.6 Discussion of Research Objective Five

Research Objective Five aimed to examine the influence of Arab culture and other factors

on Arab tourists’ motivations and perceptions. Stage Two aimed to achieve Research

Objective Five by considering responses from the questionnaires that were distributed to

Arab visitors on the Gold Coast. This section deals with Research Objective Five by

connecting the results of Stage Two with the tourism literature related to tourists’

motivations and perceptions. This section will first discuss factors that influence the

motivations and perceptions of tourists, then discuss the influences of cultural background

on motivations and perceptions.

Stage Two of this research determined that gender has a significant impact on the

motivations and perceptions of Arab tourists. In terms of motivation, Arab males were

more likely to be attracted by the ‘Quality of services’ and 'Entertainment' when choosing

to travel to the Gold Coast more so than Arab females. Although the finding revealed that

Arab females were more likely to be motivated by 'visiting entertainment places', Arab

males were more interested on ‘Entertainment’ places at the Gold Coast than females. This

result might be due to the males' positive impressions of entertainment places in the Gold

Coast in particular. In terms of perceptions, the result showed that Arab males held a more

positive image about Australia before they visit.

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The gendered nature of roles in Arab countries might explain some of this finding. In

much of the ‘Arab world’ and because of the so-called ‘sensitive’ nature of women, Arab

women are usually viewed to be under the protection of men (Marhoon, 2012). For that

reason, Arab society gives more freedom for men than to women to go out, travel and

make friends. Thereby Arab men are more at liberty to have a greater number of travel

experiences and can source a greater array of information. Thus, gender has an influence

on motivations and perceptions of tourists. This result supported by study of Voss and

Cova (2006) where they found that the perception of females differs slightly from males,

where women are focused on the fine details of the product image, men tend to focus on

the basics of this image (Voss & Cova, 2006). There are few studies that refer to the effect

of gender on the travel motivations of Arab and Muslim women in particular, as well as the

involvement of Arab women in the travel destination choice. This underlines the need for

future research on gender and tourism in general and on an Arab context in particular.

The survey results also revealed that age had some, although slight, influence on Arab

tourists’ motivations and perceptions. There were only significant differences between the

age groups in terms of how attractive they found the entertainment on the Gold Coast as

well as the differences between the age groups in how they perceived the Gold Coast as a

tourist destination before their visit. Thus age group had an influence on tourists’

perceptions and motivations. This conclusion supports the findings of a number of

previous studies, which also revealed that the age difference between tourists had an

impact on their different travel motivations (Siri et al., 2012). Also, this result supported

by study of Ariffin and Hasim (2009) where they found that Arab tourists, and the young

Arab people in particular, demanded a very high level of service in their travel experiences

(Ariffin & Hasim, 2009). Previous studies of the decision-making process in the choice of

tourist destinations (Awaritefe, 2004; Summers & McColl, 1998) showed that individuals’

personal characteristics, such as gender and age are internal inputs that influence their

perceptions of places.

The results of Research Objective Five revealed that there were significant differences in

most Arab tourists’ motivations and perceptions of the Gold Coast regarding the travel size

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and composition of the travel party. For motivations, the type of travel group has important

influence on which Gold Coast attractions motivate Arab tourists to visit such as the

weather, a sense of peace and security, quality of services, theme parks and the

hinterland/rainforests. In addition, the travel party was significantly related to tourists’

perceptions. Where the type of travel party significantly influenced how Australia was

perceived before the visit, how the Gold Coast was perceived before the visit and how

likely it was for visitors to travel to the Gold Coast in the future. Consequently, the travel

party has significant influences on tourists’ perceptions and motivations. This finding

resonates with Black's (2008) study. This study examined the influence of the need for

achievement and the need for affiliation on women's choice of travel images and travel

decision. Its result revealed that there are differences in tourists’ perceptions arise from a

group size (Black, 2008). In addition, Carayannis (2013) has been shown that there were

differences in tourists’ perceptions by group size (Carayannis, 2013). These differences

should be taken into account when developing tourism marketing strategies.

The findings of Research Objective Five found that the length of stay had a significant

influence on tourists’ motivations and perceptions. The length of stay was significantly

related to tourists’ motivations, where the length of stay significantly influenced

motivations to attend local cultural festivals (push motivations). Also, the length of stay

significantly influenced the pull factors including the attractiveness of a sense of peace and

security, the attractiveness of quality of services and the attractiveness of theme parks as

well as the attractiveness of hinterland/rainforest. In addition, results revealed that there

were significant differences in most Arab tourists’ perceptions of the Gold Coast regarding

the length of stay. That is, length of stay significantly influenced how Australia was

perceived as a tourist destination prior to visit as well as significantly influencing how

likely it was that they would return to the Gold Coast in the future. Thus there is

relationship between length of stay and tourists’ motivations and perceptions. These results

correspond with Vogt and Andereck’s (2003) study, who investigated the influences of

previous experience and length of stay on destination image’s formation by visitors. This

study found that the length of stay has the influences on destination image formation by

visitors (Vogt & Andereck, 2003). Moreover, Zhang and Marcussen (2007) examined

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tourists' motivations and activities related to destinations in Denmark, the study indicated

that length of stay has influence on tourists' perceptions and motivations towards the

destinations (Zhang & Marcussen, 2007). Therefore, length of stay had a significant role in

tourists’ perceptions.

The most important cultural factors as perceived by Arab tourists were collectivism, power

distance and uncertainty avoidance. Thus, for identifying Arab cultural background as a

factor, it can be said that Arab people belong to a more collectivist society (alliance of the

individual to a group, family or other type of association). This result is supported by the

finding in terms of the characteristics of the journey and behaviour of Arab tourists, the

results indicated that most Arab tourists prefer to travel with their families or in a group,

and they rely more on the friends as a source of information about the tourist destinations.

These characteristics and behaviours may be explained because of the prevalence in Arab

cultures of collectivistic societies (Reisinger, 2009; Sulaiman, 2010). This cultural

background thus had an influence on their behaviour or their travel choice. In a collectivist

society such as an Arab organisation, people are group oriented and concerned about the

welfare of the group. Family and kinship relations are regarded as important cultural values

in Arab society (Hagag, 2011; Moghadam & Assar, 2008). Therefore they prefer to travel

with family or relatives and friends and depend on the views of those around them about

destinations that they plan to visit.

In addition, Arab tourists exhibit high uncertainty avoidance (avoidance of ambiguous

situations through establishing more formal rules, rejecting deviant behaviour, and

accepting the attainment of expertise). The finding of Arab tourists’ characteristics

corresponds with this result, where most Arab tourists who visited the Gold Coast, visited

other countries in South-East Asia, such as Malaysia and Singapore. This might be due to

Malaysia having Islam as one of its major religions, thus there is some comfort in the

similarity of food and clothing. All of these give Arab tourists more knowledge of these

destinations and help them to avoid the uncertainty of exercising their religious beliefs

such as the limited availability of mosques, the lack of Halal Islamic restaurants, or Islamic

dress and others.

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Similar findings have been seen in other research (Baharun & Ghalip, 2006; Ibrahim et al.,

2009; Salman & Hasim, 2012), where Malaysia is identified as one of the most popular

vacation destinations for the Arabs. Malaysia as a Muslim country shares commonalities in

its Islamic culture and tradition. Therefore, Arab tourists may feel safer in terms of

security, food and religious obligation in this destination. This was noted in Henderson’s

(2003) study, which suggested that the greater the cultural similarity between a destination

and a tourist’s home country, the more likely that a tourist would choose that destination

(Henderson, 2003).

Stage Two of this research also found that Arab tourists belonged to large power distance

society (return to the leaders or the elderly when making decisions). The high power

distance has significant influences on destination choice, as the selection of destination and

hotel rating is important in hierarchical countries exhibiting high power distance

(Traithongyoo, 2011), where they require assurance that their family, friends, relatives and

society will see their selection positively. Also it is common that the high power distance

would increase the social status between the client and service provider. This in turn

increases the expected customer service, especially with the quality of relational attributes,

such as respect, courtesy, sympathy and assistance within the context of service (Mattila,

1999). Although ‘quality of services’ obtained the lowest importance of characteristics that

attract Arab tourists to the Gold Coast, more than 30% of them showed it is attractive. This

may be due to some tourism services such as hotels and Halal restaurants having

knowledge about Arab culture (Mick, 2007). Thus, power distance has significant impact

on destination choice. This finding also mirrors previous studies on the cultural

background and tourists’ behaviour, which concluded that power distance has a significant

impact on the destination choice (Rohmi, 2010). Table 46 summarises the impact of Arab

cultural background on Arab tourists’ behaviour:

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Table 46: The Impact of Arab Cultural Background on Arab Tourists’ Behaviour

These findings about the cultural background of Arab tourists’ support Hofstede’s work,

where Hofstede had categorised the Arab countries in general as large power distance

countries and as belonging to collectivist societies as well as belonging to high uncertainty

avoidance. The findings also indicate that although there had been a change in lifestyle in

Arab countries, certain values have not altered in Arab countries since the Hofstede study

in 1980. This might be due to their religion, Islam. In general, Arab society can be

characterised as a traditional society influenced by Islamic values (Ariffin & Hasim, 2009).

Arab culture is heavily influenced by the Islamic religion in terms of economy, lifestyle,

and behaviour. For instance, Islam encourages people to look after their family and

relatives as well as assist one another “collectivism”. Further, the principles of

consultation, obedience to parents, and taking opinion of the elderly are considered as the

important recommendations of the Islamic religion “Power Distance”. Moreover, Islamic

religion recommends avoiding getting into situations that are ambiguous and forbids going

to unsafe places “Uncertainty Avoidance”. Thus it can be said that Arab cultural

background has emerged from and is largely related to the Islamic religion, and this also

impacts on destination image and perception.

In addressing Research Objective Five, this research find that statistically, dimension of

power distance has significant influences on tourists’ motivations. That means Arab

tourists cultural background, as they belong to high power distance society, has impact on

Hofstede Dimensions Arab Cultural The influence of cultural background

on Arab tourists

Power Distance Arab tourists belonged to large

power distance society

They require assurance that their family,

friends, relatives and society will see their

selection of destination positively.

Individualism vs.

Collectivism

Arab people belong to

collectivist society

They prefer to travel with family or

relatives and friends. Also they tend to

depend on the views of those around them

about destinations that they plan to visit.

Uncertainty

Avoidance

Arab tourists exhibit high

uncertainty avoidance

They try to have more knowledge of these

destinations to avoid the uncertainty of

exercising their religious beliefs such as

availability of mosques and Halal food.

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their motivations. Previous research, such as that by You et al. (2000), indicated that

Japanese travellers had different push and pull motivations from UK travellers according to

their cultural background. For instance, viewpoint of travellers from UK are that the

knowledge enhancement, finding excitement and experiencing a new and different lifestyle

are important motivations; whereas Japanese travellers were considered the relaxation is

more important (Youa et al., 2000). In addition, Plangmarn et al., (2012) examined the

differences and similarities of cultural values and motivations in three nationalities -

French, Spanish and German - as well as the impact of cultural on motivations of tourists.

This indicates that cultural values influenced the travel motivations of the tourists, where

cultural background affect travel motivation for travellers (Plangmarn et al., 2012).

Statistically, cultural factors had a significant influence on tourists’ perceptions in this

current study of Arab tourists at the Gold Coast. The statistical result find that factor 2

“power distance” was significant. Belonging as an Arab to a high-power distance society

affected the probability of visiting the Gold Coast again. Thus power distance has

significant impact on Arab tourists’ decision for visiting the Gold Coast. This finding

matched with a number of previous studies (Ahmed et al., 2009; Campiranon & Scall,

2007). These studies found that the power distance dimension had an influence on

decision-making, personality and customer behaviour. Thus tourists’ perceptions were

affected, albeit in a minor way, by the cultural background of tourists (power distance).

7.7 Overarching Discussion

With regard to Research Objective One, it was revealed that many of the perceptions of the

DMOs in this study are consistent with previous research, though the present study is the

first to gain in-depth information from key DMOs of the Gold Coast, and how the Gold

Coast portrayed as a tourist destination in general and their strategies to Arab tourists in

particular. It also in researching on Objective One, it uncovered perspectives not

previously discussed in the literature, particularly in the Gold Coast tourism context. For

example, there has been little or no literature discussing what important characteristics and

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strategies that used to highlight the Gold Coast as a tourist destination. Based on the

outcomes it can see that although there are significant characteristics in the Gold Coast

which can play an important role in attracting more tourists in general and Arab tourists in

particular such as hinterland and shopping centres, however the keys of (DMOs) focused

on the beaches, theme parks, and weather. In order to attract more tourists to this

destination, marketers should focus on diversity of the Gold Coast attractions that can

reflect a strong destination image.

Gaining insight into the extent of tourism marketers' knowledge about Arab tourists’

characteristics, behaviour and Arab cultural background is something that has not been

attempted in previous studies. This revealed that in spite the knowledge about Arab tourist

culture, there is low level of awareness by marketers regarding the impact of this cultural

background on their motivations and perceptions. Thus, tourism marketers must remain

aware of important cultural characteristics, such as attitudes, language, etiquette, religious

practices and customs and take it into account when developing tourism marketing

strategies. In addition doing content analysis of two sides (Australian Tourism websites

and Arab websites) provided an original way of gaining insight into how each side viewed

the Gold Coast as tourism destination, which also it has not been tried in previous

researches. This revealed that there were slightly differences between the Gold Coast’s

image and its identity; consequently marketers should work to avoid these differences.

In spite some of Arab tourists motivations that revealed in current study align with

previous studies, however the current study is the first to reveal that among the most

important characteristics that attract Arab tourists to the Gold Coast (‘pull’ factors) are the

beaches, landscape, weather and shopping. It also uncovered that most Arab tourists

surveyed had a positive impressions towards the Gold Coast as a tourist destination and

they likely to travel to this city again in the future. Knowledge of such these motivations

and perceptions could be used to create marketing strategies to support the destination in

order to attract more Arab tourists.

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Investigating the impact of Arab tourists’ cultural background and other factors on their

perceptions and motivations, will lead to use suitable strategies to promote the destination

and develop and strengthen the competitive position in the market, something that has not

been attempted in previous studies. This revealed that cultural background of Arab tourists

(collectivism, high power distance and uncertainty avoidance) had an influence on their

behaviour, motivations and perceptions of destination. By other words, the result depicts

the impact of cultural dimensions of Hofstede on tourists’ behaviours, perceptions and

motivations. Traveller behaviours driven by culture dimensions, as Arab tourists

belonging to Collectivism and High Uncertainty Avoidance society as well as belong to

High Power Distance culture, they prefer travel with families or in a group and depend

more on a friends as a source of information. In addition traveller perceptions driven by

culture dimensions, where Arab tourists’ culture background of High Power Distance has

impact on make decision to visiting the Gold Coast again. Moreover, this thesis revealed

that traveller motivations driven by cultural dimensions.

As Arab tourists are belonging to a High Power Distance society, they prefer to visit places

that stimulate their families, such as entertainment places for children and shopping centres

for the whole family. Thus this thesis revealed that cultural background of tourists has

significant impact on tourists’ behaviour motivations and perceptions. This finding has

significant implications for developing the tourism marketing strategies. In this way,

understanding the impact of tourists' cultural background on their perceptions and

motivations has significant influences on developing and designing promotional programs

of the destination.

7.8 Chapter Summary

This chapter was driven by the research objectives that seek to achieve the main research

aim that is to identify and explore Arab tourists’ perceptions of, and motivations to visit,

the Gold Coast, Australia. The chapter is divided into five sections based upon the findings

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of the five objectives of this research. This chapter presented the discussion and findings of

the study and related them to the literature review.

The first section dealt with Research Objective One discussion, which revealed that there

are slight differences between Gold Coast image and its identity. These differences

included that the Gold Coast is more modern and Surfers Paradise is just one place among

the other attractions on the Gold Coast. It also found that despite the general increasing rate

of Arab tourists there has been a decrease in this rate during the past year because of the

dates allocated for the Ramadan month. In addition, the important Arab characteristics that

were presented by interviewees that represented typical characteristics of Arab tourists

were high expenditures, long stay, and travel with large groups, as well as wishing to visit

different places and staying active all the time. Also, the interview results indicated that the

most important needs of Arab tourists were for prayer rooms in the accommodation and

parking areas, halal food, availability of mosques and the need for family suites that had

two or three bedrooms in the hotels.

The Research Objective Two was presented in second section. The content analysis of each

of Australian websites and Arab websites was run in order to achieve this objective. The

content analysis reveals that the accommodation and natural environment are the most

important Gold Coast attractions that were indicated on Australian tourism websites.

Whilst on the Arab websites, Surfers Paradise beach and shopping centres were the most

famous attractions among Arab websites. Thus there were slight differences about

important attractions of the Gold Coast between portrayed image on Australian websites)

and held image (Arab websites).

The importance of Arab tourists’ characteristics was presented in section three. The results

were gathered from the questionnaire and this result showed that length of stay and travels

with family and has pre-travel to the Gold Coast are important characteristics of the

visitors to the Gold Coast.

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The fourth section provided a discussion of Research Objective Three, which reveals the

important motivations and perceptions by Arab tourists of the Gold Coast as a tourist

destination. The results indicated that Arab tourists changed their perceptions positively

after visiting Gold Coast, usually for the better. Also it found that the beaches, landscape,

weather and shopping centres were important characteristics that attracted Arab tourists to

the Gold Coast.

Finally, research Objective Five was presented, where it revealed that gender, age, size of

group and length of stay had a significant impact on Arab tourists’ perceptions and

motivations. Also Arab cultural background influenced their motivations and perceptions.

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8 CHAPTER EIGHT: CONCLUSION

8.1 Introduction

This chapter represents the culmination of this thesis in which a conclusive response to the

research objectives is achieved, based on the convergence of key information detailed

throughout the thesis. This chapter begins with an overview of the previous six chapters,

summarising the development of the research objectives and literature review, the

methodology, and data analysis (Section 8.2). This section also links all prior chapters and

provides a comprehensive picture of the research and finally the findings are discussed and

evaluated. The implications of the results to both theory (Section 8.3) and practice (Section

8.4) are then discussed, and the identified opportunities for future research are also noted

(Section 8.5). This chapter concludes with a chapter summary (Section 8.6).

8.2 Thesis Summary

This section provides an overview of the previous chapters contained in this dissertation.

Chapter One presented a background to the research and introduced the key characteristics

of Arab tourists travelling to Australia. Chapter One then identified the primary aim and

five subsidiary objectives of the research. Afterwards the potential significance of the

research was articulated and a thesis outline was provided before a summary concluded

Chapter One.

Chapter Two presented a review of the literature relevant to the aims and objectives of the

research. The review of literature conducted in Chapter Two covered tourism marketing,

destination image, tourism motivation, and cross cultural communication (Bogari et al.,

2003; Echtner & Ritchie, 2003; Kang & Moscardo, 2006; Khan, 2005). A key outcome of

the literature was the identification that there is a lack of prior research on the influence of

tourists' cultural background on their perceptions of a destination’s image and their

motivations to travel to that destination. To fill this gap in extant knowledge this research

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builds on and enhances destination image theory by focusing on tourists' perceptions and

motivations, from a cross-cultural perspective.

Chapter Three presented a background to the Gold Coast, the location selected for this

research. Chapter Three also provided the discussion in this chapter is divided into two

main sections. The first section presented the significant tourism information about the

Gold Coast and Australia. Destination marketing organisations (DMOs) in Australia, the

development of the Australian brand, and Gold Coast overview was provided in this

section. Gold Coast was selected because of it is one of the largest and famous tourist

destination, in Australia (West & Bayne, 2002). The second main section provides some

information about Arab outbound tourists, in which the view of Arab world and its

important characteristics presented and addressed. In addition, it highlighted Arab culture,

where the strongest guiding force over Arab culture is Islamic religion (Al-Qaradawi,

2001). In this section Arab tourists’ motivation was outlined, as well as the previous

studies on them.

Chapter Four reviewed the previous studies on destination image in order to highlight the

methods they used as well as to justify the use of the mixed method approach, which

incorporates a mixture of both qualitative and quantitative approaches in the data collection

and the analysis of data. Also it presented the utilisation of data collection methods

(interviews, content analysis and questionnaire), which was the most efficient and

appropriate approach for this research. In addition, case study and research design was

provided as well as research methods. In order to obtain clear understanding of research

method, a detailed explanation for each method was presented in this section, where

clarification of the interview method was given through explaining its type, design,

participations selection and other information. Also the author provided an explanation

about content analysis and explained its application. Moreover, this chapter clearly

described the sampling plan, which detailed the steps taken for selected places, as well as

describing the development of the questionnaire items and a brief description of the data

analysis tools of each method.

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Chapter Five presents the finding of phase one, where it presented the finding from each of

the interviews and content analysis. The semi-structured interviews were utilised in order

to explore how the Gold Coast is projected to Arab tourists, whereas by content analysis,

the researcher has tried to analyse if the perceived image of the Gold Coast on Arab

websites corresponds with the promoted image by Australian tourism websites. For

achieve these objectives this section divided into two main sections, each section also

divided into subsections.

Results of the semi-structured interviews were presented in section one of Chapter Five.

The finding indicated that the main brand of the Gold Coast as: “Gold Coast - Famous for

Fun”. In addition, although Gold Coast Tourism developed some strategies in order to

attract more Arab tourists to visit the Gold Coast, there are some factors that affected the

flow of Arab tourists to this destination such as the Ramadan month, the choice of airlines,

the high value of the Australian dollar and the complex procedures for obtaining visas from

some Arab countries. Section two provided in this chapter the findings of the content

analysis in order to find out the image of the Gold Coast on the websites from both sides:

the supply side (Australian Tourism) and the demand side (Arab tourists' perceptions). The

finding showed that there is a slight difference between the two sides (Australian Tourism

websites and Arab tourism websites).

Chapter Six refers to findings of phase two. The findings were divided into four sections.

As these sections emerged from the results of the questionnaire, they were addressed and

analysed extensively. The four sections include: Visitor profile, where it provided the Arab

respondents characteristics and behaviour; Visitors’ motivations, where it found that

beaches and marine environment are the most important characteristics that attract Arab

tourists to visit the Gold Coast; and Visitors’ perceptions, where it was revealed that Arab

tourists have a positive image of the Gold Coast as a tourism destination. Factors that

influenced tourist perceptions and motivations as well as cultural influences on motivations

and perceptions were addressed in Chapter Six. This section revealed that age, gender,

travel party, length of stay and cultural background have significant impact on tourists’

perceptions and motivations.

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Chapter Seven integrated the findings from each of the five research objectives with

previous studies undertaken on destination image and tourism motivation. The discussion

revealed that in spite there are many of interviewed perceptions and finding tin this study

are consistent with previous research, but the present study is the first to gain in depth

information about each of the Gold Coast tourism strategies that target Arab market, Arab

tourists perceptions and motivations towards the Gold Coast as a tourism destination as

well as the impact of Arab tourists’ culture on their perceptions and motivations.

Chapter Eight found that Research Objectives had similarities to previous studies

undertaken on destination image and tourism motivations. Chapter Eight achieved the

overarching aim of the current research through linking the finding of each Research

Objective with the wider literature on destination image and tourism motivation.

8.3 Contributions to Theory

This thesis has developed an in-depth understanding of the impact of the cultural

background of Arab tourists on their motivations and perceptions, as well as the tourism

marketing strategies that are used to promote the Gold Coast to Arab' tourists in particular.

Firstly, this research contributes to provide the broader debates in the tourism literature by

building a deep understanding of importance of tourism marketing strategies that based on

knowledge of cultural background of the target market. It has also highlighted the

importance of understanding cultural differences in target markets then developing of an

effective marketing strategy for each market.

Furthermore, this research will add knowledge to the literature of destination image

through develop the understanding of differences perceptions of destination influenced by

culture. As previously noted, the study found that it was important to understand how

people view particular destinations so that destination marketers are able to try to reduce

any negative images a destination might hold. Moreover there has been a lack of research

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investigating the influence of cultural background on tourists' perceptions and motivations

in Arab world. Therefore, this study will fill this gap and contribute to the literature of

tourism by investigating the impact of Arab culture on Arab tourists perceptions and

motivations towards the Gold Coast', Australia. Finally, the study contributes to the

literature of tourism motivations. The current thesis has a considerable added value to the

theoretical field of tourism motivation through the investigation of culture on tourist

motivations. This is an area that to this point has been largely unexplored, thus as yet

conceptually underdeveloped in tourism literature. This area has been conceptually

developed in this thesis through revealed the influences of tourists' cultural background on

their motivations and perceptions.

8.4 Implications for Practice

The results of this study provide a clear picture of Arab perceptions of the Gold Coast as a

tourist destination as well as the motivations that drive Arab tourists to travel for tourism.

It addresses how these perceptions and motivations are influenced by some factors as well

as by cultural background. It further explains how tourists’ motivations, perceptions and

cultural factors affect the selection of a destination. It is therefore possible to draw the

following conclusions for practitioners in promoting the Gold Coast as a tourism

destination.

Destination marketers need to be aware of any ideas and images that might not hold ‘true’

in the eyes of the tourist. This study found that there are differences between the image of

the Gold Coast that Arab tourists just assume to be true and the real image of it that they

form when they visit this destination. This result is supported by interviews and content

analysis results. So the gap between destination image as a held by tourists and the image

as portrayed by marketers will have negative impacts on the effective brand of the

destination.

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Destination Marketing Organisations should pay careful attention to the relation between

motivation and culture background of the target market segments. Where it useful to

examine motivation and culture background when designing promotional programmes and

packages as well as when making decisions concerning the development of destinations.

As such an understanding offers a better explanation of the motives behind tourists’

behaviour and thus allows tourism planners to foresee tourists’ actions. The findings of this

study reveal that Arab tourists are motivated by multiple motivations which are

'shopping',' visit entertainment places, gain knowledge of local customs and traditions, the

opportunities for adventure and the attendance at local cultural festivals. Therefore,

tourism planners who study destinations (Australia and the Gold Coast) could tap into

these motivations when designing and setting promotional programmes that target the Arab

market.

Tourism managers and marketers should take into account the cultural differences and how

it influences tourists’ perceptions towards the destinations. As the current study reveals,

most Arab tourists from collectivist countries are also from high power distance society

and have high uncertainty culture. In addition, the outcome of this research confirms that

this background culture has an impact on Arab tourists’ perceptions and perspectives. It is

therefore possible to use these findings as a basis for successful promotional strategies. For

instance, the advertisements should reflect that this city is suitable for family tourists

groups and it provides entertainment places for all family members and that these places

have halal food and prayer rooms. As such, these advertisements which target tourists from

collectivist countries will have a positive impact on their perceptions and motivations

towards this destination because they are more interested in the comfort of family

members. Therefore destination marketers should take this into consideration when

designing promotional programmes. Thus, with regard to promotional messages, the study

finds that tourism practitioners should concentrate on promoting the fact that the Gold

Coast provides places that satisfy Arab tourists' motivations. In addition, the promotional

message should portray the Gold Coast as a diverse attractions destination. Consequently,

perceptions are related to different cultural dimensions. Participation of various cultural

188

groups in tourism facilities may be encouraged by a comprehension of diverse cultural

values on the part of tourism managers and marketers.

8.5 Limitations of the Research

Although present research has reached its aim and objectives, there were some limitations

that should be taken into consideration when interpreting the findings.

The first limitation of the research concerns the scope of tourism motivational items of the

participants. the use of predefined motivation items is a complex process; this happens

because the researcher cannot ensure that these items encompass the most important

motives of the respondents (Allan, 2011). Therefore one limitation is the limited number of

motivations items used as independent variables to examine the relationship with a

dependent variable; this is due to the fact that other motivational items, which were not

applied in the current research, could have influenced on the behavioural intention of the

tourists to visit Gold Coast.

Secondly, the results of this study may not justify application to other tourist markets due

to the specific focus of this study being on an Arab market. This means that while the

findings can be used as specific information for destination marketers in the Arab region,

the usefulness of the findings in other tourists markets such as the European and American

markets may be limited. Such a limitation imposes difficulties in applying the findings to

other markets that may have different cultures that have impact on tourism marketing

strategies. Future research focusing on other regions is necessary to determine possible

cultural differences in tourist behaviour.

Thirdly, it would have been ideal to combine the survey with interviews with Arab tourists

to provide further depth (Cavana et al., 2001). Interviews with Arab tourists may occur

more openly with Arab researchers about what it is like to be an Arab tourist in Australia

189

as well as about their needs and desires. Future interviews of this nature could lead to more

nuanced understandings about underlying reasons for the findings around gender and age.

Despite these limitations, however, the findings are robust and provide useful insights for

tourism management and marketers in world destinations in general, and Australia and the

Gold Coast in particular.

8.6 Implications for Further Research

The limitations and results of the current study provide several implications of interest for

future research in this area. There has been some research done in the field of tourism that

recognises the importance of culture and compares the perceptions and motivations of

tourists from different nationalities. However, the research studies that specifically use

Hofstede’s cultural dimensions as explanatory variables for their findings are rather

limited. As Hofstede’s cultural dimensions have proven to be an effective tool to

understand cultural differences in a variety of fields dealing with human behaviour,

certainly, the field of tourism will benefit from more research related to the expansion and

applications of these cultural dimensions. The conceptual framework developed in current

research provides some further insights into the relative dominance of the various cultural

dimensions on perceptions and motivations of tourists. This provides basic information for

both conceptual and empirical future research on this subject.

Furthermore, after understanding the Arab tourists’ motivations and perceptions towards

the Gold Coast, further research can be done on understanding service quality perception.

This will provide marketers with a fuller picture of customers, from their motivation

profiles to behaviour that might be useful in a targeting or developing of a promotional

strategy. In addition, continuing research on motivations for visiting the Gold Coast sites is

another possible direction. For instance, it would be interesting to study how these

motivations will change when the tourism websites focus on several of the attractions on

the Gold Coast as it is anticipated that the motivation towards this city will be influenced.

190

In addition, this research has used only the common items in previous research that reflect

the tourism motivations (see Chapter Five). Also, all items deemed relevant to the Arab

market (that were summarised through interviews) were included in the instrument. In

other words, the tourism motivation items considered in the questionnaires do not comprise

all possible items. Other items have not been included in this study because the researcher

tried to limit the length of the survey, and some items were not widely used in other

studies, such as ‘fulfilling one’s dream of visiting a place’ (Hanqin & Lam 1999), ‘to gain

others’ respect, to influence others’, ‘to gain a feeling of belonging’ (Kim & Lee 2000),

and ‘interacting with local people’ (Huang, 2010). So, further research would be of benefit

by using more of these motivation items.

Finally, such research could be well replicated in other countries, especially Islamic

countries and other Arab nations, given the paucity of studies in these cultures. Ultimately,

much more research is needed on the whole on the unique needs, motivations and

perceptions of Arabic tourists, and in particular how these can be understood in an

Australian context, where DMOs are increasingly vying for the Arab tourist dollar.

191

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