DESIGNING ENGLISH ACADEMIC WRITING YOGYAKARTA · 2017. 3. 9. · Hastangka, S.Fil., Lindra, and Daniel. I th ank them for all the fight and sharing. My thank goes to m y friends for

DESIGNING ENGLISH ACADEMIC WRITING

INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE DENTISTRY

STUDENTS AT GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY

YOGYAKARTA

A Thesis

Presented as Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements

to Obtain the Sarjana Pendidikan Degree

in English Language Education

BY

RUTH HASTUTININGSIH

Student Number: 021214027

ENGLISH LANGUAGE EDUCATION STUDY PROGRAM

DEPARTMENT OF LANGUAGE AND ARTS EDUCATION

FACULTY OF TEACHERS TRAINING AND EDUCATION

SANATA DHARMA UNIVERSITY

2008

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PLAGIAT MERUPAKAN TINDAKAN TIDAK TERPUJI

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This thesis is dedicated to: .

Everyone all over the world who has helped me believe in my dreams

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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to express my deepest gratitude to the Lord Jesus Christ, who

keeps pouring all His blessings to me with love. His never-ending love and

guidance keep me on my destined path. He has been so kind to give me a chance

to know number of people who took participation directly or indirectly in

completing this thesis. First of all, I owe a great debt to Paulus Kuswandono.

S.Pd., M.Ed., my sponsor who willingly reads and gives corrections, comments,

and suggestions to my thesis.

I owe a great debt to Prof. Dr. drg. Munakhir Mudjosemedi, S.U. as the

dean of Dentistry Faculty Gadjah Mada University. drg. Muh. Masykur Rahmat,

Sp.BM., as the Vice Dean 1, drg. Sri Suparwitri S.U., Sp.Ort., as the Vice Dean

2, drg. Bambang Priyono, S.U., as the Vice Dean 3 of Dentistry Faculty Gadjah

Mada University who allow me to conduct research in Dentistry Faculty and the

lecturer of English class Drs. Arief Rachman, M.Hum., who allows me to conduct

his class. My thanks especially go to drg. Suryono, Ph.D., (Dentistry-UGM), dr.

Michele Dawn Shen, M.Kes., (Medical-UGM), Miss Enny (PPBI-USD), Miss

Siska (PPBI-UKDW), Pak Arief (English-UGM), whom I really appreciate for

their big help in filling the questionnaires.

My gratitude also goes to all of the lectures in English Language

Education Study Program of Sanata Dharma University who have given me

enough knowledge and who have provided me with examples of caring and

perseverance that really enrich my life experiences. I would also like to thank to

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Mbak Tari and Mbak Danik for helping me with the administrative matters. I am

indebted to all students of first semester of Dentistry Faculty Gadjah Mada

University and administration staff for helping me.

To my parents, Soedarsono and Hanna to whom I owe the greatest debt of

love and understanding, I want to dedicate this thesis to them. To my brothers

Hastangka, S.Fil., Lindra, and Daniel. I thank them for all the fight and sharing.

My thank goes to my friends for her sharing and unforgettable experiences, all

friends of PBI 2002 that I cannot mention one by one, and my special thank goes

to Heather for reading this thesis.

Ruth Hastutiningsih

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TABLE OF CONTENTS

TITLE PAGE ……………………….…….……….………….…..………… i APPROVAL PAGE ………………………...…….………..…………….…. ii STATEMENT OF WORK’S ORIGINALITY …..…………..…..…….…. iv DEDICATION PAGE …………………………………...…......................... v ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ………………………...…………………..…… vi TABLE OF CONTENTS …………………………..…........….…..……..… viii LIST OF FIGURES .…..….……………………………….………….......... x LIST OF TABLES ……..…………………………....................................... xi TABLE OF APPENDICES ..……………….…..………...……...………… xii ABSTRACT ……………………….……....……...…..………………..…… xiii ABSTRAK ……………………………..…....………..…............................... xiv CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ……….….……….…..…............................ 1 A. The Background of the Study ………..….….……….………………….. 1 B. Problem Identification ………………………..….…..………………….. 2 C. Problem Limitation ………………………..….…..……………………... 4 D. Problem Formulation …………………...…………………...…………... 4 E. Objectives of the Study …………..…………….…..…..……………..… 5 F. Benefits of the Study ……………………....…..………..…………….… 5 G. Definition of Terms …………………..……..…………........................... 6 CHAPTER II LITERATURE REVIEW ………………………….…………. 7 A Theoretical Description ………….…………...….……….….................... 7

1. English for Academic Purposes ……...…….….…………………….. 7 a.) The Product Approach …………...........…………….……….. 8 b.) The Process Approach …………….….….…........................... 9 c.) Summarizing and Paraphrasing …………………….……….. 9

2. Course Design ……………………...……………………………….... 10 a. Course Design Models …………….....…...…….…………......….. 10

1) Kemp’s Model …………………….......……........................... 10 2) Hutchinson and Waters’ Model ……….......…..…..…………. 12

b. Need Analysis ……………………….…......…..………….………. 13 1) Target Situation Analysis …………...…….…………..……... 14 2) Present Situation Analysis …………….……........................... 15

c Learning Objectives ………………...………….………..……..… 16 d The EAP Syllabus …………….………………………….………. 16

3. Material Design ………………....…….….…...................................... 16 a. Material Evaluation ……………..…….………………………… 18 b. Material Development ………………….….................................. 19 c. The Expanded Model ……………….…..…..……………..…….. 20

4. Writing and Teaching Academic Writing ……....……………………. 22 a. Process writing …………………………...…..….....…….……… 23 b. Error Analysis ………………………..………….………………. 27

B Theoretical Framework ………………………......…………..…………... 28

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CHAPTER III METHODOLOGY …………………......….…..….................. 31 A Method .…………………………………...…...…..…………………….. 31

1. Educational Research and Development (R&D) …..………………… 31 2. Need Survey ….…………………...….……………………………… 36

B Respondents ….. ……………………….….…..……………….. 37 1. The Respondents of Need Analysis Survey ….……......………….…. 37 2. The Respondents of Material Evaluation Survey …..……...………… 37

C Setting .…………………………......…....................................................... 38 D Instruments .……………………….……….……………………………... 38

1. Questionnaires ….………………….....……………………………….. 39 2. Interviews …..…………………………...…..…..…………………….. 40 3. Classroom Observation checklist .………....….……..…….…………. 41

E. Writing Procedure Document (Error Analysis) ….…….…..…..……….… 42 F. Data Gathering .……………………………….…..….…..…………….… 43 G. Data Analysis ….………………………...….….….……........................... 43 H. Research Procedure …………………...…….…………............................. 45 CHAPTER IV RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS ………….… 47 A Conducting Needs Survey Research ……………………………….…… 46 B. Analyzing the Data …………………………………………………….... 49 C. Writing a Syllabus of Instructional Materials Development …………… 62 D. Developing Instructional Materials ….….……………….………………. 63

1. Selection of the Writing Tasks …..…………………………………… 64 2. The Technical Presentation …..…………………………………...….. 65

E. Evaluating the Instructional Materials …..……………………………….. 66 F. Revision the Instructional Materials …..…………………………………. 67

1. The Second Research Respondents’ General Evaluation and Suggestions ….…………………………………...…………………… 67

2. Discussion on the Design Materials Evaluation …..…………..……… 69 G. Writing the Final Draft of the Materials ….……………………………… 70 H. Presenting the Final Version of the Designed Materials …..……….….… 70 CHAPTER V CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS ….……….…........... 71 A. Conclusions …..………………………..…...…......................................... 71 B. Suggestions …..……………….….…..….................................................. 72 BIBLIOGRAPHY …..……………………….……………………………… 74 APPENDIX

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LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 2. 1 Kemp’s Instructional Model: then relationship of each step in

the plan to the other step.

Figure 2. 2 A Learning Centered Approach to Course Design. (Hutchison

and Waters 1987:72)

Figure 2. 3 The Materials Evaluation Process Model

Figure 2. 4 A Materials Design Model.

Figure 2. 5 An Expanded Materials Model

Figure 2. 6 The Research Steps (Combined Models)

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LIST OF TABLES

Table 3.1 The First Questionnaire (Need Analysis)

Table 3.2 Tally Sheet for Analyzing Classroom Interaction (Checklist)

Table 4.1 First Survey Data Setting Research

Table 4.2 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the

First Survey Research.

Table 4.3 The Descriptive Statistics of Tally Sheet for Analyzing

Classroom Interaction (Checklist)

Table 4.4 Sub-Categorized Errors

Table 4.5 The Second survey Research Data

Table 4.6 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the

Second Survey Research.

Table 4.7 The Second Questionnaire Data Tabulation

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LIST OF APPENDICES

Appendix 1 Permission Letters

Appendix 2 Need Survey First Questionnaire (Need Analysis)

Appendix 3 Need Survey Second Questionnaire

Appendix 4 Worksheet Writing

Appendix 5 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the First

Survey Research.

Appendix 6 Sub-Categorized Errors

Appendix 7 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the second

Survey Research.

Appendix 8 The Designed Materials Syllabus and Lesson Plan

Appendix 9 The Designed Materials Presentation.

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ABSTRACT

Hastutiningsih, Ruth. 2008. Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials For The Dentistry Students At Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta. Nowadays the students must produce academic writing as an assignment and academic papers in order to finish their study. This study was meant to discuss how a set of academic writing instructional materials is designed and what the set of academic writing for the Dentistry instructional materials look like.

In order to answer the first question on how to develop the instructional materials, two combined models of instructional design were employed, i.e. Hutchinson and Waters’ and Kemp’s model. The steps recommended in the two models were identifying learner, analyzing learning and target situation, determining learning objectives, listing the subject content, making a choice of learning activities determining support services and evaluating and opinion on ten instructional materials from English instructor and experienced in teaching writing English for dentistry students or graduate students of other studies. From the second survey research respondent opinion of the designed materials, it can be seen that between the ranges of scales 1-5 the mean scores of the answer were 4.0. It means that most of the respondents agree that the designed set of academic writing skill proposed in this study had fulfilled the requirements of suitable material. The results of the second survey research were used as the basis for the revision and improvement of the instructional materials.

To answer the second question, text analysis of the Dentistry faculty textbooks, error analysis of the students writing drafts and the evaluation of the existing writing materials were carried out. The relevant tasks for the actual Dentistry students were drafting, identifying sentences, topic sentence, summarizing, outlining, paraphrasing, paragraph and essay writing.

The designed materials consist of eight units. Each unit is presented in three sections and sequenced from easier to more difficult, simpler to more complex and from controlled to free activities. The “Pre-writing stage” section acts as the input stimulus to motivate students’ interest on the topic. Then, the “language focus” provides opportunity for the students to break the language into pieces, study how it works and put it back together again. The “Whilst-writing” section provides explanation on various tasks to practice writing ranging from simple to more complicated tasks. Besides that students are provided exercises on writing tasks based on each type of tasks. The “Post-writing” section provides revising and editing where the lecturer gives comment and students analyze their mistake

Based on the conclusions, two suggestions are proposed. First, teachers need to carefully select materials in order to match the learners’ need. Second, it is suggested that the English Language Education Program of Sanata Dharma University train its students to be able to teach English for academic purpose and specific purpose to meet the demands of the education areas.

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ABSTRAK

Hastutiningsih, Ruth. 2008. Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials For The Dentistry Students At Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma Yogyakarta. Sekarang ini mahasiswa harus menghasilkan penulisan akademik sebagai tugas kuliah dan makalah akademik dalam menyelesaikan studi mereka. Studi ini dimaksudkan untuk bagaimana satu rangkaian tugas-tugas menulis untuk mengembangkan kemampuan mahasiswa dalam menulis tugas akademik untuk mahasiswa Kedokteran Gigi didesain dan seperti apa bentuk kelompok tugas tugas menulis itu. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan pertama, yakni bagaimana mengembangkan materi pengajaran, dua model kombinasi rancangan instruksi pengajaraan digunakan yakni model Hutchinson dan Waters dan model Kemp langkah-langkah yang dianjurkan dalam dua model ini adalah mengidentifikasi pembelajar, menganalisa situasi dan target belajar, menentukan tujuan pembelajaran, mendaftar isi materi pembelajaran, memilih kegiatan belajar, menentukan jasa jasa pendukung dan mengevaluasi meteri yang telah didesain. Penelitian survey yang kedua dilakukan untuk memperoleh evaluasi dan pendapat tentang survey materi pengajaran dari instruktur bahasa Inggris yang berpengalaman mengajar bahasa Inggris untuk mahasiswa Kedokteran gigi atau mahasiswa S2 disiplin ilmu lain. Dari pendapat respondent penelitian survey kedua, dapat dilihat bahwa antara skala 1 sampai 5 skor rata-rata jawaban adalah 4.0 ini berarti bahwa sebagian besar responden setuju bahwa kumpulan tugas-tugas menulis yang disusun untuk mengembangkan kemampuan menulis tugas akademik mahasiswa yang diusulkan selama studi ini telah memenuhi tuntutan materi yang sesuai. Dari hasil penelitian ini digunakan sebagai dasar bagi revisi dan penyempurnaan materi pengajaran. Untuk menjawab pertanyaan kedua, analisa wacana buku-buku pegangan kuliah bahasa Inggris, analisa kesalahan dari naskah konsep mahasiswa dan evaluasi materi materi writing yang ada dilaksanakann. Tugas-tugas menulis yang relevan untuk kuliah kuliah kedokteran gigi yang sebenarnya adalah tugas mencatat, menulis, mengidentifikasi kalimat, menulis kalimat utama, meringkas, membuat garis besar, membuat konsep, membuat paraphrase, menulis paragraf dan menulis esei. Materi yang disusun terdiri dari delapan satuan pelajaran. Masing-masing satuan pelajaran disajikan dalam tiga bagian dan dirangkai dari yang lebih mudah ke yang lebih sulit, dari yang lebih sederhana ke yang lebih rumit, dari yang terkendali ke yang lebih bebas. Bagian tahapan “Pre-writing” berperan sebagai stimulus awal untuk memotivasi minat mahasiswa pada topik. Kemudian “Language focus” memberi kesempatan pada mahasiswa untuk mengupas bahasa menjadi bagian yang terkecil, mempelajari fungsinya dan menyusunnya kembali. Bagian “Whilst-writing” memberi penjelasan tentang tugas-tugas menulis yang beragam untuk berlatih menulis yang mulai dari tugas-tugas sederhana sampai

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pada tugas-tugas yang rumit. Disamping itu siswa juga diberikan latihan soal menulis berdasarkan masing-masing tipe latihan. Bagian “Post-writing” memberikan pengoreksian dan pengeditan dimana dosen akan memberikan koreksinya dan komentarnya dan siswa menganalisa kesalahan tersebut. Berdasarkan kesimpulan yang diambil, ada dua saran yang diberikan. Pertama, pengajar perlu untuk menyeleksi materi secara berhati-hati supaya sesuai dengan kebutuhan pembelajar. Kedua, disarankan bagi Program Studi Pendidikan Bahasa Inggris Universitas Sanata Dharma untuk melatih mahasiswanya untuk mampu mengajar bahasa Inggris untuk tujuan khusus untuk memenuhi tuntutan pendidikan.

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CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

This study addresses Designing English Academic Writing

Instructional Materials for the Dentistry Students at Gadjah Mada

University Yogyakarta. This study intends to develop instructional materials for

academic writing. To establish the purpose of this study, chapter one consists of

several main parts. This chapter discusses the Background of the Study, Problem

Limitations, Problem Formulations, Objectives of the Study, Benefits of the

Research, Definitions of Terms.

A. The Background of the Study

The ability to write in English is very important in current times.

English is considered the most acceptable language among other international

languages. This has created a need for mastering English. Many people study

an English course to become competent with the language or learn it by

themselves through books.

Nowadays, in Indonesia, university students must produce academic

papers written in English as a prerequisite to completing their study.

Therefore, the immediate need to write in the English language motivates the

students to take an English academic writing course. Undergraduate students

face many kinds of writing tasks as they study their chosen degree program.

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Naturally, these tasks are different from one-degree program to another. They

are, however, similar in two respects. First, the tasks become more complex.

Second, they need to be written in appropriate academic language.

Writing skills are considered the most difficult aspect of language

skills because it takes a long time to process and may be considered as a

boring activity. Writing skills require students to express their ideas, opinions

and thought in written form. Sometimes ideas just come out spontaneously;

therefore, writing is a good tool to record our ideas without having lost any of

the ideas.

Another reason why writing in English is considered as one of the

most difficult requirements is because they know what to write but they do

not know how to phrase their ideas appropriately into their paper. Moreover,

many students think in their first language and translate their thoughts a

sentence per sentence as they write in English, rather than translating the

broader ideas from the first to the second language.

B. Problem Identification

The students of Dentistry Faculty in Gadjah Mada University are

required to pass an English course that is offered by Dentistry Curriculum for

Undergraduate students. Most students of the Dentistry Faculty have already

mastered Basic English grammar but these students still have many problems

in their writing.

There are a few students of Dentistry students who write their thesis in


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English. The reason for this is that in Indonesia, not many research studies

exist on writing courses designed to help such students complete a thesis

writing to an acceptable standard.

The Dentistry Department of Gadjah Mada University needs to

reconstruct its old instructional materials and create a new English design

subject. The reason is that the old design does not cover all the students’

needs in order to understand English textbooks and write academic writing

well. It means that the design consists of one subject materials that are

translating materials. There are many assignment papers and English books

available as references that may be used in the Dentistry faculty. The students

need guidance in writing skills in order to be able to write good paragraphs

and summarize the books. Furthermore, there are not many alternative

materials that are especially designed for Dentistry study. The materials used

were authentic texts that did not represent the Dentistry field. There were no

English materials or textbooks available for this department based on the

Dentistry curriculum. Moreover, the Dentistry Department of Gadjah Mada

University needs to design a new English syllabus because it is important in

order to promote positive student behavior by addressing students learning

needs.

The problem with the Dentistry students’ lack of English writing

ability is attributed to a number of factors. Firstly, students do not have

sufficient knowledge and guidelines of how to write well. Secondly, writing

activities are mostly applied to assignments when the lecturer cannot come to


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the class. As a result, the lack of English writing skills and achievement of

Dentistry students becomes an obstacle in producing good English writing,

although several techniques have been applied to teach writing. Students still

have trouble when they are asked to write. Thirdly, the students face

difficulties in formatting a paragraph, summarizing, and organizing ideas to

form well-developed English academic piece of writing.

C. Problem Limitation

The first semester students need to have a strong writing foundation

because they will use more complex texts in the following semesters, it means

that they need to prepare themselves from the very first of semester. The

writing deals mostly with writing essays, research papers, report papers and

summaries. Therefore, in this study the researcher limits the problem in

writing a good paragraph and summarizing, organizing the idea to form well-

developed English academic piece of writing. The researcher focuses on

Designing English Academic Writing Instructional Materials for the Dentistry

Students at Gadjah Mada University.

D. Problem Formulation

Based on the above discussion, two problems can be identified as

follows:

1. How is a set of instructional academic writing materials designed?

2. What do the set of instructional materials for the Dentistry Students look

like?


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E. Objectives of the Study

The goal of this research is to design a set of English instructional

materials for students of Dentistry. The aim of the research is to:

1. Design a set of instructional academic writing materials.

2. Present a set of English instructional materials

F. Benefits of the Study

The results of this study should make a beneficial contribution to the

following:

1. The students of the Dentistry department, who will be provided with

scientifically well-developed English Academic Writing instructional

materials that are developed based on general scientific research such as

lab reports, argumentative pieces of writing and essays.

2. The English lecturers of the Dentistry department, who will gain a set of

English Academic Writing instructional materials matching the need of the

Dentistry students.

3. The researcher, who is a student of the English Education Program, will

gain benefits from this research because she will learn how to design an

instructional program in English for Academic Purposes and how to

develop teaching materials.

This may be the starting point to carry out further study in English

skills in Dentistry students. Further research is needed because the materials

need to be evaluated, reprogrammed and reconstructed as soon as the direct

outcome is able to be observed.


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G. Definitions of Terms

This section aims to describe the terms concerning the research that

are considered important for Dentistry students to know. Without the

description of the terms there may be confusion, misunderstanding or

misinterpretation about those terms, which is why the description of terms is

very important and becomes an essential part to understanding the research.

Defining the following terms:

1. Academic writing (Robinson 1991: 103) is the kind of writing that is

required in college or university. In order to write effectively, it takes

practice to develop the skill. It is important, therefore, to bear in mind

that writing is an ongoing process, not a finished “product”. This means

that a piece of writing is never complete; it can be continuously reviewed

and revised.

2. Instructional materials as defined by Kemp (1977:134-136) stated that

instructional materials mean those that would help teachers in

transmitting information to their students so that the previously stated

objectives can be optimally achieved.

3. Course design

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:65), course design is a

process by which the raw data related to the learning needs is interpreted

to make an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences.


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CHAPTER 2

LITERATURE REVIEW

The first part discusses the theoretical foundation underlying the study that

will be presented in the theoretical description. The second part is the discussion

of the theoretical framework of the study.

A. Theoretical Description

This section contains six major discussions of theories underlying this

study. Firstly, it discusses the definition of English for academic purposes,

since the instructional materials designed are intended for the Dentistry

students. Secondly, theories of instructional design models and processes are

elaborated. The discussions are two instructional models; a need analysis,

learning objectives, syllabus and instructional materials. Finally, an

appropriate teaching method for academic writing is presented.

1. English for Academic Writing

The instructional materials designed in this study are intended for the

Dentistry students of Gadjah Mada University. As previously mentioned they

are undergraduate students of Dentistry. This section will discuss the

definitions of the English for Academic Purposes that underlie the design of

the language course for the Dentistry students. The types of students taught in

an ESP course are those who are about to enter study at or already study

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through the university. They may be undergraduates or graduates. Robinson

(1991:103) states that the design of an EAP course is based on a range of

topics and texts from several disciplines. Of general current concern however,

is the focus on discipline-specific topics and texts, such as, economics,

medicine, and engineering. The format and development are similar in each,

suggesting that the authors believe that students require practice in the same

strategies and tasks, whatever the discipline. The researcher used two

approaches; the product approach and the process approach Robinson (1991:

103). Two approaches used in teaching writing are namely process and

product approaches.

The feature of the product method is:

Model → comprehension/analysis/manipulation → new input → parallel

→ text

The features of the process approach are:

Writing task → draft 1 → feedback → revision → input → draft 2 →

feedback → revision draft 3

(Robinson 1991: 103)

a.) The Product Approach

A model is provided in the product approach and various exercises

undertaken to draw attention to its important features. Students are required to

produce a similar text. In addition, attention is given to the organization of


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writing, its structure, cohesion, various grammatical aspects and academic

style; also some incorporate elements of the process approach.

b.) The Process Approach

This approach relates to the principles of learner-centered learning,

encouraging individuals to take more responsibility for their own learning.

Drafting, feedback, revisions and informed choices, students can make clearer

decisions about the direction of their writing.

Feedback is an important element in the process approach to writing.

Keh (1990) discusses three types of feedback: peer-evaluation, conferences

(i.e teacher-students interaction and written comments by a teacher. She

concludes that each type of feedback has its uses and advantages. From the

point of view of academic writing, this approach has the advantage of drawing

attention to the constant need to draft and revise; in other words, encouraging

students to be responsible for making improvements for themselves.

c.) Summarizing and Paraphrasing

Summary writing is an important aspect of academic writing and is

linked to academic reading, by means of note making. An integral part of

reading and summarizing is paraphrasing. Paraphrasing is expressing someone

else’s ideas in your own words, structure and style. This difficult but essential

skill is practiced step by step. The integration of others’ writing has also been

commented on by Leki and Carson (1994) who recommended that:

‘EAP writing classes need to move away from writing tasks that require students only to tap their own opinions and experiences and toward


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work that encourages students to integrate those opinions and experiences with external sources of information and argument.’

2. Course Design

a. Course Design Models

Two course design models are used based on their applicability and

practicality to a language course design. The instructional design is a complex

process that is composed of many interrelated parts and functions that must

operate in a coherent manner in order to achieve success. Dick and Reiser

(1989:62-67) point out that instructional materials simply mean that the

materials are planned or designed by the instructor. Instructional material

design is done in order to set the context of instruction.

The models of instructional design that will be presented in this study

are designed by Kemp and by Hutchinson and Waters.

The models of instructional design that are presented include:

1) Kemp’s Model

Jerold E. Kemp (1977:8) states that the instructional design plan is

designed to supply an answer to three questions:

• What must be learnt? (Objectives)

• What procedures and resources will work best to teach the

designed learning levels? (Activities and resources).

• How will we know when the required learning takes place?

(Evaluation)


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Kemp (1977: 8) proposes an instructional design model, which consists of

eight parts, namely:

• Consider the goals, list the topics, and state the general purposes

for teaching each topic.

• Enumerate the characteristics of the leaner for whom the

instruction is to be designed.

• Specify the learning objectives to be achieved in terms of

measurable students’ behavioral outcomes.

• List the subject content that supports each objective.

• Develop pre-assessments to determine the students’ background

and present their level of knowledge about the topic.

• Select teaching and learning activity and instructional resources

that will address the subject content in order that students will

accomplish the objectives.

• Coordinate such support services such as budget, personnel,

facilities, equipment, and schedules to carry out the instructional

plan.

• Evaluate students’ leaning in terms of their accomplishment of

objectives, with a view to revising and reevaluating any phases of

the plan that need improvement.

The eight steps suggested by Kemp are flexible and clear. There is

interdependence among eight elements. A designer can start whichever step

they choose. It is because all steps are interrelated. The strength of Kemp’s

model lies on the existence of the concept of design and development process


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that may start from any of the steps, whenever the designer is ready. Therefore

the steps are interdependent on each other however they can also stand by

themselves. The relationship of each step in the plan to the other step can be

seen below:

Figure 2. 1 Kemp’s Instructional Model: then relationship of each step in the plan to the other step (Kemp 1977:9).

Goals, topics, & General Purposes

REVISION

Pre-assessment

Subject

Evaluation

Support services

Teaching/learning Activities, Resources

Learning Objectives

Learner Characteristic

2) Hutchinson and Waters’ Model

Hutchinson and waters (1987:72) offer a learning centered approach to

course design. Hutchinson and Waters (1987:21) state that course design is

“the process by which raw data about a learning need is interpreted in order to

produce an integrated series of teaching-learning experiences, whose ultimate

aim is to lead the learners to a particular state of knowledge.” This approach

holds on to the principle that the learner is the one who determines the

learning.


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There are two reasons why this approach should be used. First, learning,

as an internal process, is seen as a process where the learners use their existing

knowledge and skills to process the information being presented to them.

Therefore, learning depends on the knowledge that the learners already have

and their ability and motivation to use it. Secondly, a learning centered

approach to course designs considers the learners at every step of the design

process.

Figure 2. 2 A Learning Centered Approach to Course Design. (Hutchinson and Waters 1987:74)

Identify learners

Theoretical view of language

Analyze learning situation

Theoretical view of learning

Analysis of target situation

Identify skills and knowledge needed to function in the target situation

Write syllabus/materials to exploit the potential of the learning situation in the acquisition of the skills and knowledge required by the target situation

Identify students’ attitudes/wants/potential Identify needs/potential/constraints of learning/teaching situation

Course Evaluation

Course Evaluation

Teach course

Teach course

b. Needs Analysis

A needs analysis is considered to be the first important procedure. Some

researchers consider the needs analysis as a criteria of ESP, because without it


14

the course designers will find difficulties. Widdowson (1981:2) defines that

needs mean what they students have to be able to do at the end of their

language course. Mountford (1981:27) has another definition of needs

analysis. He says that needs mean what the users-institution or society at large

regards as necessary or desirable to be learnt from a program of language

instruction. To determine what English the students need, a needs analysis

must be carried out. It simply identifies the learners’ personal, socio-cultural,

and educational traits, their expectations and interest and what the students

need to do in English tasks, the context in which they will do it texts and what

their current level of English is. Because of the various definitions of needs,

course designers define needs as what a particular group of students need

English for.

1) Target Situation Analysis

Target situation analysis concerns the learner’s future roles and the

linguistics skills and knowledge required to perform competently in writing in

a target context. This involves mainly objective and product-oriented data:

identifying the contexts of language use, observing the language events in

these contexts, listing the genres employed, collecting and analyzing target

genres.

Hutchinson and Waters define target needs as an umbrella term for

necessity, lacks and wants. Necessity is what the learners need to know in

order to function effectively in a target situation. Lacks mean the gap between


15

the target proficiency and the existing knowledge that the students already

have. Wants are the perceived needs by the students. What the students want

to learn may not necessarily match what they need to learn. Hutchinson

provides a simple framework and Waters (1987:59) outlines the kind of

information that course designers need to gather from an analysis of target

needs.

• Why is the language needed?

• How will the language be used?

• What will the content areas be?

• Who will the learner use the language with?

• Where will the language be used?

• When will the language be used?

This question outline is used as source of information for the course

designer to gather from an analysis of target needs. The materials course

designer is made to reflect on this outline.

2) Present Situation Analysis

Present situation analysis refers to information about learners’ current

abilities, familiarity with writing processes and writing genres, their skills and

perceptions; what they are able to do and what they want to do at the

beginning of the course. Data can therefore be objective (age, proficiency,

prior learning experiences) and subjective (self perceived needs, strengths, and

weaknesses).


16

Hutchinson and Waters have defined the gap between the target

situation and the present situation as the learning needs. Hutchinson and

Waters (1987:62-63) have developed a checklist to analyze learning needs.

They are stated as follows:

• Why are the learners taking the writing course?

• How do the learners learn?

• What resources are available?

• Who are the learners?

• What do learners know about writing?

The course designer used this checklist to analyze learning needs. This

checklist helped a course designer to follow the step in designed materials.

c. Learning Objectives

The important step in instructional planning is specifying learning

objectives in which the teacher’s concern is with learning as the outcome of

instruction. Writing objectives is a developmental activity that requires

refinements, changes, and modification as the writer develops subsequent

planning steps. Once collected and analyzed needs analysis data are used to

formulate course goals or aims and objectives. Goals are the global target

outcomes around which the syllabus is organized, given the students’

purposes abilities, their target needs, and institutional requirements.


17

d. The EAP Syllabus

According to Hutchinson and Waters (1987:80), a syllabus is a

document that details what will be learnt. A syllabus is plan of work essential

for the teacher as a guidelines and context for class content. In other words, a

syllabus is a coherent plan for a course of study, providing a map for both

teachers and learners, which specify the work to be accomplished by students

based on explicit objective. There are three types of approaches to EAP

syllabus (Yalden 1987, Hutchinson and Waters 1987, Robinson 1991). They

are content or product-based approaches, skills based, and method- process

based syllabuses.

• Content-Based syllabus: Situation, Topic, language form,

English for Academic Purposes employ a situational syllabus. A topic-

based syllabus employs the content of students’ work or specialist study,

which will be used as an organizing device for the syllabus to motivate

the students.

• Skill-based syllabus

The development of skill-based syllabuses indicates that the constituents

of four language skills (listening, speaking, reading, and writing) have

also been considered.

• Method-Based syllabus: Tasks, processes, and learning centered

A Tasks syllabus consists of asset of tasks or activities. These tasks have

been graded carefully in accordance with the cognitive difficulty. To

attain the terminal behavior the students must engage themselves in a set


18

of activities called tasks. In a language-centered approach the syllabus is

the determiner of the entire course. In a skill-centered approach, there is

a degree of negotiation between texts and skills.

The researcher used two types of syllabuses in this design. They will be

discussed in relation with the topic of this study. First, the Content-Based

syllabus: Situation, Topic, and language form, and second, the Method-Based

syllabus: Tasks.

Learning is not only a matter of presenting items or skills and strategies,

but also the process through which they are mastered. Therefore, the syllabus

must be used in a more dynamic way in order to enable methodological

considerations such as interest, enjoyment, and learner involvement, to

influence the content of the entire course design. In terms of practical

implementation, learners need to be presented with tasks, which are concerned

with language skills as real communication in real time, not in isolation. The

writing skills have been expanded to focus on their communicative goals

(Dubin and Olshtain, 1986:101). In an academic course (EAP), learners write

assignments that are suitable to their specific field of study; lab, reports,

library research reports, etc. Writing is tied to learners’ real world needs as

well writing academic papers and research articles. To sum up, the writing

activity becomes an interactive process with focus on time, the reason for

writing, and the reader. The objective of the activity is communicating to the

audience.


19

3. Material Design

When needs analysis, course design and a syllabus have been completed

the next step is to decide how to turn the course design into actual teaching

materials. Hutchinson and waters (1987:96) recommend two ways to do that:

First, materials evaluation by selecting from existing materials, second,

materials development by writing original materials.

An important consideration when selecting or designing materials is that

of authenticity. According to Hutchinson and waters (1987:158), authenticity

carries a sense of being ‘taken from the target situation and therefore not

originally constructed for language teaching purposes’. Nunan (1989:54)

states that it is necessary to use authentic materials since the most effective

way to develop a particular skill is to rehearse that skill in class. Materials

created to specifically stimulate writing, practice language items, introduce

content and highlight features of target texts may actually be more effective

than complete texts.

a. Materials Evaluation

Hutchinson and Waters (1987:97) divide the evaluation into four major

steps:

• Defining criteria

• Subjective analysis

• Objective analysis

• Matching


20

To compare different sets of materials, Hutchinson and Waters

(1990:99) develop a criteria checklist for objective and subjective analysis

of existing materials in developing instructional materials.

Figure 2. 3 the Materials Evaluation Process Model (Hutchinson and Waters 1987: 98)

Define criteria On what basis will materials be judged? Which criteria will be more important?

Subjective analysis What realization of criteria does the designer want in his/her course?

Objective analysis How does material being evaluated realize the criteria?

Matching How far does the material match the needs?

b. Materials Development

Hutchison and Waters (1987:107) outline three major steps in

developing creative ESP materials;

1) Defining objectives.

To define the purpose of writing materials, Hutchinson and Waters

(1987:107-108) identify some principles to guide us in the actual writing of

materials. They point out that:

• Materials provide a stimulus to learning. Good materials, therefore,

• Should contain interesting texts, enjoyable activities, and opportunities


21

for learners to use their existing knowledge and skills.

• Good materials should provide a clear and coherent unit structure,

which is flexible enough to allow creativity and variety.

• Materials should embody a view of the nature of language and

learning.

• Materials reflect the nature of the learning tasks.

• Materials give useful function to broaden the basis of teacher training.

Materials are a statement of language use rather than a vehicle for

language learning.

• Materials provide models of correct and appropriate language use.

2) A material design model.

Hutchinson and Waters (1987:108) present a model of materials. This

model is designed to provide a coherent framework for the integration of the

various aspects of learning and to allow enough space for creativity and

variety. This material design should cover four elements, which will help

learners achieve the aim stated before. The four elements are:

• Input (pre-writing, whilst-writing, post-writing)

It contains stimulus materials for activities, provide new language

items, show correct models of language use and present a topic for

writing, provide opportunities for learners to use their information

processing skills as well as their existing knowledge both of the language

and of the subject matter. The examples of media, which can be used as an

input, are texts and diagrams or charts.


22

• Language focus

Good materials should involve both opportunities for analysis and

synthesis. The learners should be able to use language, have a chance to

take the language to pieces, study how it works and practice putting it back

together again. In other words, language focus provides a language pattern for

students in composing their paragraphs.

• Content focus

Content should be exploited to generate meaningful

communication in the classroom. The text models are related to the general

prior knowledge of the students. Based on the background of the students in

Senior High School, the researcher tries to give the general and basic

knowledge required because they have not yet learnt about Dental

medicine.

Task •

Materials are designed to lead towards a writing task where

learners use the content and language knowledge that they have built up so

far.

Figure 2. 4 A Materials Design Model.

LANGUAGE CONTENT

TASK


23

c. The Expanded Model

However, Hutchinson and Waters (1987:118) have developed and

expanded the model as shown in figure 2.5

Figure 2. 5 An Expanded Materials Model (Hutchinson and

Waters 1987:118)

INPUT

TASK

CONTENT

Students’ own knowledge and ability

Additional input

Project

LANGUAGE

4. Writing and Teaching Academic Writing

To communicate our thought, ideas, and feelings, we can use written as

well as spoken language. In fact, due to a limitation of time, writing seems to

be a neglected skill. In addition, the students believe that writing is a difficult

subject to learn because they are expected to produce accurate and correct

written work while they are offered the same kind of writing activity

repetitively. It leads to the students’ low motivation in learning writing skills.

In order to teach writing successfully, the teachers need to understand the

nature of written text.

Writing is considered more grammatically complex than spoken


24

language structure. Raimes (1983) as cited in Musthafa (1994:5) defines

writing as a set of decision-making process involving an intricate choice of

grammar, syntax, mechanics, organization, word choice, purpose, audience,

content and the writing procedure.

In the English foreign language classes, reading and writing tasks often

depend on each other. Sometimes reading is used as a preparation for a

writing task. In writing classes, reading is indeed the most frequently used

method of providing input. This is either because teachers use models that

suggest this method, because they select texts on the subject of the

composition.

a. Process writing

The teacher’s role is to guide students through the writing process,

avoiding an emphasis on form to help them develop strategies for generating,

drafting, and refining ideas. This is achieved through setting prewriting

activities to generate ideas about the content and structure, encouraging

brainstorming and outlining, requiring multiple drafts, giving feedback,

seeking text level revisions, facilitating peer responses, and delaying surface

corrections until the final editing (Raimes, 1992). Gardner and Johnson (1997)

describe the stages of the writing process:

‘Writing is a fluid process created by writers as they work. Accomplished writers move back and forth between the stages of the process, both consciously and unconsciously. Young writers, however, benefit from the structure and security of following the writing process in their writing.’


25

Prewriting. •

Students generate ideas for writing: brainstorming; reading

literature; creating life maps, webs, and story charts; developing word banks;

deciding on form, audience, voice, and purpose as well as through teacher

motivation. For example, instead of telling the students "Write a composition

about your holiday", the instructions could be "Write a postcard to a friend

about how you are spending your holiday". Some examples:

Audience Purpose Form

The general public To report an accident / medical histories A newspaper article

Peers or the lecturer. To provide information on your medical lab. Report

A patient and doctor To complain about tooth ache and faulty

medicine

A letter

Samples of pre-writing tools:

First draft Second draft Third draft

Beginning Ending

Topic/title

Why I got toothache

My teeth

The way to avoid toothache

Looking after my teeth

The outline can help prepare students in writing a description (e.g.,

My tooth), where the different branches represent the different

paragraphs (e.g., my healthy teeth, how I look after my teeth, why I got

toothache).


26

•

•

•

•

•

•

Rough Draft.

Students get their ideas on paper. They write without concern for

conventions. Written work does not have to be neat; it is a 'sloppy

copy.'.

Reread.

Students proof their own work by reading aloud and reading for

comprehension.

Share with a Peer Revisor.

Students share and make suggestions for improvement: asking

who, what, when, where, why, and how questions about parts of the

story the peer does not yet understand; looking for better words; and

talking about how to make the work better.

Revise.

Improve what the narrative says and how it says it: write additions,

imagery, and details. Take out unnecessary work. Use peer suggestions

to improve. Clarify.

Editing.

Work together on editing for mechanics and spelling. Make sure

the work is 'goof proof.'

Final Draft.

Students produce their final copy to discuss with the teacher and


27

write a final draft.

• Publishing.

Students publish their written pieces: sending their work to

publishers; reading their finished story aloud, making books. This is a

time to celebrate!

This process of writing will introduce students to some principles and

techniques of the writing process. Process writing is an approach to teaching

writing, which tries to simulate the process that many writers go through in

their native language. In this way it does not only focus on the final product

but also on the stages along the way, such as gathering ideas, noting them

down, reorganizing and rephrasing the ideas and preparing a final, accurate

version. In other words, process writing marks a shift from exclusive

emphasis on the products of writing to an emphasis on the process of writing

and on interactive learning between lecturer and students, and among students

themselves. (Hyland, 2002).

b. Error Analysis

There are several ways to think about error in writing that relate to what

we know about second language acquisition and what we know about how

texts, context and the writing process interact with one another. As mentioned,

students writing in a second language generally produce texts that contain

varying degrees of grammatical and rhetorical errors. These kinds of errors are

especially common among L2 writers who have many ideas, but not enough


28

language to express what they want to say in a comprehensible way.

This study was done to identify and classify errors of Dentistry students'

writing, the purpose of the study was to find the most common errors and the

frequency of errors the respondents made, Error analysis (EA) would allow

teachers to figure out what areas should be focused on and what kind of

attention is needed in an L2 classroom. If this is done, the language teachers

will be better able to develop curriculum and select materials that successfully

facilitate L2 learning processes Brown (1994) and Littlewood (1995) have

found that L2 learners at a beginning level produce a large number of

interlingual errors.

B. Theoretical Framework

There are seven steps necessary to conduct in the theoretical

framework. They are conducting the research by carrying out a needs

analysis, writing a syllabus, developing evaluating tools, revising

instructional materials and finally writing the final draft of the instructional

materials. The procedure will be shown in figure 2.5

Step 1: Conducting Research

Research needs to be undertaken to answer the problem identified in

the problem formulation. In the previous chapter, the theoretical foundation

for such has been discussed as evaluation on the syllabuses, study skills and

published materials on writing skills limiting the writing tasks.

Step 2: Carrying Out a Needs Analysis

This step is important in order to identify the learner’s needs and

characteristics. The analysis will be divided into two parts. First, the TSA


29

(Target Situation Analysis) attempts to identify the learner’s needs at the end

of the language course having been designed. Second, a PSA (Present

Situation Analysis) aims to identify their characteristics; the results of the

analysis will be used as an important foundation in formulating course

objectives and writing the syllabus. Distributing questionnaires to Dentistry

students will be the methods for collecting the data required.

Step 3: Writing a Syllabus

There are two parts to this step. The first part is formulating learning

objectives based on the results of the materials evaluation and the needs

analysis step 1 and step 2 respectively. The second part is writing a particular

type of syllabus, which covers learning objectives, course content and the

methodology.

Step 4: Developing Instructional Materials.

Materials will be developed based on the selected materials drafts of

the Dentistry students. Error analysis will be carried out to determine the

structural points needed to be covered in the tasks. The materials will be

developed as the instructional materials according to the expanded material

design model proposed by Hutchinson and waters (1987:118).

Step 5: Evaluating the Instructional Materials

To evaluate the materials developed in step 4, materials and

questionnaires will be distributed to English instructors who have experience

in teaching Dentistry students. The questionnaire will be followed up by a

series of interviews and discussions.

Step 6: Revision the Instructional Materials.

The result of the materials evaluation will be used as an important


30

input for revising the instructional materials. This will then lead to the final

step of this study.

Step 7: Writing the Final Draft of the Materials

After the revision and improvement have been completed in the

previous step, the final draft of the writing tasks to develop, academic skills

for Dentistry students of Gadjah Mada University will be written.


31

Figure 2.6 The Research Steps (Combined Models)

Step 1

Step 2

Step3

Step4

Carrying out needs analysis

Conducting research

Writing a syllabus

Developing instructional materials

Evaluating instructional materials

PSA

TSA

Distributing the materials

Processing questionnaires

Research and ation colleinform cting

Develop the preliminary form of the product

Main product revision

Preliminary field testing

Planning

Revising the instructional materials

Step 5

Step 6

Writing the final draft of the materials

Step 7

The researcher used this combined steps in conducting research studies.


32

CHAPTER 3

METHODOLOGY

This chapter presents information about the method used in this study. The

discussion involves the method of the research, the research participants, the

setting of the research, the research instruments, the process of collecting the data

and the research procedure. Each of these instruments is described to give a clear

verification on how this study is conducted.

A. Method

According to Sprinthall (1991:99), research or a study is typically

called descriptive. Descriptive study is done on particular types of

populations to measure one or more variables that can be used to describe the

group of interest. Since it is a descriptive study, it is not aimed at proving a

hypothesis about a particular phenomenon. However, it is conducted to attain

as much information as possible from the learners’ textbooks as the basis for

designing instructional materials.

1. Educational Research and Development (R&D)

The researcher used Educational Research and Development (R&D) in

conducting her designing materials. Educational Research and Development

(R&D) is a process used to develop and validate educational product (Walter

R. Borg, 1983). Product here included not only material objects such as

31


33

textbook instructional materials but also referred to establish procedures and

processes such as a method of teaching or a method for organizing instruction.

The steps of this process are usually referred to as the R&D cycle which

consists of studying research findings pertinent to the product to be developed,

developing the product based on these finding, field testing it in the setting

where it will be used eventually and revising it to correct the deficiencies

found in the field testing stage.

The course designer selects five cycles out of ten because there are

some reasons why the course designer cannot apply the whole cycle. The

design of an R & D product does not need to be based on trial and error; there

are many validated methods of instructional technology. These methods cover

various aspects of R & D design; front-end analysis (needs assessment,

systems analysis, task analysis, analysis of skill hierarchies), typologies of

learning outcomes, the matching of instructional techniques to learning

outcomes, the match of learners characteristics to instructional methods, meta-

cognitive processes in learning, individualized instruction and domain

referenced assessment. The major steps in the R & D cycle used to develop

design materials are as follows:

a) Research and information collecting – includes review of literature,

classroom observations, and preparation of report.

b) Planning – includes defining skills, stating objectives determining

course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing.

c) Develop a preliminary form of product – includes preparation of


34

instructional materials, handbooks and evaluation devices.

d) Preliminary field testing – conducted in one to three schools, using six

to twelve subjects. Interview, observational and questionnaire data are

colleted and analyzed.

e) Main product revision - revision of the product as suggested by the

preliminary field test results.

f) Main field testing – conducted in up to 15 schools with thirty to a

hundred subjects. Qualitative data on subjects’ pre-course and post-

course performance are collected and the results are evaluated with

respect to course objectives. Results are then compared against the data

from the control group, as appropriate.

g) Operational product revision –revision of the product as suggested by

main field test results.

h) Operational field testing - conducted in ten to thirty schools involving

forty to two hundred subjects. Interviews, observational and

questionnaire data is collected and analyzed.

i) Final product revision – revision of the product as suggested by

operational field test results.

j) Dissemination and implantation – report on the product at professional

meetings and in journals. Work with the publisher who assumes

commercial distribution. Monitor distribution to provide quality control.

The researcher chose five steps in conducting the research, which are as

follows:


35

a) Research and information collecting – including a review of literature,

classroom observations and preparations of a report.

The researcher used library research to conduct the review of

literature. A literature review is undertaken to collect research findings

and other information pertinent to the planned development. Some

purposes of the literature review is to determine the state of knowledge

in the area of concern, to locate research that could be used to develop a

basic instructional model, questioning and discussing skills to identify

specific techniques that teachers could use to accomplish these goals.

b) Planning – includes defining skills, stating objectives, determining the

course sequence, and small scale feasibility testing.

The researcher used an Instructional design model from Kemp

for the design materials to determine the goal, topics and general

purpose, learning objective, subject content, and teaching and learning

activities. Hutchinson and Water’s model designed materials used to

identify learner characteristic.

A Needs analysis was conducted for two respondents, firstly,

Dentistry students at Gadjah Mada University and secondly, the

respondents were chosen who were able to evaluate the materials. The

most important aspect of planning a research based educational product

is the statement of the specific objectives to be achieved by the product.

The objectives should state the specific performance levels to be

achieved by teacher completing the course, that is, the number of times

they will demonstrate each skill within a given time period.


36

c) Develop the preliminary form of the product – including the preparation

of instructional materials, handbooks and evaluation devices.

The researcher designed the materials of Academic writing

using some theories of instructional design and various other sources.

This involved a wide range of tasks and materials designed to

supplement the instructional lessons, which were drafted, revised and

printed.

d) Preliminary field testing – included interviews, observational and

questionnaire data, which was collected and analyzed.

The researcher conducted interviews, and questionnaires to

obtain the data, which was then analyzed. The researcher made two

questionnaires; the first was distributed to the students of Dentistry.

The second was distributed to the respondents able to evaluate

the materials. The purpose of the preliminary field test is to obtain an

initial qualitative evaluation of the new educational product.

Questionnaires and interviews that served as guides to be used

in the preliminary field test were developed. In developing the

preliminary form of an educational product, the product must be

structured so as to permit obtaining as much feedback as possible from

the field test. Therefore, questionnaire and interview data should be

obtained from all participants.

e) Main product revision – revision of the product as suggested by the

preliminary field test result.


37

The researcher revised the materials designed to improve the

designed materials. The purpose of the main field test was to determine

whether the educational products under development meet the

performance objectives, to determine the success of the new product in

meeting its objectives, and to collect information that can be used to

improve the course in its next revision. This cycle of field-testing and

revision would continue until the product meets the minimum

performance objectives set for it.

2. Need Surveys

The first survey is used in conducting a need survey in order to obtain

data about students’ interest, necessities, wants and lacks in learning English.

The survey is conducted by observing, distributing and gathering

questionnaires and through interviews. The information is focused on the

personal information of the respondents, the use of English textbooks, the

topics of the materials related to their work, respondents’ needs in the way of

study, and respondent’s opinions on English language learning.

The second survey is conducted to gather data from the appropriate

and qualified respondents to get opinions and feedback on the designed

instructional materials. The survey is conducted by distributing and gathering

the questionnaires and by interviewing the English lecturers, English native

speaker lecturers and English instructors who have experiences in teaching

English for Specific Purposes (ESP) and English for Academic Purposes

(EAP).


38

B. Respondents

Since there were two types of surveys used in this study, there were

also two groups of respondents. The first group was the respondents of the

needs analysis survey and the second groups were the respondents of

materials evaluation survey.

1. The Respondents of the Needs Analysis Survey

The respondents of the survey study were first year Dentistry students

who took an English class in the first semester as part first year dentistry

curriculum. There were two hundred first year students of 2006 students

within the Dentistry Department who registered for the class. However, the

students who repeated the subject from the previous semester were not

included in this study. Also students who studied abroad were excluded from

the study because their extended study improved their skills well beyond those

of students whose highest level of English study was through Gadjah Mada

University.

2. The Respondents of Materials Evaluation Survey

The subject of materials evaluation survey were five evaluators,

including: one English lecturer from Sanata Dharma University and one

English lecturer from Gadjah Mada University who has ever been teaching

academic writing and has the knowledge of academic writing. One lecturer

from the Dentistry Department at Gadjah Mada University who has a masters


39

in both spoken and written English and has knowledge about academic

writing in the Dentistry Field, and two English Instructors from the language

center who have experience in academic writing for ESP, EAP, EOP, and so

on.

C. Setting

This study was conducted in the Dentistry Department of Gadjah

Mada University. The time needed to do the observation and interview were

around seven weeks from September to November 2006 for students’ needs

analysis and the specific time to do the questionnaires for lecturers’

evaluations were around three weeks during July 2007. The first week of

September was used to ask for a letter of permission from the Dean of the

Dentistry Faculty, which was followed by sending a letter of permission to an

English lecturer to enter his class and ask permission to use students’ writing

assignments. There was a short observation period from which to conduct the

research because of the National Holiday. The researcher used one particular

class as a source of her data. It was a large class because it considered of 200

students of which 150 students were first year students and the rest had

repeated the subject from the previous semester. The class seemed crowded

when all students attended the class together and it was difficult for the

lecturer to conduct teaching and learning activities intentionally with such a

large class. During the first meeting all students attended the class. At the

next meeting just few students attended the class. The researcher used class


40

population under permission from the English lecturer.

D. Instruments

In conducting the study, the researcher used three types of instruments

to gather data and answer the problem formulation: questionnaires, interviews

and observations checklist. They were explained as follows:

1. Questionnaires

The instrument used for this study is a set of questionnaires designed

to gather information about the needs and to find out the gap of the students’

needs to match with the academic setting. The questionnaire consists of three

sections: personal details and English writing needs at the Dentistry

Department of Gadjah Mada University.

Table 3.1 The First Questionnaire (Need Analysis)

Academic writing Question outlines Points

1 2 3 4 5

General writing Is writing important? Group work Peer-editing Peer-assessment Worksheets

Structure of writing Model of writing Free writing Types of academic writing

Skills in writing Grammar or language focus. Vocabulary in texts Tasks of writing


41

The researcher chose three main topics and for each topic a main idea

was developed that would be used as a questionnaire outline before the

questionnaires was written. From the question outlines 16 questions were

designed for the questionnaire. The researcher made five categories for the

questionnaire’s assessment. The researcher used a scale to rate each category

as a percentage, as follows:

1 = absolutely disagree with statement, ranges between 0% and 20%

2 = disagree with statement, ranges between 21% and 40%

3 = neither agree or disagree with statement, range between 41% and 60%

4 = agree with statement, ranges between 61% and 80 %

5 = absolutely agree with statement ranges between 81% and 100%

The researcher discussed this questionnaire in chapter four. In

conducting data analysis of this questionnaire, the researcher explained in

paragraphing sentence using percentage assessment and a scale rate category.

2. Interviews

The researcher undertook an interview of some of the respondents to

collect some of the data needed. The interview was recorded on a tape

recorder and transcribed into written form. The interviews were divided into

two groups. The interview was directed to the students in as the first group

and the materials’ evaluators as the second group. The questions were

unstructured, it meant that the researcher did not use questions list. The

interview was conducted in one week during November 2006. The researcher

chose 35 students from the Dentistry faculty because 35 respondents were


42

considered a sufficient sample size to collect the information needed. The

researcher discussed the data analysis in chapter four.

3. Observation Checklist

If the researchers wanted to enrich their understanding of language

learning and teaching time was required to be spent in classroom. The

researcher attended the regular class of first year Dentistry at Gadjah Mada

University. It was necessary to determine what current English comprehension

and skills the students have, in order to design and create a suitable

curriculum. The teaching and learning activities were observed within the

class. The researcher observed what the roles of the teacher in the classroom

were. It was necessary to determine how the lecturer created a writing

environment in the class and how the lecturer managed the class.

Table 3.2 Tally Sheet for Analyzing Classroom Interaction

No. Observation tally sheet 1. Lecturer asks a display questions (i.e. a question to which he knows the answer) 2. Lecturer asks a referential question (i.e. a question to which he does not know the

answer) 3. Lecturer explains a grammatical point 4. Lecturer explains meaning of a vocabulary item 5. Lecturer explains functional point 6. Lecturer explains point relating to the content (theme/topic) of the lesson 7. Lecturer gives instructions/directions 8. Lecturer gives praise 9. Lecturer provides criticism

10. Learner asks a question 11. Learner answers question 12. Learner talks to another learner 13. Period of silence or confusion


43

The researcher made the tally sheet for analyzing classroom activities

during class visits and observed the teaching-learning activities in the class.

This sheet would be used as a guideline in teaching and learning activities.

E. Writing Procedure (Content Error Analysis)

The researcher used students’ writing as the error analysis. Students

were given free writing as the first writing draft to ascertain the students’

weaknesses and strengths. However, those compositions were later analyzed

to observe the types of errors made. The researcher used one class meeting to

conduct the writing task with permission from the English lecturer. She took

75 respondents as her writing sample from 87 respondents because 12

respondents were repeating the subject.

The researcher used the minimum requirements to assess the writing

error:

No. Minimum requirements 1. Incorrect use of word caused by transfer or awkward expression and words. 2. Subject verb agreement 3. Incorrect selection of word 4. Incorrect use of tense 5. Incorrect use or deletion of preposition 6. Incorrect use of verb be 7. Incorrect use of auxiliary 8. Incorrect use of gerund 9. Incorrect use of noun

10. Redundant use of words 11 Incorrect use of voice 12. Incorrect or omission use of article 13. Incorrect or omission of pronoun 14. Incorrect plural

The researcher used above criteria in assessing the students’ written


44

work. The students’ written work errors in each criterion would be presented

in percentage.

F. Data Gathering

There were two major categories of data obtained from this survey.

The first was from the learners and the second was from the English lecturers.

This data was obtained from observations, closed questions, open questions

and interviews. The first step in collecting the data was observing the class

and distributing the questionnaires to students. This was done in order to find

out the learners’ needs for learning English. The researcher distributed the

designed materials, questionnaire and conducted some informal interviews

with the English lecturers to obtain their recommendation, criticism, and

suggestions.

G. Data Analysis

The researcher analyzed the data attained through observation,

interviews and questionnaires. There were two ways of analyzing the data.

The data for the needs analysis were grouped and analyzed in order to the

design of the materials that fitted the learners’ needs. The data collected for

evaluating the design materials were analyzed to find out the modus, median,

and mean. Brown (1988:66-67) defines the mean as the sum of all the values

in a distribution divided by the number of the values. The median is the point

of distribution below which 50 % of the values lie and above which 50% lie.


45

The mode is that value in a set of numbers that occurs most frequently. In this

study, the researcher used five points of agreement to assess the respondents’

opinions on the designed materials.

The data analysis of the description statistics used the central tendency

(mean, median, and mode) of the respondents’ opinion and the designed

instructional materials.

The data from the first part of questionnaire used the frequency

distribution and is presented in the table below:

No. Statements N Frequencies 1 2 3 4 5

The assessment of the respondents’ opinion on the designed used five

points of agreement:

1 = absolutely disagree with statement

2 = disagree with statement

3 = neither agree or disagree with statement

4 = agree with statement

5 = absolutely agree with statement

The data from the second part of the questionnaire would be using the

frequency distribution presented in the table below:

Groups of respondents Sex Education background Year of teaching

X = mean Σ = sum x = scores N = number

Σx X = N


46

University / Graduate experiences F M 1 2 3 4 5 English lecturers

English instructors

The data were presented in the following table below:

Respondents’ opinion N Mean Median Mode Statement 1 Statement 2

H. Research Procedure

The research was conducted through a series of steps:

1. Conducting needs survey.

It was conducted through observations, questionnaires, and

interviews. The interview was conducted twice for the 5 English lecturers,

including instructors and native English speaking lecturers and the 75

students of Dentistry Department.

2. Analyzing the data.

After getting the information from the need survey, the researcher

analyzed the data by grouping the results based on the information

provided and the identified needs. The researcher could then determine the

goals, objectives, the topics and the type of syllabus and materials needed.

3. Formulating goals, topics, and objectives.

The researcher formulated the goal, topics and objectives for each

lesson unit.

4. Designing the syllabus.


47

A syllabus was used as a guideline for teaching and learning

activities both for teachers and students.

5. Developing materials.

The design materials were developed based on the needs analysis.

6. Survey study for evaluation.

The researcher distributed the design materials to English lecturers

and instructors to gather evaluations, criticism, and suggestions.

7. Revising and improving the design materials.

The design materials needed to be revised, improved and

reconstructed.

This research procedure was used as a guideline in designing

materials. These steps could be used as a checklist for designing relevant

study processes for the available materials.


48

CHAPTER 4

RESEARCH FINDINGS AND DISCUSSIONS

In order to answer the first question (how is a set of instructional academic

writing materials designed) and second question (what the set of instructional

materials look like), the results of the first and second survey research will be

presented. The first research consisted of conducting needs survey, analyzing the

data, and writing syllabus of instructional materials development are answering

first question. The second research consisted of developing materials, survey

study for evaluation; revising and improving the design materials are answering

second questions.

A. Conducting Needs Survey Research

It was conducted through observations, questionnaires, and interviews.

The interview was conducted twice for the 5 English lecturers, including

instructors and native English speaking lecturers and the 75 students of

Dentistry Department.

The researcher has done some informal observation in the class before

she conducted formal survey. The researcher found that an English

curriculum resource titled “Bahasa Inggris 1” was only provided during the

first semester and there was no “Bahasa Inggris 2” or similar learning

material to allow further study. The researcher also found that there was no

syllabus used for the class. Moreover, the methods used in the class were not

helping students to improve their writing.

47


49

The researcher also conducted informal interviews, which identified

difficulties in learning English with some students. Other students said that

learning English was very difficult especially in the written form. The

students also said that the most difficult skill in writing English was in

expressing their ideas in writing.

The researcher found that the students’ background study

requirements were science programs at Senior High School. In their opinion

studying English subject was not important during Senior High School. Now

at university, the students realize that English is very important for their

career. The researcher conducted class observations. There were two hundred

students in one class. It was a large class for the English subject in which 150

students were new students and the rest were repeating the subject from the

previous semester. The majority of the students who entered Dentistry was

female, just few were male. Students currently studying Dentistry consisted

of heterorganic students who traveled from all over Indonesia to study their

chosen degree. To conclude, the students have different backgrounds in their

English study and because they were first semester students they were also

adjusting to the transition from Senior High School to University in which

they would need to first adapt to their new surrounding.

Most of students knew English passively, meaning that they learnt the

English grammar at Senior High School but they did not know how to use the

forms in a sentence when writing. They understood English as a receptive

skill in which they can understand other people speaking and they can

comprehend what is read but they could not utter a word in English both

written and spoken. The researcher found, after doing informal observation


50

and interview that 10 students had traveled abroad; their experience in

English speaking countries enabled them to become fluent with both the

written and spoken forms. When the researcher conducted an observation

class she found that the teaching and learning activities or teaching methods

used in the class did not fulfill the students’ needs. The Dentistry students

were required to study independently. It meant that most of the lecturers gave

them many assignments and laboratory reports to write.

Designing English academic writing tasks for the Dentistry students at

Gadjah Mada University will help students to master English language. This

design will guide them through academic writing. The materials in this design

are taken from general academic fields rather than from areas of English

grammar. This design will provide a bridge between the previous English

course and the course they will take at Dentistry. The aim of this design is not

to teach information relating to the field of Dentistry, but rather to teach

students the English language they will need in order to study Dentistry.

B. Analyzing the Data

This step is important in order to identify the learner’s needs and

characteristics. The analysis will be divided into two parts. First, the TSA

(Target Situation Analysis) attempts to identify the learner’s needs at the end

of the language course having been designed. Second, a PSA (Present

Situation Analysis) aims to identify their characteristics; the results of the

analysis will be used as an important foundation in formulating course

objectives and writing the syllabus. Distributing questionnaires to Dentistry


51

students will be the methods for collecting the data required.

Table 4.1 First Survey Data Setting Research

University Gadjah Mada University Faculty Dentistry Faculty Number of students 200 students

150 fresh students 50 students who repeat subject from previous semester

Sex 15 male 60 female

Age Range from 17-19

The first survey was intended to identify learners’ needs and

characteristics. The results will be used as the basis for writing the material

design. The data from the first part of the questionnaire was recorded in a

frequency distribution chart and is presented in the descriptive analysis that

follows. The questionnaires were distributed to respondents during

compulsory Dentistry classes. There were two sub-parts in the questionnaire.

In the first part, the respondents’ identity was used to ascertain the

population sample for the study. The researcher chose 75 respondents from

150 students by purpose sampling. The researcher chose 75 respondents

because it was a half of the whole population of the 150 students. With a

larger sample size, over generalization was less likely to occur and create

misguiding results. There were 15 male and 60 female respondents involved

in this study. The researcher included the entire class population when she

distributed questionnaires to the respondents. There were 96 students who

came to the class, of which 21 students were repeating students from previous


52

semester. Those students who had previously studied the course shoppers

were not included. Their age ranged from 17 to 19 years of age. The students

came from various cities all over Indonesia and most of the students were

financially stable. The researcher found that around 10 respondents had been

abroad in the past and they had mastered a high level of English proficiency.

The students were required to study independently. They learnt by doing.

Some of the students came from families with a background in Dentistry;

however, many came from families without such a background. The

researcher chose 75 respondents to fill in the questions. Those 75 people were

considered to be representative of the whole population of students in the

Dentistry Department in Yogyakarta.

In the Second part, a needs analysis was used to determine the

respondents’ needs in academic writing. The researcher asked 17 questions

related to the respondents’ needs and their problems relating to academic

writing.

The data from the first part of the questionnaire was presented in a

frequency distribution table, see appendix 4.

The responses from the questionnaire were counted and translated to

percentages for ease of comparison. Each point had its own scoring and the

results of the score were also presented as a percentage score.

The researcher analyzed the first question below. Thirty-seven

respondents or 49.3 % of the respondents chose point 5 to indicate that they

felt that writing in English was very important. The results from the second


53

question showed those thirty-nine respondents or 52 % of the respondents

chose point 5, they perceived the model composition does assist in writing a

composition.

Diagram table 4.2 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the

First Survey Research.

a. (Question 1 to 4)

48%58.6%52%49.3%

01530456075

engl

ish

isim

port

ant

mod

el o

fco

mpo

sitio

n

anal

ysis

of

mod

elco

mpo

sitio

n

stru

ctur

e of

com

posi

tion

In response to the third question, writing activity started, it is better

preceded with the analysis model of composition 58.6% of respondents chose

point 5 suggesting they example composition. In the fourth question, 48%

respondents chose point 5 identifying that they needed a structure outline for

compositions.


54

b. (Question 5 to 8)

40%40%32%49.3%

0

15

30

45

60

75

needcomment

need peer-editing and

peerassessment

difficulty ingrammar

difficulty invocabulary

In response to the fifth question, A larger percentage, 49,3 % of the

respondents chose point 4 agreeing that they benefit from other people

reading over their writing draft and they recognized a need for their writing to

be checked by a proofreader. Approximately a quarter of the respondents, A

slightly larger group, 32 % of the respondents, chose point 4, agreeing that

peer-editing was important as input for their writing draft and identifying a

need for peer-editing and peer-assessment to revise their writing Meanwhile,

34% of the respondents chose point 3 to indicate uncertainty about the

benefits of having peers check their work. According to the respondents,

sometimes the input or feedback provided by their peers was faulty.

The seventh question asked respondents their opinion on the need for

a grammar focus when assigned English writing tasks. Most of the

respondents, 40% identified this provision as a positive guideline as they

selected points five and four, respectively. The eighth question was responded

to positively by 40% of respondents who chose point 5, feeling strongly about


55

the benefits of the provision of vocabulary suggestions, and were slightly less

confident about the benefits of vocabulary provisions.

c. (Question 9 to 12)

38.6%49.3%

38.6%44%

0

15

30

45

60

75

findi

ngid

ea

pair

wor

kan

dgr

oup

wor

k

ofth

erty

pe o

fac

tiviti

es

othe

rto

pics

For the ninth question 44% of respondents chose point 5 meaning that

they had difficulty in finding the idea and they still had difficulty in finding

the idea. There were 38.6% or 29 respondents chose point 5. Pair or group

work was very important to them and found group work and working in

pairs helpful.

When it came to the eleventh question almost half 49.3% of the

respondents chose point 5 and because they considered writing other types

of academic writing helped their writing progress.

The twelfth question asked if they liked to choose a common topic

such as film, music and current affairs. Twenty-nine respondents chose

point 5 indicated that they definitely did like this. 26 respondents or 38.6%


56

of respondents who chose point 4 showed a slightly lower level of interest.

d. (Question 13 to 16)

69.3%

34.6%49.3%

36%

0

15

30

45

60

75fr

eew

ritin

g

prac

tice

writ

ing

wor

ksh

eet

pape

r

writ

ing

activ

ies

There were 36% respondents agreed that free writing were a good tool

to use as draft in conveying idea. Question fourteen referred to the need for

practice writing in basic writing types. 49.3% respondents chose for point 1

and 23.9% for point 2 felt that they definitely needed practice in basic

writing in English. The fifteenth question’s responses showed that the

majority of students 69.3% chose point 5 saying that the writing activities

they need are essay writing, summary and paraphrasing.

When the researcher conducted interviews with the students, she did

not inform the students that she was conducting research for her thesis, in

order to obtain honest answers from the students. The material for the

interview was limited to the questions that were related to writing and the

use of English within the Dentistry Faculty. The second interview was


57

conducted with English lecturers and English Instructors during the design

process of the materials. It recorded respondents’ opinions, criticisms, and

suggestions for the materials designed to improve or revise current

materials. The researcher used unstructured questions. The questions asked

varied depending on the interviewee’s responses. The researcher chose three

people for this interview.

The responses given during the interview indicated that, the students

do not have enough time to focus to writing. Secondly, their courses are not

presented in English and they don’t have to write their tests in English.

Moreover, they suffer from insufficient knowledge of general vocabulary

and therefore they cannot write appropriately in order to be able to help

Dentistry students write academic writing in English well. There is a need

for lecturers to take into account the processes involved in good writing and

the outcomes of writing.

The students must have more opportunities for writing. As revealed in

their interviews, when they didn’t know the word for something, they use

one of two strategies; they both use a bilingual dictionary and choose a word

they have not come across before and therefore had no feeling for, or they

“write around” the gap, describing the concept they are aiming for. The first

strategy usually ends up with a word with inappropriate connotations and

the second often produces a complex and mixed sentence structure.

Moreover, the researcher observed the class regularly but the full

lecture was only given on four occasions. The rest of the time the lecturer

just gave home assignments to his class. He asked the students to have


58

independent study giving them assignments to do at home. The study

materials that the lecturer gave were not suitable for the students’ need.

Neither was there any syllabus given to the students. So, the students did not

have guidance for studying during the semester. In one instance the time

allocation for the lecture was 100 minutes but the lecturer only used 45

minutes after which he gave out an assignment and left the class. There was

no attendance list taken for this class.

Table 4.3 Tally Sheet for Analyzing Classroom Interaction (Checklist)

No. Observation tally sheet Check

1. Lecturer asks a display questions (i.e. a question to which he knows the answer) √ 2. Lecturer asks a referential question (i.e. a question to which he does not know

the answer) √

3. Lecturer explains a grammatical point √ 4. Lecturer explains meaning of a vocabulary item √ 5. Lecturer explains functional point √√ 6. Lecturer explains point relating to the content (theme/topic) of the lesson √√ 7. Lecturer gives instructions/directions √√ 8. Lecturer praises √√ 9. Lecturer criticizes √√

10. Learner asks a question √√ 11. Learner answers question √√ 12. Learner talks to another learner √ 13. Period of silence or confusion √

(√) This symbol represents students’ activities in classroom (√√) This symbol represent that students who were not active in

classroom.

The findings from Table 4.3, Tally Sheet for Analyzing Classroom

Interaction, showed that learners rarely answered the question that was

asked by the lecturer. Even though there were questions asked by the

lecturer, these questions were in the form of display questions. The lecturer

also asked referential questions for use in group discussion. Grammar points


59

and vocabulary were taught as a main lecture. Oftentimes the lecturer

introduced the lecture materials straight away without reviewing the

previous lesson or the point of the lecture that day. The lecturer always gave

assignments to the students and most of them seemed confused about the

instructions. Learners had to guess what kind of assignment it was. Learners

needed reinforcement and praise. When learners made mistakes or gave

unrelated answers the lecturer seldom commented. One of the difficulties in

handling a large class is that most of the learners talk to other students

instead of referring to the lecturer. Learners seemed to spend their time

doing nothing. It could be said that the learners were in a state of confusion.

The researcher used the students’ writing as the error analysis.

Students were asked to write a piece of free writing in first draft form so that

the researcher could discover the students’ weaknesses and strengths. These

compositions were analyzed to see the types of errors made. The researcher

used one class meeting to carry out this writing with the permission of the

English lecturer. The researcher asked the students to write a free writing

composition with the title “My Embarrassing Day“.

The writing was analyzed to identify the major writing problems.

They were examined with regard to language skills, that is, spelling,

grammar, syntax, and vocabulary devices, coherence and organization. All

types of spelling mistake were considered, for example writing “daybetic”

instead of “diabetic”. Examples of grammar mistakes were “she developing

a knee pain since a month ago” and “my headache is very strong and I break


60

down to the floor”. In syntax the students sometimes did not follow the rules

of grammar for ordering and connecting words to form phrases and

sentences. Examples of incorrect of vocabulary wee using “ breast” instead

of “ chest” or forgetting the word for “paint” and leaving it blank.

Sometimes there were no close relationship, based on grammar or

meaning, between different parts of a sentence or between one sentence and

cohesion. In some writing, there was no consistency and reasonable

connection between of their writing coherence. All such writing was

considered as a mistake. The data was then analyzed to see whether any one

factor was the main cause of the writing problems.

Diagram percentage of the common errors from student’s writing

28%16.7%

10.4%16%

Tense

Selection of word

Verb agreement

Awkward expression and words

Some of the students actually wrote an Indonesian version of the

composition and translated it word for word into English. Such a procedure

caused them to come up with awkward expressions in their writing. They


61

took for granted that whatever was written in the dictionary was absolutely

appropriate and correct as well as a precise translation.

The researcher identified total errors based on the writing of 75

students and analyzed them in 14 categorized (see appendix 5). The

researcher discovered that the most frequent error was the incorrect use of

word caused by transfer or awkward expressions and words article 28 %

Errors. Errors in subject verb agreement were the next most frequent 16,7

%, while 16% errors were errors of incorrect selection of word and the error

of incorrect use of tense occurred 10,4%.

C. Writing a Syllabus of Instructional Materials Development

There are two parts to this step. The first part is formulating learning

objectives based on the results of the materials evaluation and the needs

analysis step 1 and step 2 respectively. The second part is writing a particular

type of syllabus, which covers learning objectives, course content and the

methodology. In order to answer the second question referring to problem

formulation, this part discusses the design of the writing tasks. This will be

supported by the results of the second survey.

In designing the writing tasks, the researcher used Hutchinson and

Waters’ model (1987: 72) and Kemp’s instructional design model (1977: 9).

Steps 1 and steps 2 were the implementation of Hutchinson and Walters’

model, while step 3 to steps 7 were the implementation of Kemp’s

instructional design model.


62

Step 1: Identifying learners.

This step was done through the first survey research conducted in the

Dentistry Faculty of Gadjah Mada University. In this step, the researcher

distributed questionnaire to students of the Dentistry Faculty. Besides the

questionnaires the researcher also conducted interviews. This step was

conducted in order to determine a needs analysis of the students.

Step 2: Analyzing learning and target situation.

Analysis of learning and the target situation was conducted through

the survey and library research. The researcher used the data obtained then

analyzed the data to design suitable materials.

Step 3: Determining learning objectives.

Using the analysis done in step 1 and step 2, learning objectives were

formulated as written in the lesson plan. The researcher then designed the

materials by stating the goals, topic and general purposes. The objectives were

stated as standard competence or basic competence.

The standard competencies used as the general indicator for the whole

lesson. The basic competencies used as the indicators in each unit. Indicators

used as the component or point achievement at the end of the teaching

learning activities. See appendix syllabus

Step 4: Listing the subject content in supporting each objective.

The researcher listed the subject content in each objective. The

researcher used different title in each unit

Step 5: Choosing the teaching / learning activities and resources.


63

The tasks selected to develop the student’s academic writing ability

were simple outlining, rewriting, paraphrase writing, sentence analysis,

summarizing and essay writing. The researcher began by choosing those

activities that she wanted to use in class as teaching learning activities. The

researcher also carefully selected the materials from various sources so that

the designed materials were suitable for the learner’s needs.

Step 6: Evaluation

In this step, the researcher distributed the instructional design

materials to the English lecturers. The researcher tried to obtain the feedback

from them. Based on their experience, they offered corrections, suggestions

and recommendations about the design. This evaluation was used to revise the

instructional materials. Revision was carried out in all stages of the research.

The feedback was used to improve the instructional materials for better

application of the instructional materials.

To answer the second question in problem formulation began from step D.

developing instructional materials, step E. survey study for evaluation, step F.

revising and improving the design materials until step H. presenting the materials.

D. Developing Instructional Materials.

Materials will be developed based on the selected materials drafts of

the Dentistry students. Error analysis will be carried out to determine the


64

structural points needed to be covered in the tasks. The materials will be

developed as the instructional materials according to the expanded material

design model proposed by Hutchinson and waters (1987:118).

1. Selection of the Writing Tasks

Based on the results of the selection of the relevant writing tasks

for the students of the Dentistry Faculty at Gadjah Mada University, the

tasks selected to be developed are presented as follows:

Unit 1

1. Pre-writing: thinking about topic, narrowing topic, drafting a paragraph, topic sentence of a paragraph, students write free writing as their first draft before they come to second draft.

2. Language focus, after students finish their first draft, they start checking draft such mechanic, grammar and soon. Students write simple sentence.

3. Whilst writing, students begin to develop their writing using outline or first drafts become good paragraph.

4. Post writing, students revise their draft by checking whole paragraph. Unit 2

1. Pre-writing: expanded paragraph, analyzing paragraph, writing topic sentence, writing supporting sentence and concluding sentence of an essay.




1. Pre-writing: outlining essay, types of academic essay. 2. Language focus, after students finish their first draft, they start

checking draft such mechanic, grammar and soon. Students write simple sentence.



1. Pre-writing: argumentative essay and definition essay outlining, writing essay, identifying language for writing essay, transition signal.



65



1. Pre-writing: process essay outlining, writing essay, identifying language for writing essay.




1. Pre-writing: facts and figures, graph, charts. 2. Language focus, after students finish their first draft, they start




1. Pre-writing: cause effect essay and expository essay. 2. Language focus, after students finish their first draft, they start




1. Pre-writing: cited & quote and summaries & paraphrase outlining, writing bibliography.



4. Post writing, students revise their draft by checking whole paragraph.

The presentation of the complete unit structure of the designed

instructional materials was as follows:

a. The Pre-Writing Stage

This section served as a lead in activity. It consisted of visual


66

and written texts, picture, charts etc. They provided stimulus materials

and correct models of language use for later activities. They were useful

to activate the learners’ minds, arouse their interest in the topic and

reveal what they already knew in terms of language and content.

b. Language Focus

This section provided various opportunities for learners to

breaks the language into smaller pieces; study how each piece works

and practice putting them back together again. It also provided practice

in some language elements needed for the main tasks to be discussed

and presented. This section dealt with aspects of sentence structure and

language usage.

c. The Whilst-Writing Stage (Writing Presentation)

This section provided tasks for the students to practice writing

from simple tasks to more complicated ones. Learners have abundant

opportunities to practice writing, either controlled or free.

d. The Post-Writing Stage

This section provided tasks for students to practice editing and

revising their writing product as part of the process of writing.

2. The Technical Presentation

The presentation of one unit was divided into two or three sections.

Each meeting was for 100 minutes. The procedure to present the materials

was:


67

Section Procedure The pre-writing stage Introducing elements in writing skill Language Focus Explaining key structure of language use The whilst-writing stage Facilitating and monitoring them to do exercise The post-writing stage Facilitating and monitoring the tasks

Giving feedback to their writing E. Evaluating the Instructional Materials1 of the Second Survey Research

To evaluate the materials developed in step 4, materials and

questionnaires will be distributed to English instructors who have experience

in teaching Dentistry students. The questionnaire will be followed up by a

series of interviews and discussions.

This section presents the descriptive statistics of the second survey

data. To support the answer to the second problem, it can be seen that the set

of writing tasks designed to develop the learners’ academic writing skills, as

proposed in this research paper, have fulfilled the requirements of suitable

and relevant materials. This is shown from the results of the errors analysis

and the second survey research respondent’s opinions on the designed

materials. The range of scales was 1-5. The mean score of the answers was

4.0. This means that most the respondents agree that the designed set of

writing tasks has fulfilled the requirements of suitable materials. The

instructional materials, that is, the set of writing tasks are able to develop

academic writing skills because the materials are relevant to the student’

needs.


68

F. Revision the Instructional Materials.

The result of the materials evaluation will be used as an important

input for revising the instructional materials. This will then lead to the final

step of this study.

1. The Second Research Respondents’ General Evaluation and Suggestions

From the questionnaires distributed and the interviews conducted, the

second survey research respondents’ general opinions and suggestions on the

design of the instructional materials for the students of the Dentistry faculty

are presented in this part.

a. The second Survey Research Respondents’ General Evaluation

Based on the questionnaires, the second survey research

respondents’ general opinions on the design of the instructional materials

for the Dentistry students are as follows:

• Materials are relevant to the needs of Dentistry students.

• The material design is well structured and developed that is relevant

and not too sophisticated for the students.

• It suits the objectives formulated, but the level of difficulty is slightly

higher than the students’ actual competence.

• The materials are quite good and interesting

• The materials are thoughtfully designed and sufficiently developed.

• The materials are interesting as they cover many different readings,

tasks, and grammar and writing assignments.


69

b. The Second Survey Research Respondents’ General Suggestions

From the recorded interviews, the second survey research

respondents gave suggestions as follows:

• A few lessons should be reordered to attain a logical sequence.

• It is better to provide more opportunities for the students to jointly

prepare several assignments. This will provide more opportunities for

class discussion. As a result the materials will be more challenging and

interesting.

• Though the topic has been determined in the lesson plan for each unit,

the sub-topics are at times not related. It would be better if related sub-

topics were used.

• It would be better to provide more semi-guided materials for the lower

level students. Vocabulary enrichment should also be provided.

• It would be more interesting to keep providing challenging current

issues.

• It would be easier to focus on a limited amount of information or

charts at first, while focusing on the general outline of the writing task.

Putting in place steps to guide the students, starting from the first unit

and strengthening the steps again and again along the way, can be one

way of encouraging the students to expand their choice of words, as

well as to use more complicated grammar. It will also encourage

students to write and increase their confidence in doing so.

• The materials should be adequately checked for misspelling so as to


70

present correct English to the students.

2. Discussion on the Design Materials Evaluation

The data presented show the respondents’ opinion towards each

statement. The descriptive statistics show that most of the respondents agree

with the statements in the questionnaires. The mean of the respondents’ points

of agreement that is 3.4 to 4.00, shows that they agree on the use of the

designed materials for developing the Dentistry students’ academic writing

skill.

The disagreement with statement 4 shows that the material should be

modified in such as way that it will be more challenging and interesting for

the students. The disagreement with statement 10 shows that the organization

of the material needs to be well structured so as to avoid confusion. The tasks

at each section are not only aimed at providing the language knowledge and

skills needed for carrying out the main tasks of writing, but also aimed at

conveying the relevant information needed for individual writing.

The writing tasks developed have fulfilled the requirements of

appropriate writing material for developing learners’ academic writing skill as

evaluated by the second survey research respondents. Despite their agreement

about the designed materials they also pointed out some weaknesses and

recommended a few changes. The researcher found such input valuable and

used it to make some modifications to the material. The completed material

will be presented in the last section. This material will be the final result of a

series of steps conducted in this thesis. They are expected to be able to


71

provide appropriate instructional materials for the Dentistry students of

Gadjah Mada University in an attempt to develop their academic writing skill.

G. Writing the Final Draft of the Materials

After the revision and improvement have been completed in the

previous step, the final draft of the writing tasks to develop academic skills

for Dentistry students of Gadjah Mada University will be written.

H. Presenting the Final Version of the Designed Materials

This part is intended to answer the last questions formulated in the

problem formulation. This part is a technical presentation of the designed

writing tasks, the second survey research respondents’ general evaluation and

suggestions.


72

CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSIONS AND SUGGESTIONS

In this chapter, two major topics are presented as the conclusion of the

study. First, the writer presents the conclusions drawn largely from the findings

and analyzes as outlined in chapter 4. The conclusions are presented as the

answers to the problems formulated in chapter 1 of this study. Second,

suggestions are proposed to the current and future instructors of English for the

Dentistry students and those who intend to conduct further research in this field.

A. Conclusions

The aim of the study is to answer two questions formulated in the

problem formulation, namely, how a set of academic writing skill is designed

and what a set of writing tasks should look like. Firstly, in order to answer the

first question on how to develop the instructional materials, two combined

models of instructional designs were employed, i.e. Hutchinson and Waters’

and Kemp’s model. The steps recommended in the two models were

identifying learner, analyzing learning and target situation, determining

learning objectives, listing the subject content, making a choice of learning

activities determining support services and evaluating instructional. From the

second survey research respondent opinion of the designed materials, it can

be seen that between the ranges of scales 1-5 the mean scores of the answer

were 4.0. It means that most of the respondents agree that the designed set of

71


73

academic writing skill proposed in this study had fulfilled the requirements of

suitable material. The results of the second survey research were used as the

basis for the revision and improvement of the instructional materials.

To answer the second question, text analysis of the Dentistry faculty

textbooks, error analysis of the students writing drafts and the evaluation of

the existing materials writing were carried out. The relevant tasks for the

actual Dentistry students were drafting, identifying sentences, topic sentence,

summarizing, outlining, paraphrasing, paragraph and essay writing. The

designed materials consist of eight units. Each unit is presented in three

sections and sequenced from easier to more difficult, simpler to more

complex and from controlled to free activities. The “Pre-writing stage”

section acts as the input stimulus to motivate students’ interest on the topic.

Then, the “language focus” provides opportunity for the students to break the

language into pieces, study how it works and put it back together again. The

“Whilst-writing” section provides explanation on various tasks to practice

writing ranging from simple to more complicated tasks. Besides that students

are provided exercises on writing tasks based on each type of tasks. The

“Post-writing” section provides revising and editing where the lecturer gives

comment and students analyze their mistake

B. Suggestions

Based on the above conclusions, two suggestions are proposed in this

section;


74

1. English for Academic Purposes (EAP) is part of English for Specific

Purposes (ESP). It addresses the specific needs of specific fields of study.

Therefore, it is recommended that a teacher needs to select the materials

carefully to match the students’ needs and specialize and arouse the

interest in the students. Developing writing materials for Dentistry

students is only one of the areas of English for Specific Purposes and

English for General Academic Purposes to be explored.

2. English for Academic Purposes is an area that has not yet been

maximally explored by language teachers. Constraints such as limited

knowledge on subject matter, limited time to identify the learner needs

and characteristics are some of the reason for this.

Thus, further studies on other areas of ESP, EAP and EGAP are

recommended. To be able to fulfill any demand on specific areas, it is

suggested that the English Department of Sanata Dharma University train its

students to be able to teach English for Specific Purpose areas.


75

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Brown, H. D. (1994). Principles of language learning and teaching (3rd ed.).

Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall. Buku Panduan Akademik 2005. Program Sarjana Fakultas Kedokteran Gigi.

Yogyakarta: Gadjah Mada University. Dick, W., & Reiser, R. A. (1989). Planning effective instruction. Boston, MA:

Allyn and Bacon. Dubin, Fraida and Olshtain, Elite 1986. Course Design. New York: Cambridge

University Press. Gardner, A., & Johnson, D. (1997). Teaching personal experience narrative in the

elementary and beyond. Flagstaff, AZ: Northern Arizona Writing Project Press.

Hornby, A. S. 1989. Oxford Advanced Learner’s Dictionary of Current English.

Oxford: Oxford University Press. Hutchinson. Tom and Waters, Alan. 1987. English for Specific Purposes

Learning-Centered Approach. Cambridge University Press. Hyland, Ken., 2002. Teaching and researching Writing. England: Pearson

Education. Keh, C L, 1990. 'Feedback in the writing process: a model and methods for

implementation', ELF Journal, Volume 44/4, (October 1990, pp 294 -304)

Kemp, Jerold E. Ed. D 1977. Instructional Design. Belmont, California: Fearon-

Pitman Publisher, Inc. Leki, I. and Carson, J. (1994). Students' perceptions of EAP writing instruction

and writing needs across the disciplines. TESOL Quarterly 28 , (1), 81-101.

Littlewood, W., & Liu, N. F . (1995). Hong Kong students and their English. Hong Kong: Hong Kong University/ Macmillan.

Mackay, R. and Mountford, A. (eds.). 1978. English for Specific Purposes.

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London: Longman. Nunan, D. 1989. Designing Tasks for the Communication Classroom. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press. Raimes. 1983. Teachers Techniques in English as a Second language. New York:

Oxford University Press. Raimes, A. 1992. Exploring through Writing: A Process Approach to ESL

Composition 2nd ed. New York: St. Martins Press Robinson, Pauline C. 1991. Today ESP. United kingdom: Pergamon Press. Sprinthall, Richard C., G. T. Schumutte, S. lee SiriosLe.1991. Understanding

Educational Research. Eagle Wood Cliff. New Jersey: Prentice Hall Regents.

Sumarni, Laurentia. 2001. Unpublished. Designing Writing Tasks as the English

Instructional Materials to Develop Academic Writing Skill of Pre- Magister Manajemen Students of Gadjah Mada University. Yogyakarta: Sanata Dharma University.

Walter. R. Borg. 1983. Fourth Edition. Educational Research: An Introduction.

Utah State University Meredith Damien Gall University of Oregon NY, London: Longman

Widdowson, H.G.,1981 ‘English for specific purposes: Criteria for course design’,

in Selinker et al. (eds), English for Academic and Technical Purposes: Studies in honor of Louis Trimble, Newbury House, Rowley, MA, Pg1-11

Yalden, Janice. 1987. The communicative syllabus: Evolution, design and implementation. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice-Hall.

http://webster.commnet.edu/grammar accessed on June 2006 http://webster.commnet.edu/writing accessed on June 2006 http://www.eufap.com/writing accessed on April 2006





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The First Questionnaire (Need Analysis) Kuesioner angket penyusunan materi penulisan akademik

Respondents Yth, Dalam rangka penelitian dan penulisan skripsi dengan judul Designing

English Academic Writing Instructional Materials For The Dentistry Students

At Gadjah Mada University. (Penyusunan materi penulisan akademik bagi

mahasiswa Kedokteran Gigi Universitas Gadjah Mada) saya mengharapkan

kesediaan saudara/i untuk dapat meluangkan waktu mengisi kuestioner ini.

Kuesioner ini bertujuan untuk mengetahui apakah penyusunan materi

penulisan akademik bagi mahasiswa Kedokteran Gigi sesuai dengan kebutuhan

belajar menulis akademik dalam bahasa Inggris (learning needs) menurut presepsi

respondent.. Identitas dan data yang saudara/i berikan sepenuhnya akan saya jamin

kerahasiaan-nya.

Saya sangat menghargai kesediaan dan kerjasama saudara/i.

Terimakasih.

Horrnat saya,

Ruth Hastutiningsih Mahasiswa Sanata Dharma


77

A. Identitas Respondent 1. Nama : 2. Usia : 3. Jenis kelamin :

B. Kebutuhan Belajar

Berilah centang (√ ) pada angka-angka yang mewakili pendapat anda terhadap pernyataan-pernyataan dibawah ini.

1 = Sangat tidak setuju 2 = Tidak setuju 3 = Ragu-ragu 4 = Setuju 5 = Sangat setuju

No. Pernyataan 1 2 3 4 5 Comment 1. Menulis dalam bahasa Inggris sangat

penting untuk menunjang kemajuan karier anda

2. Adanya suatu model karangan dapat membantu anda dalam menulis suatu karangan.

3. Sebelum kegiatan menulis dimulai sebaiknya didahului dengan analisa model yang disajikan.

4. Karangan yang baik adalah suatu jenis karangan yang mempunyai struktur karangan

5. Untuk mnyempurnakan hasil akhir karangan anda, anda dapat meminta komentar atau masukan dari orang lain.

6. Peer-editing dan peer-assessment sangat penting untuk menilai kemajuan menulis anda.

7. Grammar merupakan kesulitan terbesar dalam menulis bahasa Inggris.

8. Vocabulary merupakan kesulitan kedua setelah grammar dalam menulis bahasa Inggris.

9. Sulit menemukan ide/gagasan untuk diungkapkan merupakan kesulitan utama selain grammar dan vocabulary.


78

10. Jenis aktivitas seperti bekerja berpasangan (pair work) dan berkelompok (group work) dalam pembelajaran menulis bahasa Inggris sangat membantu.

11. Jenis aktivitas lain seperti menulis artikel, laporan, makalah juga menunjang dalam kemajuan menulis.

12. Menurut anda topic atau tema umum seperti film, music, current issues menarik untuk ditulis.

13. Sebelum menulis apakah diperlukan free writing sebagai solusi belajar jika menemui kesulitan ide/gagasan.

14. Latihan menulis yang hendak diberikan sebaiknya dimulai dari yang mudah, misalnya menulis tentang pengalaman anda.

15. Portfolio atau worksheet menulis berfungsi sebagai indikator kemajuan menulis.

16. Latihan menulis yang dibutuhkan seperti meringkas, menulis esai, parafrase.

Carpe Diem



79

MATERIALS EVALUATION QUESTIONNAIRE DESIGNING ENGLISH

ACADEMIC WRITING INSTRUCTIONAL MATERIALS FOR THE

DENTISTRY STUDENST AT GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY

Respondents Yth,

Dalam rangka penelitian skrispsi dengan judul Designing English Academic

Writing Instructional Materials for the Dentisty Students at Gadjah Mada

University. (penyusunan materi penulisan akademik bagi mahasiswa Kedokteran

Gigi Universitas Gadjah Mada ) saya mengharapkan kesediaan bapak/ibu untuk

dapat meluangkan waktu mengisi kuesioner ini. Tujuan umum penelitian ini adalah

meningkatkan kemampuan dan ketrampilan penulisan akademik dalam bahasa

Inggris bagi mahasiswa Kedokteran Gigi. Identitas dan data yang Bapak/Ibu berikan

sepenuhnya akan kami jamin kerahasiannnya.

Saya sangat menghargai kesediaan dan kerjasama Bapak/Ibu. Terimakasih

Hormat saya,

Ruth Hastutiningsih

Mahasiswa Sanata Dharma


80

GAMBARAN UMUM

Penulisan akademik di tingkat universitas merupakan sebuah proses menulis

yang sangat diperlukan oleh mahasiswa untuk menunjang karier mereka selain itu,

penulisan akademik juga sangat membantu mahasiswa untuk menulis skripsi dan

artikel ilmiah lainnya yang berhubungan dengan bidang ilmu yang dipelajari.

Melalui tulisan berjudul “Designing English Academic Writing Instructional

Materials for the Dentistry Students at Gadjah Mada University Yogyakarta”.

Penulis menawarkan materi penulisan akademik untuk mahasiswa Kedokteran Gigi

Universitas Gadjah Mada Yogyakarta.

A. Latar Belakang

Berkembangnya technology pendidikan mendorong dosen untuk

mengembangkan pengajaran yang menarik dan variatif. Banyak jalan dapat

diciptakan dosen untuk menciptakan materi-materi yang mendukung proses

pembelajaran secara efektif, selain itu materi pengajaran sebaiknya sesuai dengan

bidang ilmu yang dipelajari. Disilpin ilmu yang diperoleh mahasiswa sebaiknya

saling berkaitan satu sama lain. Banyak alternatif dalam pengajaran, termasuk

Pengajaran Bahasa Inggris, oleh karena itu pengajaran bahasa Inggris akan lebih

berguna jika mengacu pada penulisan akademik.

Penulisan akademik sangat membantu mahasiswa untuk mengasah keahlian

dalam menulis terutama bahasa Inggris. Penulis memberikan sebuah design materi

penulisan akademik yang dirasa akan sangat membantu mahasiswa

mengembangkan ketrampilan menulis akademik dalam bahasa Inggris.

B. Isi

Materi disajikan dalam delapan topik. Setiap topik akan membutuhkan

durasi 100 menit. Selama 100 menit mahasiswa akan diajak aktif dalam proses

pembelajaran. Delapan topik itu adalah:

Unit Title 1 Free writing, Topic & Thesis statement 2 A Paragraph to An Essay 3 Method of Development / Outline Essay


81

4 Argumentative & Definition Essay. 5 Process Essay 6 Charts and Diagramming 7 Cause & Effect Essay and expository Essay 8 Cited & Quotation and Summaries & Paraphrases

Materi pembelajaran diberikan dalam bagian tahapan pre-writing, language focus,

whilst-writing dan post-writing sebagai berikut;

Tahapan Prosedur The pre-writing stage Memberikan sesuatu yang akan menggugah

keinginan siswa untuk mengikuti pelajaran selain juga untuk memberikan gambaran awal tentang apa yang akan mereka pelajari.

Language Focus Selama 100 menit, siswa akan mempelajari dan mencermati salah satu cirikas/karakteristik language function dalam setiap jenis karya tulis.

The whilst-writing stage Disini siswa akan diberikan waktu untuk mengekspresikan pengetahuan mereka dalam bentuk karya tulis. Siswa akan diberikan kesempatan untuk menuliskan ide/gagasan/opini mereka berdasarkan jenis karya tulis dengan menggunakan contoh model yang sudah disediakan

The post-writing stage Untuk mendukung kesinambungan pembelajaran, disetiap akhir pertemuan siswa akan diberi pekerjaan rumah. Setiap pekerjaan rumah akan dikumpulkan dan direvisi sebelum dikumpulkan setiap minggunya.

Kegiatan yang ditawarkan dengan pengelompokkan diatas diharapkan membantu

siswa untuk dapat menulis secara akademik. Bahan-bahan materi lebih banyak

diambil dari berbagai macam sumber seperti internet.

C. Tujuan

Penyusunan materi ini mempunyai tujuan sebagai berikut:

1. Siswa mampu menulis secara akademik berdasarkan macam atau jenis karya

tulis yang berbeda berdasarkan fungsinya masing-masing seperti penulisan

argumentative, penulisan cause and effect, penulisan ekspository, etc.

2. Membantu siswa untuk dapat menulis melalui proses menulis secara efektif

dan menghasilkan sebuah karya tulis dalam standar penulisan akademik.


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Identity Respondent Name: Sex: Age: Put thick (√) in the column Educational background: ( ) bachelor degree (SI) ( ) Master degree (S2) ( ) others__________ Teaching experience: ( ) < 1 year ( ) 1-5 years ( ) > 5 years ( ) others Put thick (√) in one of the five points of agreement column for each statement. 5 points of agreement: 1 = absolutely disagree with statement 2 = disagree with statement 3 = neither agree or disagree with statement or do not know 4 = agree with statement 5 = absolutely agree with statement

Points of agreement No. The respondents’ evaluation on 1 2 3 4 5

1. The designed materials are relevant to students’ specialism and needs.

2. The tasks covered in the materials are relevant to develop students’ academic writing skill.

3. The materials fit the objectives formulated in the lesson plan.

4. The activities contained in the instructional materials are interesting to students.

5. The materials involve students in intensive writing activities.

6. The materials involve procedural steps from reading, summarizing, and writing.

7. The controlled practice activity helps students rehearse their writing ability.

8. The activities covered in the materials design are various.

9. The presentation of materials is sufficient. 10. The organization of the materials is clearly

structured.


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II. Please give opinion or suggestions on the writing instructional materials for the Dentistry students of Gadjah Mada University. What are the strengths and weaknesses of the materials? The strengths nesses are: _______________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ The weaknesses are: _________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ What is / are your comment(s) about the overall materials? ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ What is / are your suggestion(s) in order to improve the set of writing instructional materials for dentistry students of Gadjah Mada University to be better? ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

THANK YOU






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Table 4.2 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondents’ Opinion on the First Survey

Research.

Frequencies No Statements N 1 2 3 4 5

1. Writing in English is very important to support the career.

75 5 6.6%

5 6.6%

6 8%

22 29.3%

37 49.3%

2. The importance of model of the composition can assist in writing a composition

75 0 4 5.3%

6 8%

26 34.6%

39 52%

3. Before writing activity started, it is better preceded with the analysis model of composition

75 0

3 4%

5 6.6%

23 30.6%

44 58.6%

4. Good composition is a composition which having structure

75 3 4%

5 6.6%

7 9.3%

24 32%

36 48%

5. We can ask the comment or input from others as proofread

75 4 5.3%

4 5.3%

12 16%

37 49.3%

18 24%

6. Peer-editing and peer-assessment are very needed

75 2 2.6%

6 8%

26 34.6%

24 32%

19 25.3%

7. Grammar represents the second difficulty in writing English.

75 5 6.6%

10 13.3%

8 10.6%

22 29.3%

30 40%

8. Vocabulary represents the third difficulty after grammar

75 3 4%

7 9.3%

9 12%

26 34.6%

30 40%

9. The most difficulty in writing is finding the idea.

75 5 6.6%

8 10.6%

9 12%

20 26.6%

33 44%

10. Activity type like pair work and group work in writing English are very assertive

75 1 1.3%

6 8%

14 18.6%

25 33.3%

29 38.6%

11. Other types of activity in writing like writing an article, report, and paper also support in writing progress.

75 2 2.6%

4 5.3%

9 12%

23 30.6%

37 49.3%

12. Topics like films, music, and current issue are interesting to be written.

75 0 5 6.6%

15 20%

26 34.6%

29 38.6%

13. Free writing is the one of solution if getting stuck with idea.

75 0 8 10.6%

19 25.3%

21 28%

27 36%

14. Practice writing that will be given better is started from essay, for example writing about personal experience.

75 1 1.3%

5 6.6%

10 13.3%

22 29.3%

37 49.3%

15. Worksheet has function as guidance to write

75 0 4 5.3%

6 8%

26 34.6%

9 12%

16. Writing activities needed are essay writing, summary, paraphrasing.

75 0 0 10 13.3%

23 30.6%

52 69.3%


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Table. 4.4 Sub-Categorized Errors

No. Statement Errors Frequency Percentage 1. Incorrect use of word caused by transfer or

awkward expression and words. 325 28%

2. Subject verb agreement 193 16.7% 3. Incorrect selection of word 184 16% 4. Incorrect use of tense 120 10.4% 5. Incorrect use or deletion of preposition 80 6.9% 6. Incorrect use of verb be 68 5.9% 7. Incorrect use of auxiliary 55 4.75 8. Incorrect use of gerund 53 4.6% 9. Incorrect use of noun 47 4%

10. Redundant use of words 37 3.2% 11 Incorrect use of voice 34 2.9% 12. Incorrect or omission use of article 33 2.8% 13. Incorrect or omission of pronoun 28 2.4% 14. Incorrect plural 23 2%

Total 1150


88

Table 4.10 Second Survey Research Data

The Evaluator Materials Number Education Lecturer of Sanata Dharma University 1 M.Pd. Lecturer of Dentistry Gadjah MadaUniversity 1 Ph.D. Lecturer of English Gadjah Mada University 2 M.Hum. English teacher from Language Center 1 M.Hum

Table 4.11 Descriptive of the Second Survey Research Respondents

Group of respondents Age Sex Educational

background Teaching experiences (in

years) F M S1 S2 S3 1-2 >3 4 >5

1. 29 � � � 2. 33 � � � 3. 55 � � � 4. 39 � � � 5. 35 � � �

Table 4.12 The Second Questionnaire Data Tabulation

Respondents Statements 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

1. 5 5 4 3 4 4 4 4 4 5 2. 4 4 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 3 3. 4 4 5 4 3 4 4 4 4 3 4. 5 3 4 3 5 5 4 5 4 3 5. 4 4 4 5 4 4 4 5 5 4


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Table 4.13 The Descriptive Statistics of the Respondent’s Opinion.

No. English instructors’ opinions N Mn Mdn Md 1. The designed materials are related to students’

specialize and needs. 5 4.4 5 4

2. The tasks covered in the materials are relevant to develop students’ academic writing skill.

5 4 4 4

3. The materials fit the objectives formulated in the lesson plan.

5 4 4 4

4. The activities contained in the instructional materials are interesting to the students.

5 3.6 3 3

5. The materials involve students in intensive writing activities.

5 4 4 4

6. The materials involve procedural steps from writing process, reading, and writing.

5 4.2 4 4

7. The writing activity helps students rehearse their writing ability

5 4 4 4

8. The activities covered in the material design are various

5 4.4 4 4

9. The presentation of materials are sufficient 5 4 4 4 10. The organization of the materials are clearly

structured 5 3.6 3 3


BASIC ACADEMIC ENGLISH FOR

DENTISTRY STUDENT OF GADJAH MADA UNIVERSITY

Name of the course : Bahasa Inggris 1 Department : Dentistry Faculty of Gadjah Mada University Semester : 1 Instructor : Ruth Hastutiningsih Phone : 081802755581 Email : ruthhastutiningsih @yahoo.com DESCRIPTIONS : Bahasa Inggris I (Dentistry) is compulsory subjects that can be categorized as means of helping another subject. This course focuses on the ability of writing especially basic academic writing in English. Standard Competency : At the end of the course, students are expected to be able to write a good composition of English academic writing correctly and efficiently Time allocation : 1 x 100 minutes

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Materials :

Unit Title 1 Free writing, Topic & Thesis statement 2 A Paragraph to An Essay 3 Method of Development / Outline Essay 4 Argumentative & Definition Essay. 5 Process Essay 6 Charts and Diagramming 7 Cause & Effect Essay and expository Essay 8 Cited & Quotation and Summaries & Paraphrases

UNIT Basic Competency Indicator Teaching – learning activities Time

Allotment Reference Aids

1 Students are able to 1. Understand

the basic principles of paragraph writing.

Students are able to 1. Generate a topic. 2. Identify the main

ideas of a paragraph.

3. Identify the supporting details of a paragraph.

4. Write a thesis statement

The pre-writing stage; 1. Writing personal writing (free

writing) 2. Discussing about the principles

of paragraph writing narrowing topic, brainstorming, clustering.

The whilst-writing stage; 3. Reading the text carefully. 4. Analysing topic sentence

The post-writing stage; 5. Revision draft 6. Editing draft

Submitting a paper for next meeting

20’ 20’ 15’ 20’ 10’ 10’

1. http://www.medindia.net/news/view_news_main.asp?str=2&x=20575

2. http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm

3. www.nlm.nih.gov/medicineplus/dentalhealth.htm

Worksheet writing

2 Students are able to Students are able to The pre-writing stage; 1. www.yourden Worksheet

91


1. Understand the organization of a paragraph.

2. Write a rough draft of a composition

1. Understand the structured of a paragraph.

2. Develop different types of paragraphs to an essay.

3. Identify introductory, body, and concluding paragraph.

4. Identify components of an essay.


1. Reading the text model paragraph.

2. Analysing a paragraph. 3. Analysing an essay. 4. Outlining an essay using

worksheet given The whilst-writing stage;

5. Identify technique paragraph 6. Identify introductory, body,

and concluding using text given.

7. Analysing concluding paragraph

The post-writing stage; 8. Revision draft 9. Editing draft

Submitting paper for next meeting

15’ 10’ 10’ 15’ 10’ 10’ 10’ 10’ 10’

tistryguide.comhttp://www.yourdentistryguide.com/toothaches/

2. http://www.yourdentistryguide.com/smoking/

3. http://www.aapd.org/publications/brochures/teenage.asp

writing

3 Students are able to 1. Comprehend

the organization of different types ofwriting.

2. Understand the process of a writing an essay and apply it in step by step

Students are able to 1. Develop different

types of paragraphs academic essay.

2. Understand the structure of an essay.

3. Make a brief outline for a paragraph and an essay.

4. Identify

The pre-writing stage; 1. Reading the theory of types of

an essay. 2. Analysing an essay using

model text The whilst-writing stage;

3. Analysing an essay using pattern

4. Identify introductory, body, and concluding paragraph-using text given.

5. Writing an essay The post-writing stage;

15’ 15’ 15’ 15’ 20’

1. http://www.ec.hku.hkl/dental/cou_info.htm

2. http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/comconabort.html

3. http://eleaston.com/medicine.htm/

Worksheet writing

92


process 3. Write a rough

draft of a composition.

introductory, body, and concluding an essay.

5. Identify components of an essay.

6. Develop different types of essays.

6. Revision draft 7. Editing draft


10’ 10’


the organization of argumentative text.

2. Write argumentative essay

Students are able to: 1. Identify the type

of an argumentative essay

2. Identify kinds of sentences.

3. Use appropriate vocabulary and transition signal to support their ideas in writing.

4. Compose a well-written chronological order.


The pre-writing stage; 1. Reading text 2. Identify vocabulary for

argumentative. 10’

3. Analysing a paragraph using transition signals or sentence completion.

The whilst-writing stage; 4. Writing an essay

The post-writing stage; 5. Revision draft. 6. Editing draft.


10’

10’ 50’ 10’ 10’

1. http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/comconabort.html.

2. www.nih.gov

Worksheet writing


the organization

Students are able to: 1. Identify the type

of process essay 2. Identify language

The pre-writing stage; 1. Reading text sample outline. 2. Identify the organization of

process essay

10’ 10’

1. http://amarris.homestead.com/files/process essay.html#

Worksheet writing

93


of process essay.

2. Write process essay

in process essay. 3. Use appropriate

vocabulary to support their ideas in writing.

4. Recognize and apply the principle of passive voice

5. State their opinions in chronological order.


The whilst-writing stage; 3. Paragraph identifying. 4. Writing an essay

The post-writing stage; 5. Revision draft 6. Editing draft.


10’ 50’ 10’ 10’

The%20Completed%20Essay.

2. http://esl.lbcc.cc.ca.us/dennis/classes/33x/process_essay.htm

6. Students are able to 1. Understand

the organization of writing using chart.

2. Write an essay using chart & diagramming.

3. Use chart and graphs to write a unified and coherent paragraph.

Students are able to: 1. Interpret chart in

paragraphs essay. 2. Describe and draw

chart. 3. Read and interpret

chart / tables 4. Identify kinds of

sentences 5. Produce a unified

paragraph. 6. Write a rough

draft of a composition

The pre-writing stage; 1. Reading theory of charts and

diagramming. 2. Reading and interpret charts

The whilst-writing stage; 3. Writing an essay by reading

charts The post-writing stage;

4. Revision draft. 5. Editing draft.


15’ 15’ 50’ 10’ 10’

1. http://www.stats.govt.nz/schools-corner/primary/activities/pie-graphs+activity.ht

2. www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads(accessed 20 July 2004).

Worksheet writing


Students are able to: 1. Identify Cause &

The pre-writing stage; 1. Reading theory of expository

15’

1. http://amarris.homestead.co

Worksheet writing

94


the organization of Cause & Effect Essay and Expository Essay.

2. Write their own compositions of the Cause & Effect Essay and Expository Essay

Effect Essay and Expository essay.

2. Understand the process of writing an essay and apply it in a step-by-step process.

3. Write a rough draft of a composition.

essay. 2. Analysing an essay-using

pattern. The whilst-writing stage;

3. Writing an essay The post-writing stage;

4. Revision draft. 5. Editing draft.


15’ 50’ 10’ 10’

m/files/process_essay.html#The%20Completed%20Essay.

2. http://www.admc.hct.ac.ae/hd1/english/writing/wtgpassive2.htm


the theory of cited & quoted, summaries & paraphrases.

2. Use the cited && quoted, summaries & paraphrases correctly in academic paper.

Students are able to: 1. Understand theory

of cited, quoted, summarizing.

2. Write quotations, cited and summarizing correctly.

3. write a short summary.

The pre-writing stage; 1. Reading theory of cited, quoted

ad summarizing The whilst-writing stage;

2. Writing an essay using quotations, cited correctly, summarizing & paraphrasing correctly

The post-writing stage; 3. Revision draft. 4. Editing draft.


20’ 50’ 10’ 10’

1. Pei, Mario A. All About Language. Philadelphia: Lippincott. 1954

2. Kispert, Robert J. “ Universal Language.” World Book Encyclopedia. 1997

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Teaching Learning activities: Lecturers, discussion, practice and assignments, quizzes, group work, individual work. Evaluation : The final mark is to be decided based on the result of the mid test and final test, on the results of class as well as home assignments, on the result of quizzes, on the result of the final test. To pass this course, students will at least has to prove that he or she is capable of fulfilling the minimum requirements of writing. Assessment will be based on the students” writing progress” Each composition will be marked with these five categories:

1. Development (topic sentences, support sentences) 2. Organization (order of ideas) 3. Grammar (minimum requirements and other grammar ryules0 4. Mechanics (spelling and punctuation) 5. Style (sentence variation and vocabulary)

References : Bazerman, C. The Informed Writer - Using Sources in The Disciplines, Second Edition. Boston: Houghton Mifflin Company, 1985.

Blanchard, K and Christine Root, Ready to Write More - From Paragraph to Essay, NY: Addison Wesley Longman Publishing Group,

1997. Boardman, CA and Jia Frydenberg, Writing to Communicate-Paragraphs to Essay, Second Edition, NY: Pearson Education

Incorporation, 2002. Glending, E and Helen Matel, Write Ideas - An Intermediate Course in Writing Skills. Essex: Longman Group UK. Ltd., 1983. Jordan, R.R. Academic Writing Course, London: Harper Collins Publisher, 1990. Kispert, Robert J. “ Universal Language.” World Book Encyclopedia. 1997

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McCall, J. How to Write Themes and Essays, NY: Monarch Press. 1996. Oshima , A and Ann Hogue, Writing Academic English, Third Edition, NY: Addison Wesley Longman Publishing Group, 1999. Pei, Mario A. All About Language. Philadelphia: Lippincott. 1954 Sherman, Jane.1994. Feedback: Essential Writing Skills for Intermediate Students. Oxford: Oxford University Pres.

Other sources: various article form Internet and newspaper.

97


96

COMPILED BY RUTH HASTUTININGSIH


97



98

THE PRE-WRITING STAGE Thinking about topic Task 1 Write personal writing using personal writing worksheet provided.

a. Narrowing a topic General topic Health Medicine Specific topic Traditional medicine Herbal medicine in dentistry Very specific topic the use of Aloe Vera as Medicine in Dentistry

b. Brainstorming Brainstorming is a method used to generate a variety idea on a subject rapidly and spontaneously. There are three main brainstorming techniques: 1. Listing Listing is brainstorming technique about topic and quickly makes a list of whatever words or phrases that comes into mind.

The following is an example of brainstorming on the general subject of medicine in Dentistry Topic:

Medicine for Teeth Brainstorm ideas:

Amalgam Listerine Aloe Vera

2. Free writing Task 1 free writing

Task 2

Write for 10 minutes about a perspective Dentist. 3. Clustering Clustering is a visual way of generating ideas.


99

THE WHILST-WRITING STAGE 1. Drafting paragraphs Paragraphs have a very specific organizational pattern. A paragraph consists of three basic parts: topic sentence, body, and concluding sentence.

Topic sentence Topic sentence is usually the first sentence of a paragraph. Look at this model paragraphs Example: Text 1

The spoken word (whether conversation or oratory or the coy mixture of the two which is now familiar to us on television) is a very different thing from the written word. What is effective or allowable or desirable in the one may be quite the reverse in the other, and the extempore speaker cannot correct himself by revision as the writer can and should. It is therefore not fair to take a report of a speech or of an oral statement and criticize it as if it were a piece of considered writing. Taken from: (Ernest Gowers, (1973) The complete plain words, p. 26) Task 3

Find appropriate topic sentence in the following paragraphs. 1.

Anthropology is the study of humankind, especially of Homo sapiens, the biological species to which we human beings belong. It is the study of how our species evolved from more primitive organisms; it is also the study of how our species developed a mode of communication known as language and a mode of social life known as culture. It is the study of how culture evolved and diversified. And finally, it is the study of how culture, people, and nature interact wherever human beings are found. 2.

The most important factor is a student's past experience of study. If a student has already developed good study habits, study at university should not be difficult. Good study habits need to be complemented by interest and motivation, factors that are important when competition gets tough. We should however not underestimate the distracting effects of financial and personal difficulties. All students have to grapple with these at some stage of their university life. Beyond the personal factors it has to be said that there is also a certain element of luck involved in success: this includes finding excellent teachers and the subject matter that inspires one to give one's best. Taken from: http://www.uefap.com/writing/writfram.htm

1. Supporting your point In terms of content, the supporting sentences support the topic sentence.


100

Model paragraph using Examples Non-verbal communication

Non-verbal communication is also sometimes referred to as body language. It includes how close we stand to the other person, eye contact, facial expressions, touch, body posture and hand gestures(1). In everyday life these are aspects we

change all the time without even realising it (2). As individuals we may also have characteristic features, for example, most people stand in a particular way (3). In pharmacy we need to pay particular attention to our body language and may need to alter it depending on to whom we are talking (4).For example, you may have a patient who always pats your hand or touches your arm and stands quite close when talking to you (5). In this case you are more likely to stand nearer to them and may touch them reassuringly (6). There may be another patient who never maintains eye contact or always has their arms crossed in front of them. This patient may feel extremely uncomfortable if you patted their hand or tried to prolong eye contact.

Title

Topic sentence

Body

Concluding sentence

Task 4 Rearrange some sentences below to be a good paragraphs by giving number (1,2,3,4,5) to each sentence orderly. Paragraph 1 A breakthrough in one of these areas will hopefully provide a means of relieving both the overstretched oil market and the environment. ( ) Researchers in the automobile industry are experimenting with different types of engines and fuels as alternatives to the conventional gasoline engines. ( ) One new type of engine, which burns diesel oil instead of gasoline, has been available for several years. ( ) Finally, several automobile manufacturers are experimenting with methanol, which is a mixture of gasoline and methyl alcohol, as an automobile fuel. ( ) A further type is the gas turbine engine, which can use fuels made from gasoline, diesel oil, kerosene and other petroleum distillates. ( ) The increasing depletion of oil reserves, along with environmental concerns, has prompted some radical developments in car design over the past few years. ( )


101

Task 5 Write appropriate a topic sentence to begin each of the following paragraphs. 1.________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ In European Universities, students are not required to attend classes. In fact, professors in Germany generally do not know the names of the students enrolled in their courses. In the United States, however, students are required to attend all classes and may be penalized if they do not. Furthermore, in the European system, there is usually just one comprehensive examination at the end of the students' entire four or five years of study. In the American system, on the other hand, there are usually numerous quizzes, texts, and homework assignments, and there is almost always a final examination in each course at the end of the semester. Task 6 Write topic sentences based on topic given below; try to give as much as controlling ideas for the same topic. Example: Topic: Television's effects on children Topic sentence: 1.) Television is harmful to children because it teaches them

violence as a way of solving problems. 2.) Television can improve a child's general knowledge

1. Smoking cigarettes 2. Studying a foreign language

All exercises taken from: Alice Oshima and Ann Hogue, Writing Academic English, 2nd Edition (New York: Longman, 1991), pp.23ff. THE POST-WRITING STAGE

Writing is not a product paper but it is a process paper. It always needs proofreading. By revising draft of writing, students will realize their mistakes.

Revision: 1. Revise students draft writing with group discussion to check about the

organization, topic and the content of writing. 2. Make comments to other students draft. 3. Submit students’ first draft to get comment from lecturer before deadline,

tomorrow before 13.00 p.m by email and submit the draft to secretariat also. Editing:

1. After students get first feedback from lecturer, try also to check the grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization with group discussion.

2. Make comments to each draft that students corrected in discussion. 3. Submit students’ final writing on the day of English writing class.


102



103

THE PRE-WRITING STAGE A. Expanding the paragraph A paragraph consists of three parts: a topic sentence, supporting sentences (the body), and the concluding sentence. Notice these three parts in the following paragraph. Model paragraph 1

The Hazards of Moviegoing

By John Langan From College Writing Skills with Readings

Introductory paragraph

(Thesis)

I am a movie fanatic. When friends want to know what picture won the Oscar in 1980 or who played the police chief in Jaws, they ask me. My friends, though, have stopped asking me if I want to go out to the movies. The problems in getting to the theater, the theater itself, and the behavior of some patrons are all reasons why I often wait for a movie to show up on TV.

First supporting paragraph

First of all, just getting to the theater presents difficulties. Leaving a home equipped with a TV and a video recorder isn't an attractive idea on a humid, cold, or rainy night. Even if the weather cooperates, there is still a thirty-minute drive to the theater down a congested highway, followed by the hassle of looking for a parking space. And then there are the lines. After hooking yourself to the end of a human chain, you worry about whether there will be enough tickets, whether you will get seats together, and whether many people will sneak into the line ahead of you.

Second supporting paragraph

Once you have made it to the box office and gotten your tickets, you are confronted with the problems of the theater itself. If you are in one of the run-down older theaters, you must adjust to the musty smell of seldom-cleaned carpets. Escaped springs lurk in the faded plush or cracked leather seats, and half the seats you sit in seem loose or tilted so that you sit at a strange angle. The newer twin and quad theaters offer their own problems. Sitting in an area only one-quarter the size of a regular theater, moviegoers often have to put up with the sound of the movie next door. This is especially jarring when the other movie involves racing cars or a karate war and you are trying to enjoy a quiet love story. And whether the theater is old or new, it will have floors that seem to be coated with rubber cement. By the end of a


104

movie, shoes almost have to be pried off the floor because they have become sealed to a deadly compound of spilled soda, hardening bubble gum, and crushed Ju-Jubes.

Concluding paragraph

After arriving home from the movies one night, I decided that I was not going to be a moviegoer anymore. I was tired of the problems involved in getting to the movies and dealing with the theater itself and some of the patrons. The next day I arranged to have cable TV service installed in my home. I may now see movies a bit later than other people, but I'll be more relaxed watching box office hits in the comfort of my own living room.

This is in relation to "The Hazards of Movie going"

Title: The Hazards of Moviegoing

I. Introduction A. Introductory statement B. Thesis statement: I like watching movies but I prefer watching

them at home. II. Body

A. First Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): just getting to the theater presents difficulties

1. bad weather 2. long drive and limited parking space 3. long waiting to buy ticket

B. Second Supporting Idea (Topic Sentence): facing the problems of the theater itself

1. old theater's problems such as smelly carpet, worn-out seat, etc

2. new theater's problems such as smaller size, noise from next movie theater, etc

3. both floors will be rubber-like dirty at the end of the movie

III. Conclusion A. Closing statement B. Restate thesis: I prefer to watch movies at home where it is

comfortable, clean and safe.

Taken from: http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/fiveparagraph.html An essay is also composed of three sections. These sections are an introductory paragraph, supporting paragraphs or a body, and a concluding paragraph.


105

III. Concluding paragraph Most formal essay begins with an introductory paragraph. In some ways, it is the most important paragraph of the essay. Because it is the first one that will be read, it must catch the attention of the audience and create a desire to read the rest of the essay. It should stage for what follows and give the reader an idea of what to expect. THE WHILST-WRITING STAGE Types of introductory paragraph Many introductions use one of a combination of the following techniques to provide background information and capture the readers’ attention.

a. Anecdote An anecdote is a brief story that illustrates your topic. You can either base this anecdote on your own experience or invent a story about someone else. b. Interesting facts or statistics Another way is to introduce your essay is with interesting facts or statistics. Tow rite this kind of introduction, you need to be aware of commonly known information. You can expand your knowledge of facts and statistics by carefully reading newspaper and journals. c. General to specific This is perhaps the most common type of introduction. It begins with a general statement of the larger topic, and then each sentence narrows it down until you get to specific thesis statement. The trick is to start out general, but not too general. Remember to keep the introduction relevant. d. Asking a question Asking one or more question at the beginning of an essay is a good way to engage the readers in the topic right away. They will want to read on in order to, find the answer to the questions.

Task 1

Now read the following sample introductions. Then identify the technique(s) used in each one.

1. Bad breath, or halitosis, can be a major problem, especially when you're about to snuggle with your sweetie or whisper a joke to your friend. The good news is that bad breath can often be prevented with some simple steps. Bad breath is caused by odor-producing bacteria that grow in the mouth. When you don't brush and floss regularly, bacteria accumulate on the bits of food left in your mouth and between your teeth. The sulfur compounds released by these bacteria make your breath smell. Technique(s):_______________________________________


106

2. Certain foods, especially ones like garlic and onions that contain pungent oils, can contribute to bad breath because the oils are carried to your lungs and out through your mouth. Smoking is also a major cause of bad breath. There are lots of myths about taking care of bad breath. Technique(s):_______________________________________ http://www.aapd.org/publications/brochures/teenage.asp 2. Writing Thesis Statement The thesis statement is the most important in your essay. A thesis statement is similar to a topic sentence in several ways. Jus as a topic sentence controls the information for a paragraph; a thesis statement controls the information for the entire essay. In other words, it is the main idea for the whole essay.

a. A good thesis statement Identify the subject of the essay Establishes the aspects of the subject of the essay will deal with May indicate the method of the organizational of the entire paper.

b. Parts of a thesis statement Topic & controlling idea Predictor

Task 2

The sentences below come from different kinds of paragraphs in an essay. Identify each sentence as belonging to an introductory, body or concluding paragraph. 1. The attitudes, which have been discussed in this paper stem from a variety of misconceptions about the notion of personal freedom. __________________________________________ 2. The main reason for people being unhappy with censorship in any form comes from their mistaken belief that an individual's private actions have no effect on others. __________________________________________ B. The Body of Paragraph

Task 3 In this essay consists of several paragraphs. Find the topic and the main points of each paragraph by giving different coloured pen.


107

Paragraph

The Use of Aloe Vera in Dentistry by Richard Sudworth

The dental uses of Aloe Vera are multiple. It is extremely helpful in the treatment of gum disease; it reduces the bleeding of the gums; it is powerfully antiseptic in gum pockets and its antifungal properties help greatly in the problem of denture stomatitis. Aloe Vera has been used medicinally for a few thousand years. It was sufficiently in demand that Hannibal was known to have gone to war over it in order to obtain control over its growing area (N. Africa). It is still very much in use today for a wide range of ailments. Orthodoxly it is used in burns units to great effect and is increasingly being used in the treatment of dermatological lesions. Several studies on burns have been conducted in comparison trials between Aloe products and non-Aloe. The Aloe seems to promote more rapid healing and pain relief. The dental uses of Aloe Vera are multiple. It is extremely helpful in the treatment of gum disease – gingivitis and periodontitis. It reduces swelling of the soft tissues and consequently this reduces the bleeding of the gums. It is powerfully antiseptic in gum pockets where normal cleaning is difficult. Its antifungal properties help greatly in the problem of denture stomatitis, ie. red and sore mucous membranes which are permanently covered by a denture – this is a form of thrush. Cracked and split corners of the mouth are also subject to fungal infection and this can be cured by Aloe. Its antiviral properties help in the treatment of cold sores (Herpes Simplex) and shingles (Herpes Zoster). It is a powerful healing promoter and when inserted into extraction sockets is very beneficial. It can be used in any surgical wound. It has a use in root canal treatment as a sedative dressing, healing promoter and file lubricant. In an article of this length and nature, it is not possible to go into greater detail. It is important to choose an Aloe product which is concentrated, pure, stabilised and preferably grown organically. Some products carry a label bearing an accreditation "Seal of Approval of the International Aloe Science Council". This seal guarantees those desirable necessities outlined above. Taken from www.dentalhealth.com

D. The Concluding of Paragraph Concluding paragraph consists of a summary of the points made in your body paragraphs.

a. Summary One way to end your essay is to summarizing then main points in it.

b. Restatement An alternative to summary is a restatement of the idea of your thesis statement. Here is another concluding paragraph for the essay


108

c. Final comment A concluding paragraph is most effective when you add a final comment to a summary or a restatement or both. Task 4 The following essay does not have a concluding paragraph. Read the essay and give the concluding paragraph. Cosmetic dentistry is a field of dentistry that has become increasingly popular over the last decade. Cosmetic dentistry focuses on helping a person feel better about him or herself by improving the appearance of the mouth and smile. While traditional dentistry focuses on maintaining oral hygiene and preventing, diagnosing and treating oral disease, Concluding paragraph: Taken from : www.yourdentistryguide.com

THE POST-WRITING STAGE Revision:

4. Revise draft writing with group discussion to check about the organization, topic and the content of writing.

5. Make comments to your friend draft. 6. Submit first draft to get comment from lecturer before deadline, tomorrow

before 13.00 p.m by email and submit the draft to secretariat also. Editing:

4. After getting first feedback from lecturer, try also to check the grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization with your group discussion.

5. Make comments to each draft that you corrected in your discussion. 6. Submit final writing on the day of English class.


109



110

THE PRE-WRITING STAGE A. PROCESS ESSAY A process essay is an essay in which students explain how to do something in a step-by-step manner. A process essay might feel like an instruction book or it might seem like a short story. Graphic organizer Since an essay that describe a process is essentially a “how to” essay, it is always arranged chronologically.

How to brush your teeth

Use a soft toothbrush with end-rounded bristles. Brush the outside of your teeth in small circles, starting at the gum line working the bristles away from the gum towards the tips of the teeth in a circular movement. To brush behind the front teeth, hold the brush vertically and using small circular movements, brush from the gum line towards the tips of the teeth. For the inside surfaces, place the head of the brush against the teeth and gums and use the same circular motion. Scrub the biting surfaces with short back-and-forth movements.

To make sure you do not miss any areas, follow this routine every time you brush: Begin at the back of the lower jaw and work methodically around the outer surfaces. Then do the same with the inner surfaces. Repeat the process for the upper jaw. Then brush the biting surfaces of both the upper and lower teeth. Taken from: http://www.ec.hku.hkl/dental/cou_info.htm.

Brushing Your Teeth


111

The process pattern of organi nt in scientific writing. For e scribe biological processes such as T-cell lymphocyte production, cheprocesses such aThe definition e

zation is especially importaxample, it is used to de

mical processes such as the interaction of drugs, and technical s a colons copy. ssay contains an introductory paragraph, body paragraphs, and agraphconcluding par . Each part has a basic pattern of organization.

Task 1

Describe a pro B. COMPARISON AND CONTRAST ESSAY Comparison and Contrast Essay: Block Method There are two bmethod and the remember what students need to do in each part of a comparison/contrast essay using the block method.

Basic block style

Introductory paragraph Thesis statem nt

cess in one paragraph

asic patterns writers use for comparison/contrast essays: the block point-by-point method. The guideline below will help students

e Body paragraph 1: the differences between

Body paragraph 2: the similarities

Body paragraph 2: second point of

the third point


Block comparison style

Introductory

Thesis statement

paragraph

between


oint by point

Body paragraph 1: description of

Pco

Introductory para

mparison style Body paragraph 2: description

graph Thesis statement to______

Body paragraph 1: Concluding

comparison of

Body paragraph 3:

of_____ compare

paragraph


Int1. 2. 3. 4. ing the comparison and/or contrast. 5. State the thesis.

In the first paragraph, discuss the similarities. 2. In raph, discuss

Conc1. Paraphrase the thesis. 2.

3. Paraphrase the importance of the topic. The c ontrast essay disc s and differences between two things,

be an unbiased discussion, or an attempt to nvince the reader of the benef son, or concept. It could also be written

simply to entertain the reader, or to arrive at an insight into human nature. The essay could discu ies an differences, or it could just focus on one or the other. A comp ay usually discus rities between two things, while the contrast

say usually discusses the diffe Mod

avas into two contrasting types, acid and basic. Acid or siliceous lavas ontent, about 70 to 75 per cent, and are stiff or viscous. They move

e vent. Basic lavas have a silica content of about 50 per cent. They are dark colored and fluid, and they flow more easily at lower temp d reach a greater distance from the crater than do acid lavas. Ada th of ours, p3.

roduction Attract the reader’s attention. Provide background information about your topic. Identify the two things being compared and contrasted. State the purpose for mak

Body Paragraphs 1.

the next parag

lusion the differences.

Summarize the main similarities and differences.

ompare/c usses the similaritie

its of one thing, perpeople, concepts, places, etc. The essay could co

ss both similaritarison ess

dses the similarences. es

el text

We can divide lhave a high silica cslowly over the surface and solidify close to th

eratures anpted from This ear

What is the text classifying? Lavas. How many types are there? 2

hat are the two types? Acid and basic. How inction? The amount of silica present. LAN

e of the most common language used in sentences which have classification as their purpose.

here are : acidic and basic. . These are acidic and basic.

Wdo we make the dist

GUAGE The tables below show som

T

The variet

Two

types kinds classes categories sorts

ies

of lava

are acidic and basic.

Lava consists of comprises two categories

classes. These are acidic and basic.


can be divided into kinds types

: acidic and basic.

varieties classes

A dic and basic aci re types categories

of lava. kinds

varieties

We can classify lava on the basis of depending on

amount of silica present. according to

When students are speaking at university, students need to do much more than just give

Using Comparison/Contrast practice using comparison/contrast as a rhetorical technique, prepare to

rite a comparison/contrast paragraph(s) based on one of the following topics (or come u

Once you decide on your subject, follow the three steps below to help you practice using t

focus students’ analysis. ight be

Brainstorm and then decide upon several appropriate categories for students’ topic ill focus how students look at each subject. List them below:

l by applying these categories to questions about your subject.

d on the ries you arrived at above; a hat is different about the two subjects. Write down everything you can think of—you can rearraComparison1. 2C erences) betw ______________________.

information. Students should always be trying to do something with their speaking. One common function is comparing and contrasting, speaking about similarities and differences. There are many ways of expressing comparison and contrast in English. Task 2

To get some w

p with one you like better): High school and University Two close friends Two teachers

his technique. STEP 1: Establish categories to

For example, if students are comparing colleges, students’ categories mcurriculum, price, location, and social life.

which w STEP 2: Brainstorm raw materia

Base catego

later. s (similarities) between______________ and ___________________.

sk what is similar and w

nge it

. ontrasts (diff een ___________ ____ and


12.

Step 3: Assemble your analysis. Now examine the points you made and compile your raw material into paragraphs by using one or both of the methods described in above. Write a topic sentence to

arison/co t sho your subjects and the assertion you bout them nalysis. After you write your topic

sentence, write the paragr w. Attach extra paper if you run out of room. If you think it will help you get a clearer idea how to assemble your work,

frequently do group work when completing projects in college and in a

pany. There are numerous similarities but also differences between them. I will some of these.

The fi dlines. To explain further, people have to k

efficient and building rapport. Last, most would agree that group work in both places requires e/she should delegate tasks, making sure they are shared e Despite these commonalities differences. One major distinction concerns the group members. In college, for example, partners tend to be the same age,

resent. To illustrate, people work hard on projects to achieve good grades

whereas they do so in companies to be promoted or make more money. Finally, many people believe group work in school is less important than in a company; they consider

rk. me strikin in a group at college because it's less stressf Taken from: http://www.admc.hct.ac.ae/hd1/english/compare/errors.htm

.

focus your compwant to make a

ntrast; i as a resultaph(s) belo

uld state of your a

Sample Compare-contrast model essay: Compare and contrast working a group in college and in a company. Write 200+ words in45 minutes.

Group work in College and in a Company

People comoutline

rst important similarity is deafinish projects on time in college and in a company. Moreover, people seem to thincollaboration is positive in both cases – that is to say, they feel working together has benefits such as being more

a good leader. To elaborate, hqually. , there are some

gender, and nationality while in a company they may be different. In addition, differentincentives are p

the former just a simulation but the latter "real world" woIn conclusion, group work at both venues has points in common but also sog differences. Personally, I prefer workingul and not a do-or-die situation.


C. ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY An arg

Model

umentative essay is an essay in which you try to convince the reader to agree with your point of view.

paragraphs

ction: sis is

The Abortion Issue: Compare and Contrast Block-by-Block Format One of the most divisive issues in America is the controversy surrounding abortion. Currently, abortion is legal in America, and many people believe that it should remain legal. These people, pro-choice activists, beli

Introdu(the theunderlined) Explains the argument

eve that it is the women's right to chose whether or not to give birth. However, there are many groups who are lobbying Congress to pass laws that would make abortion illegal. These people are called the pro-life activists.

Explains pro-choice

human, therefore, it is not in defiance against God. Regardless of the reason for the abortion, it should be the woman’s choice because it is her body. While adoption is an option some women chose, many women do not want to suffer the physical and emotional trauma of pregnancy and labor only to give up a child. Therefore, laws should remain in effect that protect a woman's right to chose.

xplains pro-ife

Abortion is an abomination, argues the pro-life activist. It makes no sense for a woman to murder a human being not even born. The bible says, "Thou shalt not kill," and it does not discriminate between different stages of life. A fetus is the beginning of life. Therefore, abortion is murder, and is in direct defiance of God's will. Regardless of the mother's life situation (many women who abort are poor, young, or drug users), the value of a human life cannot be measured. Therefore, laws should be passed to outlaw abortion. After all, there are plenty of couples who are willing to adopt an unwanted child.

onclusion

If we take away the woman’s right to chose, will we begin limiting her other rights also? Or, if we keep abortion legal, are we devaluing human life? There is no easy answer to these questions. Both sides present strong, logical arguments. Though it is a very personal decision, t he fate of abortion rights will have to be left for the Supreme Court to decide.

Abortion is a choice that should be decided by each individual, argues the pro-choice activist. Abortion is not murder since the fetus is not yet fully

El

C

Taken from: http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/comconabort.html


Task 3 Analyze the text below using pattern above. Diagramming the pattern block.

Introduction: (the thesis is underlined) Explains the argument

Fighting the Battle against Drugs The use of drugs has increased in recent years, according to numerous

articles in medical journals. They threaten communities all over the world because of how affect the organs of the body and their functions. Crack and cocaine are two of these dangerous drugs. Thus, it is important for health care professionals to have knowledge about them in order to deal with any problems related to their use that patients may experience. While they may appear similar at first glance, in fact they have three major differences.

Explain

Crack and cocaine have three similar effects on the human body. Although crack is heat resistant and cocaine is destroyed by heat, both cause hypertension. Also, crack and cocaine bring about physiological and psychological damage, depending on pre-existing conditions and the extent of drug use. For example, hallucination, psychosis, paranoia and aggressive behavior may occur, and an overdose of either may cause cardiac collapse or convulsion. Finally, use of both drugs can lead to addiction

Despite crack and cocaine’s similarities, they have three major differences. First, although crack and cocaine are derived from the coca plant, they differ in form. Crack has the form of flakes whereas cocaine is found in the form of powder, which can be dissolved. Furthermore, both crack and cocaine contain cocaine, but in various percentages: crack contains as much as 90 percent pure cocaine whereas cocaine contains from 15 to 25 percent pure cocaine. Another major difference is how they enter the body. For example, crack is smoked in a pipe or cigarette. It enters the body by the lungs into the bloodstream. Cocaine, on the other hand, is inhaled as a powder or is injected if dissolved. It enters the body via the nasal mucosa into the bloodstream or, if injected, directly via the bloodstream.

In conclusion, it can be seen that, while being alike in three ways

s pro-choice

Explains pro-life

Conclusion

, these two drugs differ in three ways. They affect the body in similar ways. Both can lead to physiological problems such as convulsions and psychological problems such as hallucinations. Furthermore, their use may result in addiction. However, cocaine and crack differ in form, content of pure cocaine and method of entry into the body. Therefore, it is important that health care professionals know about these drugs.

Taken from: http://eleaston.com/medicine.htm/


D. CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAY

and effect essay is an essay in which you either explain the causes of a specific , you could

xplain all of the causes leading up to a specific event. Or, you could explain all of the results that happened after/because of a specific event. The cause/effect essay can discuss causes and effects i

a ue hat ,

y in a ay and may result in death.

yle

f burn which could b

ThermIf complications arise, shock and death may result.

In conclus al, and thermal. In m art and respiratorTaken from: h

A cause event, or the effects that an event had on something or someone. In other wordse

n any combination.

Causes and Effects of Burns

re dreadful accidents that could happen to any person. Burns are tissresult from contact with numerous agents. Certain chemicals, electricity

and fire cause burns; moreover, each one of these affects the boddifferent w

Model text 1

Burns injuries t

When the skin comes in contact with a toxic substance like hydrochloric acid or sulfuric acid, a chemical burn occurs. Local pain, breathing difficulties, and unconsciousness result from chemical burns. In severe

may lead to death. ctrical burn occurs when the skin is exposed directly to electricity. This leads to fatigue. In addition, it can develop heart or respiratory failure, e fatal. al burns result from residential or house fires. They cause pain and blisters.

cases, theAn e

type o

ion, the most common types of burns are chemical, electricild cases, all types cause pain, fatigue, and blisters. In severe cases, he

y disorders may be fatal. ttp://amarris.homestead.com/files/Sample_183_Essay.htm

LANGUAGEThis ip can be expressed in many ways:

use.

te from cancer is because people are smoking more.

fect.

Because ople are oking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.

relationsh1. Simply Emphasising ca

The death raincreasing owing to the fact that

Emphasising ef

As

Since

pesm


Therefor

People are smoking more. Consequently,

Because of this, For this re

the death rate from cancer is

e,

ason, As a consequence, As

So, Thus, Hence,

a result,

eople are smoking more, as a result of which as a consequence of which with the result that

mmatical changes. .

fact the death rate from cancer is increasing may be due to more.

The reason

One for cause of

the death rate from cancer increasing could be that more.

is of may be

one consequence

caused by due to because of

one effect of one result of

pe

P

increasing.

2. With some graEmphasing cause

Thethat

is due to people smoking

is that people are smoking

ople smoking more. An increase in the death rate from

cancer

results from arises from

Emphasing effect.

Owing to people smoking more, the death rate from cancer is increasing.

that is

One ef

The

feresult of consequence of

ct of people the death rate from cancer is increasing. smoking more is to increase the death rate from cancer.

People smoking more

results in leads to produces causes is the cause of gives rise to

an increase in the death rate from cancer.


brings abou

) s) reby)

leading producincausing giving rise t

about

se in the death rate from cance

e the death rate

t

People smoke more, (so(thu(the

resulting in

tog

o bringing

an increa r.

If people smokmore from cancer

will increase.

Task 4 Read the following paragraphs A & B. Underline the topic sentence and also underline words that specify cause and effect. AThe ocean's delicate coral reefs are affected by changes caused by humans. To illustrate, dumping waste products and garbage in the sea results in changes in the natural environment. Due to these changes omes polluted, and as a consequence, coral reefs are damaged. When the oc

. Good health is affected by a balanced diet. On the other hand, if we do not eat well, this could cause problems an uld be s Vitamin s affecting the skin and the teeth are due to a lack of c nd C, however, our ability to fight diseases like cancer is greatly affected. So it makes sense to eat well because this results in a longer and healthier life.

.

the ocean becean becomes extensively polluted, coral reefs die.

B

d we co come very sick. For instance, if our diet lackA, blindness may result. Many problem Vitamin C. When our diet contains re ommended amounts of Vitamin A a


Writing Task Causes produce various effects. If these effects continue over time, they often cause additional effects. Hot weather affects humans by causing rapid heartbeat and muscle pain. Rapid heartbeat and muscle pain can result in people feeling tired and becoming ill. Listed below are causes and various effects related to problems with hot weather. Write two paragraphs in which you explain the causes and effects of such phenomena. In the first paragraph describe the effects listed below (and any other effects you can think of). In the second paragraph describ cts of pain, high body temperature, loss of body water, etc. Please use sentence patterns and vocabulary that specify cause and effect.

h 1

t weather EFFECTS: the body temperature ain develops; the heartbeat becomes rapid

Paragraph 2 CAUSE: high body temperature

EFFECTS: the body sweats; the body loses water CAUSE: muscle pain

EFFECTS: many people feel tired, weak CAUSE: loss of body water; feeling tired, weak

EFFECTS: serious illness

It has been said that there is no good writing, only good re writing. Now that you have written your writing piece, it is time for you to look at writing again to see how you can improve it.

2. After getting first draft revision, revise draft to get second revision by email. . Editing he final step of the writing process is editing. When editing a paragraph or essay you will ave to check to make shine the grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization are

ect.

e the effe

ParagrapCAUSE: ho

rises; muscle p

THE POST-WRITING STAGE

1. Revision

Task 1

1. Submit first draft to get comment deadline tomorrow before 13.00 p.m by email and submit the draft to secretariat also.

2ThcorrTask 2

1. Edit writing, pay attention to the mechanics of writing such as punctuation, style, diction, etc.

2. Submit by email to get final revision draft. 3. Submit final writing on the day of English class.




THE PRE-WRITING STAGE A. ARGUMENTATIVE ESSAY

odel text

M

Introduction: (the thesis is underlined) Explains the argument

The Abortion Issue: Compare and Contrast Point-by-Point Format One of the most divisive issues in America is the controversy surrounding abortion. Currently, abortion is legal in America, and many people believe that it should remain legal. These people, pro-choice activists, believe that it is the women's right to chose whether or not to give birth. However, there are many groups who are lobbying Congress to pass laws that would make abortion illegal. These people are called the pro-life activists.

Point One: Pro-life and Pro-choice

Supporters of both pro-life and pro-choice refer to religion as support for their side of the argument. Pro-life supporters claim that abortion is murder, and is therefore against God's will. However, pro-choice defenders argue that abortion is not murder since the fetus is not yet a fully formed human. Therefore, abortion would not be a defiance against God.

Point Two: Pro-life and Pro-choice

Another main point of the argument is over the woman's personal rights, versus the rights of the unborn child. Pro-choice activists maintain that regardless of the individual circumstances, women should have the right to chose whether or not to abort. The pregnancy and labor will affect only the woman's body, therefore it should be the woman's decision. Pro-life supporters, on the other hand, believe that the unborn child has the right tolife, and that abortion unlawfully takes away that right.

Conclusion

If we take away the woman’s right to chose, will we begin limiting her other rights also? Or, if we keep abortion legal, are we devaluing human life? There is no easy answer to these questions. Both sides present strong, logical arguments. Though it is a very personal decision, t he fate of abortion rights will have to be left for the Supreme Court to decide.

Taken from: http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/comconabort.html


Model text 2

The Benefits of Computers in Modern Society Far Outweigh the Disadvantages.

The use of computers in modern life has resulted in changes in s have been to ociety. Some of these changes

have nth ot. This essay e advantage of society and othersill outline both sides of the issue. w

Introduction

On the one hand, computers are useful tools offering several benefits to people. Firstly, they enable machines to do dangerous work instead of humans. For example, in computerised car assembly factories, robots can do hard and dangerous work without stopping. In addition, computers have improved the speed of data processing, helping scientists to further develop modern technology.

go to the moon using computers to control

tal calculations. Moreover, people can shop and book aeroplane or theatre tickets without leaving home.

• introduces the main idea (computers are useful tools)

• links to the question (benefits of compu

mputers can be used in many harmful ways. e, computers can be used to steal people’s rsonal information. Also, with the

development of the Internet, previously controlled material such as pornography has become more widespread, making it easier for children to access it. Furthermore, many people have lost their jobs because

can shorten some processes in factories, fewer workers being required.

Topic sentence

• introduces the main idea (harmful uses of computers)

• links to the question (disadvantages of computers)

, computers are being used in more areas of Conclusion

People can the orbit of the spaceship, the timing of fuel injection and other vi

Topic sentence

ters)

However, coFor examplprivate pe

computers resulting in

To concludelife such as communication in the workplace and at home. The result is that people are relying more on computers in their daily lives. Despite the disadvantages, it is highly likely that the use of computers will increase due to the various benefits computers have to offer. http://www.nceltr.mq.edu.au/ielts/demo/writing2_4.html


LANGUAGE CThree groups of words are used to connect clause in order to form different kinds of s (coordinating c

lause Connectors

entences. They are subordinators (subordinating conjunctions)onjunctions), and conjunctive adverbs.

1. Coordinators (coordinating conjunctions)

, coordinators

For And but yet nor or

So

2. Subordinators (subordinating conjunctions) after although as as if

as soon as because before even

how if unless until

so that that though what

whwhwhwh

en eneverereerever

since

whetherwhich

who whom

while though

whose

3. Conjunctive adverb accordingly hand besides cons

hence however

contrast indeed

monev

for example furthermore

in contrast

likewise meanwhile

onoth

the other

ocabulary for Argumentative Writing

hen we write an argumentative essay, our opinions carry morides of the issue. In other words, we acknowledge our opponenonvince the reader that our own argument is stronger. ur essay would be extremely dull if we used th

eig t if we look at both ws but try to

+ -

Supporters Opponents

Proponents Opponents

Those in favour of … Those opposed to

equently in addition instead

reover ertheless

nonetheless

erwise

thereforeThus

V

W e w hs ts’ viecO e words supporters and opponents all the way through. Similarly, it would be unimpressive if we only used the verb say to refer to people’s opinions. The tables below contain lists of useful alternatives. Study them and then does the gap-fill task that follows.

…

Defenders of … Critics of …

Advocates of … Objectors

Pro-… (e.g. Pro-abortionists) Anti-… (e.g. Anti-abortionists)


say that … allege

Argue insist

Claim contend

Maintain suggest

Ass rt point out e

Contend

Ta

Complete the text below using /phra m the ta e the first table; dotted lines relate to the second.)

____ f TV … ……….. oses ch violence and, as a res less sensitive to real-life violence. They also ………………………. that eglec and h lems concentrating in class as a result of sp ch tim lued to the box _____ ………….……. that urned s into ov fit toes".

______________________, on the other hand, …………..……… that it is a blessing for thermore, they ………………….., it does not l as well. Another argument _____ _________

ions of

sk 1

words ses fro bles above. (Solid lin s relateto

__________ o ….…… that it exp us to too muult, we becomeschoolchildren n t homework ave probending too mu e g . Finally, _______ ……

television has t many of u er-weight, un "couch pota_lonely, elderly or housebound people. Fursimply entertain; it can be very educationaof TV is that it sometimes plays an important role in fundraising for disaster relief andvarious charities. For example, the "Live Aid" rock concert in 1984 raised millpounds for victims of the Ethiopian famine. Task 2 Choose another controversial issue (e.g. hunting, car use, school uniforms, meat-eating, the use of animals in medical research, single sex schools, euthanasia). Write some sentences that express the views of people on both sides of the argument. Aim for variety in your choice of language.

B. DEFINITION ESSAY The definition essay is especially important to you as a future health care professional. It is widely used in medical dictionaries, journals, textbooks, and other printed materials. For exa yclopedic Medical D efines diseases according to etiology, symptom, treatment, and prognosis. Furthermore, you encounter definitions as you read brochures about laboratory equipment y considering to purchase or operate. The definition essay contains an introdu

mple, Taber's C ictionary d

ou may be ctory paragraph, body paragra

agraph. Each part has a basic patte before we examine ese patterns, let's first look at a sample outline for the subject hemophilia.

rn of organization. However,phs, and concluding

parth


TH -WRITING STASam for the subject hem .

Outline

E WHILSTple outline

GE ophilia

I. Introduction

II. Causes

A. Genetic inheritance

B. Genetic mutation

III. Symptoms

A. Bruises

B. Bleeding

1. Deep muscle bleeding

2. Joint bleeding

a. Increases in frequency with age

b. Causes swelling pain, and irritation

3. Mouth bleeding

4. Other bleeding symptoms

IV. Treatment

A. Blood transfusion

B. Medication

V. Conclusion

Definition Essay Pattern of Organization Title


INTRODUCTION 1. State what the disease is and why it is important. Hemophilia is a congenital blood related disorder. Although there are two types of

lable today, modern medicine has not yet provided a cure. kground information, and define the disease. , hemophilia has been linked to royalty (e.g., the Romanovs). In reality,

le births worldwide is hemophilic. Hemophilia is a group of ies. It is sex linked in that it is more prevalent in men than in

women. sis sentence to include the purpose and the main idea of the essay. ents a definition of hemophilia based on its causes, symptoms, and

treatment.

treatments avai2. Give bacHistoricallyhowever, one in 10,000 maplasma protein deficienc

3. State the theThis essay pres

Body Pyou already know that a paragraph consists Topic sentence

Genetic inheritancMajor supporting sentenc

Genetically inherited

Genetic muMinor supporting s

radiation.

aragraphs of the following:

e and gene mutation are the two main causes of hemophilia. e(s)

hemophilia is more prevalent among males because they inherit only one X chromosome.

AND tation, however, is caused by an error in DNA replication.

entence(s) This can be triggered by prolonged (excessive) exposure to chemicals and

When you write an essay body paragraph, you need to remember two points. First, each topic sentence must not only contain the main idea of the paragraph, but also that main idea must be a main point of the thesis sentence. Furthermore, the body paragraphs must be written in the order that nce. For example, if you write that this essay presents a definition of hemophilia based on its causes, symptoms, and treatment , then your first body paragraph must be about causes of hemophilia, the second about symptoms of hemophilia, and the final body paragraph about treatment for hemophilia.

Concluding Paragraph 1. Paraphrase the thesis sentence. 2. Summarize the distinguishing features.

the main points are listed in the thesis sente


The Completed Essay PHILIA

es of . Historically,

. In reality, however, one in otein

y

tic inheritance and gene mutation are the two main causes of hemophilia. rit

DNA This can be triggered by prolonged (excessive) exposure to chemicals and

radiation. Hemophiliacs may exhibit symptoms asso iated with persistent bleeding. Bruises are common symptoms which do not usually require treatment. Deep muscle bleeding, which differs from a pulled muscl due to blood loss from the circ

ases in frequency with age. g and pain, as well as irritation, which may develop into arthritis. Mouth

bleedin a; mptom. In addition, there are other symptoms, including

nose, urinary a Blood trans le treatments for hemophilia. The former requires a large concentration of "freeze dried" factors VIII and IX. An alternative treatment for m g is

In c efined

s causes, symptoms and treatment. This disorder is caused by a missing X hromosome or a genetic mutation. Regardless of its cause, hemophilia is characterized

A DEFINITION OF HEMO Hemophilia is a congenital blood related disorder. Although there are two typtreatments available today, modern medicine has not yet provided a curehemophilia has been linked to royalty (e.g., the Romanovs)10,000 male births worldwide is hemophilic. Hemophilia is a group of plasma prdeficiencies. It is sex linked in that it is more prevalent in men than in women. This essapresents a definition of hemophilia based on its causes, symptoms and treatment. GeneGenetically inherited hemophilia is more prevalent among males because they inheonly one X chromosome. Genetic mutation, however, is caused by an error inreplication.

c

e complaint, occurs muscle. Another symptom, joint bleeding (hemarthosis), increIt causes swellin

g becomes a troublesome and messy symptom when blood mixes with salivhowever, it is usually amino sy

nd skin bleeding. fusion and medication are two possib

ild hemophilia involves the use of Desmopressin; however, this drueffective in only 85% of cases.

onclusion, hemophilia is a genetically inherited disorder which can be dbased on itcby bruises and bleeding. Hemophiliacs generally are treated by receiving blood transfusions and taking medication. Taken from: http://depts.gallaudet.edu/englishworks/writing/comconabort.html Definition is especially important to you as a future health care professional. It is widely used in medical dictionaries, journals, textbooks, and other printed materials. For example, Taber’s Cyclopedic Medical Dictionary describes, or defines, diseases according to symptom, etiology, treatment, and prognosis. Issues of professional journals such as The British Medical Journal and The Pharmaceutical Journal routinely carry definition rticles.

ou may have already written definition sentences in a previous course. If so, you are lready familiar with the organiz

Description

infection can be described according to its cause,

symptoms, and treatment.

The definition paragraph is a definition sentence which has been expanded into a paragraph. The definition sentence becomes the topic sentence. Each category is expanded into major supporting sentences, and minor supporting sentences are added.

a

Ya ational pattern.

Term Class Cholera is an intestinal that


Cholera is an intestinal infec ibed according to its cause, symptoms, and treatmen is the causative agent of

tion that can be descrt. A bacterium, called Vibrio cholera,

cholera. It can be spread through contaminated food, water, or feces. Cholera patientsmay exhibit different symptoms that can vary from mild to severe. Some symptoms arewatery diarrhea and loss of water and salts. Oral or intravenous replacement of fluids andsalts as well as specific antibiotics is a possible treatment for cholera. Patients can betreated with an oral rehydration solution or, in severe cases, an intravenous fluid.

Task 3 Write a definition essay!

Exercise 4 Write an argumentative essay using the following topic

Working part-time, Studying full-time (Argumentative Essay)

Choose the side you will support and sort the following vocabulary into the appropriate columns.

Working part-time and studying can sometimes make your life hectic (hectic=hurry,rush)

helps you learn organisational and time-management skills gain social confidence gain work experience

increased stress grades may be worse

For Against

Task 5 Write an essay for a university lecturer on the following topic:

What are the causes of work stress and how could such stress be

• Submit first draft to get comment deadline tomorrow before 13.00 p.m by email an it the draft to secr

After getting first draft revision, revise draft to get second revision by email. Editing

mit your final writing on the day of English class.

reduced? You should write at least 250 words. You are required to support your arguments with relevant information and examples based

on your own ideas, knowledge and experience. THE POST-WRITING STAGE Revision

d subm etariat also. •

• Edit writing, pay attention to the mechanics of writing such as punctuation, style, diction, etc.

• Submit by email to get final revision draft and after you revise it then sub




THE PRE-WRITING STAGE

A process essay is an essay in which you explain how to do something in a step-by-step manner. A process essay might feel like an instruction book or it might seem like a short story. The essay could simply describe how something is done, or it could incorporate narrative details.

Model 1 Each part has a basic pattern of organization. However, before we examine these patterns, let's first look at a sample outline for the digestive process.

Sample Outline

I. Introduction

Thesis: Ingestion, digestion, and absorption are the three major steps involved in the digestive process.

II. Food is ingested.

A. Food enters the mouth.

B. Food is chewed.

C. Food is ready to travel to the stomach.

III. Food is digested.

A. Food is mixed with acidic gastric juices in the stomach.

B. The partially liquid food moves from the stomach to the small intestine.

C. Enzymes are secreted.

IV. Absorption

A. The digested food passes through the walls of the small intestine.

B. The digested food is absorbed into the bloodstream.

V. Conclusion

Paraphrased Thesis: The digestion process involves three major steps: ingestion, digestion, and absorption.


Process Essay Pattern of Organization

INTRODUCTION 1. State what the process is and why it is important. The digestive process is important in maintaining the lives of living organisms and in providing them with needed energy. 2. Give background information, and define the process. Groups of organs, such as the mouth, esophagus, stomach, and intestines, work

steps involved in the digestive process are ingestion, digestion, and

together to perform this complex task. Digestion is the process of breaking down food from large molecules into small ones to make it easier for absorption. 3. State the thesis sentence to include the purpose and the main idea of the essay. The three major absorption.

Body Paragraphs Topic sentence

Ingestion, which occurs in the mouth, is the first step in the digestive process. Major supporting sentence(s)

d enters the mouth, the teeth chew it.

d into smaller pieces.

el to the stomach through the esophagus. When you write an essay body paragraph, you need to remember two points. First,

nce must not only contain the main idea of the paragraph, but also of the thesis sentence. Furthermore, the body

paragraphs must be written in the order that the main points are listed in the thesis example, if you write that the three major steps involved in the

tion , then your first body paragraph must be about ingestion, the second about digestion, and the final body

After fooAND Saliva, which is produced by the salivary glands, plays a major role in breaking down the foo

Minor supporting sentence(s) These small pieces trav

each topic sentethat main idea must be a main point

sentence. For digestive process are ingestion, digestion, and absorp

paragraph about absorption. Concluding Paragraph 1. Paraphrase the thesis sentence. 2. Summarize the main steps of the process.


The Completed Essay

d in y. Groups of organs, such as the mouth, esophagus,

is complex task. Digestion is the for

ion,

After food lays

e in breaking down the food into smaller pieces. These small pieces travel to the stomach through the esophagus. In the stomach, the second step of the digestive process begins. When the chewed food

om of the esophagus, a valve lets the food enter the stomach. Contraction wall mixes the food. Acidic gastric juices, which are secreted by the gastric

gland id so it will he small intestine.In the small intestine, enzymes are secre The last step in the digestive process is absorption. Absorption takes place in the small intes alled villi. rbed by the huge number of villi. Someof these

bloodstream to be distributed throughout the whole body. In stion, digestion, and abso e food t conti proce t funct Takehttp: /process_essay.html#The%20Completed%20Essay

A PROCESS OF DIGESTION The digestive process is important in maintaining the lives of living organisms anproviding them with needed energstomach, and intestines, work together to perform thprocess of breaking down food from large molecules into small ones to make it easier absorption. The three major steps involved in the digestive process are ingestdigestion, and absorption. Ingestion, which occurs in the mouth, is the first step of the digestive process. enters the mouth, the teeth chew it. Saliva, which is produced by the salivary glands, pa major rol

reaches the bottof the stomach

s in the stomach, help in mixing the food and in turning it intoa partial liquhave the ability to move into tted, and digestion is completed.

tine. The wall of the small intestine is lined with small, finger like projections c Small molecules of food are abso

absorbed molecules enter theconclusion, the digestive process involves three major steps: ingerption. Ingestion, which occurs in the mouth, helps to increase the surface are of th particles and prepares them for digestion. In the stomach, digestion begins, and inues until it reaches the small intestine, where absorption takes place. The digestivess maintains organisms' lives by providing them with energy needed for differenions.

n from: //amarris.homestead.com/files


THE WHILST-WRITING STAGE

ask 1 rom those that you wrote in class during your brainstorm session.

Choose one for your process essay. Write a five paragraph essay. Use your textbook as needed.

TI have chosen 10 topics f

How to maintain a good relationship with your neighbors How to end terrorism How to always be happy at your place of work How to maintain a good relationship with a person from a different culture How to continue to be attractive to your husband or wife How to make a good impression on your first date How to help people who lost loved ones in the tragedy of September 11th How to help children do their homework How to cheat on a test How to get a date

tp://esl.lbcc.cc.ca.us/dennis/classes/33x/process_essay.htm

odel 1

MH

In this process the date and place of sorting are put over the stamps on

y they are addressed to. This is done by placing them in the

and placed in baskets, which are then put onto a conveyor belt. While on this conveyor belt, the baskets are directed to the appropriate secondary sorting section by means of coding pegs. At the secondary sorting frames, the letters are put into towns in the county. Later, the letters are tied in bundles and a label is put on showing the towns they are addressed to. Finally, the letter bundles are placed in bags, which have the Post Office seal, Post Office Railway number and Destination Code number on them. These are then sent to the railway station.

ere is a description of the process of sorting letters.

First of all, letters and packets are collected in bags from pillar boxes, post offices and firms, in post office vans. They are then taken to the sorting office. Here the bags are emptied and the letters are separated from the packets. Following this step, the letters are put through machines so that the stamps can be cancelled. each envelope. In the next stage, the sorting of the letters takes place, according to the count

ht

appropriate pigeon hole. Subsequently, the letters are taken from the pigeon holes

Notice that the passive form of the verb is widely used. This is because in this type of

eaking, we are usually more interested in the process than in the people doing the work. bserve all the link words. Look at the following examples:

spO


Examp

on is the basic element of organic chemistry and it undergoes a natural cycle

back into the air. Also, in decaying plant and animal remains carbohydrates are broken down to release carbon dioxide into the atmosphere.

le 1

Carbin the environment. It exists naturally in the form of carbon dioxide in the atmosphere. From there it is absorbed by plants to build carbohydrates in the green leaves. When the plants burn, and animals breathe out, carbon dioxide passes

LANGU

Firstl

AGE

y, The first step is

of all, The first stage is

gin with, ... begins with

lly ... commences with

ously, Prior to this,

First

To be

Initia

Beforehand, Before this,

Previ

Earlier,

At the same time, During

Simultaneously, When this happens

While

Secondly, Thirdly etc After this,

Next, The next step is

Then, In the next stage,

Subsequently, In the following stage,

Later, Following this,

As soon as the committee has finished its work, ...

Eventually, ... until ...

Lastly ... finishes with ...

Finally, concludes with

In the last stage, The last step is ...


Method - how something is done. First of all, letters and packets are collected in bags from pillar boxes.

is is done by placing them in the appropriate pigeon hole. e baskets are directed to the appropriate secondary sorting section by means of codigs. e drainage is accelerated by suction. e vapour is then compressed by means of a compressor. sition - where something happens

ThTh ng peThThPoThey are then taken to the sorting office, where the bags are emptied. The pulp goes to the mixer, where materials are added to improve the quality of the paper. The steam from the boiler is admitted into the cylinder in which there is a piston. Purpose Following this step, the letters are put through machines so that the stamps can be cancelled.

hed to reduce its thi

order to take hea the low-temperane.

sk 2

ee paragraphs. Inden

h 3

As yo see, paper manufa

This is then chemically etc ckness. From there it is absorbed by plants to build carbohydrates in green leaves. In t out of ture interior of the refrigerator, work must be do

Task 1 Write a process essay using model example above. TaYou have to write 150 words about how something is made or how something works. You have 30 minutes to write these essays Your essay should have thr t each paragraph (move the first line in a few centimeters from the left margin). Paragraph 1 Introduces the topic. Write two sentences. They should say what you are going to do. In this essay, I will describe how paper is made. I will now explain how a photocopier works. Building a road is a long process, but it can be divided into four main stages. Paragraph 2 Paragraph 2 will explain the process or procedure. This is the longest paragraph. The first stage in making glass is … In this stage, the sand is cleaned and weighed…Next….After that….In the final stage, the glass is….

ParagrapParagraph 3 is the conclusion. It will summarize your ideas. Write two sentences

u can cture is a difficult process. As I have described, there are many steps involved in supplying water to a city. Donating blood is a simple procedure, and I encourage everyone to give

blood today. It could save your life!


Grammar focus

ctive or Passive

: The milk is sent to the factory.

ive.

ve of an active tense is formed by putting the verb to be into the same tense as

To be + Past Participle

: The milk is sent to the factory. Active: We keep the books in the cupboard. Passive: The b kept in the cupboard.

ctive: First, put the water in a cup. First, the water is put in a cup.

d from the trunk and the trunks are sawn into logs. he logs are taken to the paper mill and placed in the shredder. Here they are cut into

all strips and mixed with water. After that, they are heated and crushed.

e passive you can use “should be”

assive: The container should be placed on a mat.

The silicon ba d with silicon dioxide.

Important! When writing steps or describing a process, you can use the AActive: The farmer sends the milk to the factory. Passive You may be given instructions to write in the active or passFollow all instructions! Describing a Process 2 Using the Passive The passithe active verb and adding the past participle of the active verb. Passive = Examples Active: The farmer sends the milk to the factory. Passive

ooks are APassive: Example: Making Paper First, the tree is cut down. Then, the branches are removed. After that, the trunk is taken to the sawmill. Here, the bark is removeTsm Instructions and Directions When you write instructions or directions in thActive: Place the container on the mat. P Active: Insert the coins slowly. Passive: The coins should be inserted slowly. Passive

se is coate

Letters and packets are collected.

The bark has to be stripped.

Taken from: http://www.admc.hct.ac.ae/hd1/english/writing/wtgpassive2.htm


Task 3 Write a process essay!

It has been said that there is no good writing, only good re-writing. , it is time for you to look

iting again to see how you can improve it.

draft to get comment deadline tomorrow before 13.00 p.m. by email. by

diting ep of the writing process is editing. When you edit a paragraph or essay you

lling, punctuation and capitalization are

anics of writing such as punctuation, style, diction, etc.

ision draft. ay of English class.


Revision

Now that you have written your writing pieceat wr

Task 1

3. Submit first4. After getting your first draft revision, revise your draft to get second revision

email. EThe final stwill have to check to make shine the grammar, specorrect. Task 2

4. Edit writing, pay attention to the mech

5. Submit by email to get final rev6. Submit your final writing on the d




HE PRE-WRITING STAGE

hat are Graphs and Charts? raphs, charts, and tables are ways of presenting information. Graphs and charts are ictures which show numbers or figures, and tables are just rows and columns of formation.

Model 1 This is a table.

T WGpin

City Country Population Mumbai (Bombay) India 12 million Sao Paulo Brazil 10.5 million Seoul South Korea 10 million Karachi Pakistan 9.8 million Delhi India 9.8 million Shanghai Chin

karta Indonesia 9.1 million exico City Mexico 8.5 million tanbul Turkey 8.1 million

a 9.2 million JaMIs


The purpose of graphs and tables In Writing, you are required to describe graphs, tables or diagrams. To describe a graph,

need to be able to understand the purpose. In this demonstration, let's look at the urpose of graphs.

rawing and interpreting graphs raphs are especially useful for presenting quantitative data. So often, a graph is a visual rm of data from a table. A graph can make it easier to analyze and interpret the

. That is, it is easier to see what is happening and what phs are ideal for communicating scientific information.

is used to plot points or other data e of a variable and the units

presented e of a variable and the units

presented. ost graphs and tables present more information than you need to mention in your answer. your answer, you only need to describe the main or important points. To find the main

oints, you need to identify the purpose of the graph or table. he purpose of graphs and tables can be to:

Show trends (change over a period of time) & Compare and contrast information. this demonstration we will look more closely at how a graph shows trends and how you

an identify these trends. Showing trends In Writing, you are asked to describe trends. Trends can be described in two ways. Overall trend A trend within a specific time period

verall

e: Look at the line graph below. This graph shows how the number of people employed in the mining industry changed between the years 1900 and 1990. This shows change over time.

youp DGfoinformation you have collectedrends or patterns there are. Grat

What are some features of a graph? Graphs have many features in common, such as: • a title that describes what the graph shows a grid that•

• a horizontal axis or X-axis that is labeled with the namre• a vertical axis or Y-axis that is labeled with the namreMInpT

Inc

1. O trend Exampl


The arrow above shows us that the number of people employed between the years 1900

end is the overall increase or decrease over the full time period presented in

e overall trend in this graph is that the number of people employed in the

each other. They are both used to show categor

the length of the horizontal bar represents the

number LanguaReferri

As can be seen ...

and 1990 decreased. Any change over time (such as an increase or decrease) is a trend. An overall trthe graph or table. Therefore, thAustralian mining industry decreased dramatically between 1900 and 1990. Bar and column graphs Bar and column graphs are very similar to

ies of data that has been counted. They show actual values as well as theproportion of each category. In a column graph, the height of the column shows thenumber of individuals. In a bar graph,

of individuals. Since the data is not related then the bars or columns stand alone.

ge ng to a diagram, chart etc.

It can be seen We can see

from in the

chart, diagram, table, graph, figures, statistics,

that ...

can be seen

... is shown

from in the

chart. diagram. table. graph. figures. statistics.

As can be seen from Table 1,

It can be seen We can see

in Figure 2,Graph 3,

…


Table 1 Figure 2

From it can be

concluded shown that ...

the figures chart diagram

may

seen

estimated calculated inferred

The graph Figure 1 shows that ... Describing change

rise. increase. upward tend.

fluctuation. There was a(n) (very)

barely noticeable slight slow gradual steady marked dramatic

sharp

downward trend.

steep decrease. decline.

rapid sudden

reduction. fall. drop.

rise increase

There was a(n) decrease decline reduction

of ...

fall drop

increased shot up grew rose

X declined reduced decreased

d fell

by ...

droppe

shot

steadily

X increased

up grew rose

slightly slowly gradually


declinereduced

ecreadropped

l

teadily dly

matic

ly suddenly

d

sed d

fel

smarkedrasteeplysharplyrapid

ally

X reached a peak. levelled off

Vocabulary 1: The Language of Graphs Movement: Down FeDeclined Dropped Decreased Sank Went down

Movement: Up

Went up Increased Grew

(Use y!)

ed ted

Adjecslighta little a lot sharpsuddesteeplgradugentlysteadily

ement ed

steady

hanged not change

ined constant remained stable stabilized

Tops and Bottoms reached a peak peaked reached their highest level fell to a low sank to a trough reached a bottom

ll Rose

Strong Words CarefullFell Shot up RocketSurgedplummeplunged

tives No Movly remain

ly nly y ally

were uncdidrema

You are likely to meet only two types of graphs in IELTS or other intermediate English tests - time and comparison graphs. In time graphs you have to describe changes over time.

THE WHILST-WRITING STAGE Types of Graphs

In comparison graphs you have to compare different items - countries, people, products, places, etc.


Here is a time graph. You have to compare different methods of transport used in the US over the last century - train, bus and air. You could start with

train (because it is the oldest method) by air (because it is the biggest method of public transport today.) However, don't start with bus because it is l and not the main idea

The main trend with rail transport is that it rose to a peak in the 1920s and 1930s and then declined. The main trend with air is that it started late, in the 1960s, but it has shot up to become by

r the biggest carrier of passengers ou have to compare the amount of water used for domestic, agricultural and industrial

e two to write a h

by country (make groups like Saudi Arabia and Oman which have mainly agricultural use, then Bahrain and Kuwait which have mainly domestic use, etc) by use (Agriculture, then Domestic, then Industrial.)

Start with Agriculture because it is the biggest user. Group together Saudi Arabia and Oman as the top users, and then group UAE and Qatar as the middle group of users, using 60% of water for agriculture. Finally mention Bahrain and Kuwait. Your second paragraph should be about Domestic use, the use of water in the home, because it is the second biggest use. Start with Kuwait and Bahrain (grouped together) (more than 50%) and then write about Qatar and the UAE. Taken from: http://www.writefix.com/graphs/usqassign1/org.htm

very smal

faYpurposes. There ar ways bout this grap :


Model 4 Heart Attacks by Age and Gender

The graph shows how age and gender influence the frequency of heart attacks in the US. Less than 6% of all heart attacks occur in the 29-44 age group. The number of women who suffer heart attacks in this group is negligible - only 3000 per year, compared to 123,000 men. However the proportion of men and women with heart attacks rises dramatically between 45 and 64, with over half a million per year. Over 420,000 men a year in this age group have heart attacks. The incidence amongst women increases - women have one heart attack for every three men in this age group. Over thHowev ey compri

conclusion, men are more likely to be the victims of heart attacks at all ages, but women re increasingly likely over the age of 65.

e or a

e age of 65, the number of men suffering heart attacks only increases slightly. er there is a huge increase in the number of women with heart attacks - thse over 40% of all victims.

Ina Heart Attacks by Age and Gender, USA A pie graph shows information as pieces of a pie or a circle. It’s a bit like an apple pipizza which has been cut into pieces.


Exercise 1 Source: 2002 New Zealand Official Yearbook

Taken from: http://www.stats.govt.nz/schools-corner/primary/activities/pie-graphs+activity.htm From the pie graph we can see that in 2000 the most popular meat was beef and veal

ty urvey the students in your class to find what meat they had for dinner last night. If they idn't have meat last night, they won't be part of the survey.

(33%). ActiviSd Show the class results on a table like this:

Type of meat Number of children Percent Beef and veal Poultry eg chicken Pork Mutton Lamb

Show the numbers as percentages. For example, if there were 25 children in your survey nd 6 of them had chicken for dinner, 6a

p divided by 25 multiplied by 100 gives you 24

ercent.


Dra your class had for dinner last night. rite a short sentence telling what your pie graph shows.

and Official

ng pie charts (Activity 8.9)

ns

2 In 1996/97 what percentage of mobile phone owning households were from the lowest fifth of household incomes?

3 W say that i -quarters of the mobile phone owning households were in the highest earning 40 per cent of households?

4 Would it be true to say that in 1996/97 less than one-eighth of the mobile phone owning households were in the lowest earning 40 per cent?

5 Did the link between household income and mobile phone ownership change over the next six years? Write a sentence summarizing the changes.

6 What is the source of the data here?

References

Office for National Statistics (2002) ‘Data for Chart 13.15, Ownership of mobile phones: by income quintile group, 1996–97 and 2000–01, Chapter 13 Lifestyles and social participation’, Social Trends no. 32, p 218, www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads

w a pie graph to show the types of meat people in WHow do your class results compare to the pie graph from the 2002 New ZealYearbook? Exercise 2 Write an essay using questions below of the reading pie charts Readi

Questio

1 In 1996/97 what percentage of mobile phone owning households were from the top fifth of household incomes?

ould it be true to n 1996/97 nearly three

(accessed 20 July 2004).

Office for National Statistics (2004h) ‘9: Household characteristics & ownership of consumer durables: Table 9.4 Percentage of households with durable goods by income group and household composition’, Family Spending, 2002–03, p. 155, www.statistics.gov.uk/downloads (accessed 20 July 2004).



Revision It has been said that there is no good writing, only good re-writing. Now that you have written your writing piece, it is time for you to look at writing again to see how you can improve it. Task 1

5. Submit first draft to get comment deadline tomorrow before 13.00 p.m by email and submit the draft to secretariat also.

6. After getting first draft revision, revise draft to get second revision by email. Editing The final step of the writing process is editing. When you edit a paragraph or essay you will have to check to make shine the grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization are correct.

ng such as punctuation, style,

it by email to get final revision draft. 9. Submit your final writing on the day of English class.

Task 2 7. Edit writing, pay attention to the mechanics of writi

diction, etc. 8. Subm




THE PRE-WRITING STAGE

. CAUSE AND EFFECT ESSAY Although it is possible for one cause to lead to one effect, academic subjects are

rely this simple. One cause can lead to more than one effect, for example heavy rain can ause landslides and flooding. Also, more than one cause can lead to one or more effects, r example, eating too much pizza and drinking too much coke for lunch can cause you to

et fat and be late for class!

. EXPOSITORY ESSAY Expository essay require that the writer give information, explain the topic or

efine something to accomplish that, they are best developed by the use of facts or atistical information, cause and effect relationships, or examples. Since they are factual, ey are written without emotion and usually written in the third person. That means that e use of the pronoun “i” is not usually found within the essay. xpository essays also have a distinct format.

1. The thesis statement must be defined and narrow enough to be supported within the essay.

2. Each supporting paragraph must have a distinct controlling topic and all other sentences must factually relate directly to it. Sentences must factually relate directly to it. Transition words or phrases are important as they help the reader follow along and reinforcement the logic.

3. Finally, the conclusion paragraph should originally restate the thesis and the main supporting ideas. Finish with the statement that reinforcement your position in a meaningful and memorable way.

4. Never introduce new materials in the conclusion. What is an expository writing? An expository writing conveys information and explains ideas and opinions. Do you know what ou n? Here are some of

eir expectations: 1. Give the reader all the information that they need in order in order to understand

the text, but no extraneous information. 2. Know his/her subject and be truthful 3. Be as clear as possible 4. Stick to the point

ow can we provide the readers with the information needed of understanding our ideas? 1. Providing facts: facts have at least two functions: to prove points an to clarify ideas. 2. Providing examples: examples clarify ideas and give them concreteness and

specificity. 3. Providing analogies: analogy is simple the comparing of unknown or imperfectly

known thing or concept to something that is already know. Through this

A racfog B dstththE

r readers expect from our writing an expositioth

H


comparison, the unknown is explained to the reader. Analogy is an extremely useful device for thinkers and writers.

4. roviding definition: not all readers know the meaning of a certain term. To define, e means to let our readers know the meaning of term. This definition depends on

5. Giving classification: classification is the logical process of breaking any set into ifying those parts.

6.

erience that will change forever. The purpose of this essay is to

old friends, learning how to survive during university, and developing resp enter thyour fr tudy in different cities or schools, but feelsee you university is the fact that you have to get acq at junior high or at high school

completely different than being in a university, so you have to learn how to survive in . During university studies you have to search for your own way to success because at a

to solve your problems. responsible

responsible person because you are the only one who will care about youmake s oing or not going to class, etc. Being a responsible person is essential for anyone in this world; without responsibility a person’s life r reach success. sity, as everything that is new in our lives, can be terrifying at

rst, but with a little bit of effort, it can become one of the greatest experiences of our

ind n Taken ww.eslbee.com/effects_of_entering_a_university.htm

Pththe audience.

its components parts and identMaking comparison and contrast: comparing means indicating the similarities of two items. Contrasting, on the other hand, means indicating cause and effect.

7. Explaining writing often attempts to answer the questions: why did such and such happen? Explaining the cause and the effect of everything that happened is, thus important.

THE WHILST-WRITING STAGE Model text

The Effects of Entering a University Entering a university is a very important and interesting experience in a person’s life, but at the same time it is an expyour lifestyle and personalitydiscuss the three main effects of entering a university which are missing

onsible behavior which must accompany university studies. The first and also the most common effect of entering a University is that once you e new school, you start missing your old friends. There are many reasons you and iends start splitting apart and leaving to s

ing sad because you miss them is inevitable. This doesn’t mean you are never going to r friends again, but it isn’t the same to be at school without your best friends.

The second effect of entering a uainted with the entire university environment. Being

isituniversity, teachers are not going The third and most important effect of entering a university is thebehavior you must develop during your way through the university. Entering a university forces you to be a

. During university studies you are in charge of your life and of the decisions that you uch as doing or not doing homework, g

can be a mess and will neve Entering a univer

filives. It is very important to enjoy our university studies because it will help us become

epe dent and responsible people, only if we learn how to survive it.

from: http://w


Vocabulary and Grammar

Cause-effect Example Sentences

use of... ...beca... ... cau... ... attr... ... owi

There was flooding because ofcaused by

se of The flooding was caused by the heavy rain. The heavy rain was the cause of the

the heavy rain.

reason for ibuted to

The heavy rain was the reason for the flooding. The flooding was attributed to the heavy rain.

flooding.

on account of ng to

There was flooding on account of the heavy rain. Owing to the heavy rain there was flooding. (These cause-effect phrases are all followed by noun phrases; i.e. 'the heavy rain'.)

... because There was flooding because heavy rain fell all night. wed by a verb phrase, 'heavy rain fell all night'.) ('Because' is follo

Grammar Note: don't us e: it's bad style. There are a num- 'Due to...'; e.g.- 'Owing to ...'; e- 'As...'; e.g. 'As

e 'Because' as the first word in a sentencber of alternatives. You can use: 'Due to the heavy rain there was flooding.' .g. 'Owing to the heavy rain there was flooding.' there was heavy rain, there was flooding.'

Verbs Example Sentences

may could might can

The heavy rain may have caused the flooding. The heavy rain could have caused the flooding. The heavy rain might have caused the flooding. Flooding can be caused by heavy rain.

Grammar Note: modal verbs such as 'may', 'could', and 'might' must be followed by infinitive verbs, such as 'have' and 'be'.


Adverbs ple Sentences

perhaps

ain may possibly

ps the rain will cause flooding. ain will definitely cause flooding.

Always true Present

sent

past

Less certain prePast Less certain

Flooding is caused

The flooding may be caused by the heavy rain. The flooding was caused by the heavy rain. The flooding may have been caused by the heavy rain.

Exam

Possibly certainly

definitely probably

The r cause flooding. The rain will certainly cause flooding. PerhaThe rThe rain will probably cause flooding.

undoubtedly The rain will undoubtedly cause flooding.

Grammar Note: use 'will' with adverbs that show a high probability, such as

'undoubtedly', 'definitely' and 'probably'. or other adverbs, which show a smaller possibility, use

'may', 'could' or 'might'; .g. The rain could, perhaps, cause flooding.' or 'The rain may possibly cause flooding'.

A po usually just in front of the verb for adverbs of possibility and probability. This is because the adverb gives more information about the verb. This is d nt fro information about the whole s ; e.g '

There are several reasons for this. Firstly, ... Other causes played a part. Firstly, A key factor was... ('key' means 'important') This is due to ... This is a reflection of...

Effects As a result, ... This meant that... One consequence of this is that ...

F

elso, the sition of the adverb is

iffere m adverbs like 'Unfortunately', which give entence . 'Unfortunately, the heavy rain caused flooding.

Other Cause and Effect Phrases: Causes

Grammar Note: Don't write 'are lacking of ...' as a cause or effect. Use 'there is a lack of ...' OR 'they are lacking in ...'

Time & Certainty Example Sentences

by heavy rain. The flooding is caused by the heavy rain.


Task 1 C tenA. Match the causes with the effects, then build sentences using the word becauseH g it arounb s l __________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

________________________________________________________

B he ca then build sentences using the word since: gardens need a sunny location the atmosphere does not block small stars i ay o bloom in full sun t lesco ariachi band ____________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

. Match the causes with the effects, then build sentences using the phrase as long as: am going to college I get a scholarship e gets to use his Gameboy it was a holiday or a weekend

o the movies he does the homework on time ________________________________________________

____________

”

Christmas. ___ Yumani will appreciate your help, since he is so tired. ___ As long as they have a spelling test, I’m singing the loudest.

as long as you pay for the repair. g/garciagonzalez/stories/storyReader$74

ause and Effect Sen ce

e was showin d she was running too fast ats eat a lot of fruit they need energy to fly all night he fel they took his money

:

__

. Match t uses with the effects,

t was the D f the Dead many plants only he space te pe can see more relatives hired a m

CI hyour dad took you t_____________________________________________________________ ___________________________________________________________________________________ D. Are these cause-and-effect sentences correctly or incorrectly built? Write in a “Cfor correct, and an “I” for incorrect: ____ The test is difficult, since I want to pass with a good score. ____ They made us wait to board the plane because the weather is bad in Indiana. ____ Because she was born blonde, she ran very fast.

___ Since Carlos loves music so much, he will get an Ipod for_______ This accident does not matter, http://www.bayareawritingproject.or TWriting: Choose one of the following subjects to write about. Use mind-mapping, free writing or outlining to discover, explore and analyze immediate and ultimate causes and effects of your chosen subject.

arity of a particular cultural phenomenon (fad, fashion, etc.) The popularity of computer and video games. The disintegration of a family. An unreasonable fear or anxiety that affects you or someone you know well.

schools.

iquitous mobile or "cell" phone and its effects on society. Air, water or noise pollution.

ask 2

The current popul

Violence inStress. The ub


A form of cheating (e.g. examinations, insurance claims, taxes) that is socially ia.

Revision riting.

to look

8. After getting first draft revision, revise draft to get second revision by email.

u edit a paragraph or essay you and capitalization are

writing such as punctuation, style, diction, etc.

day of English class.

sanctioned in Indones Task 3 Write an expository essay! Free topic! THE POST-WRITING STAGE

It has been said that there is no good writing, only good re-wNow that you have written your writing piece, it is time for youat writing again to see how you can improve it.

Task 1 7. Submit first draft to get comment deadline tomorrow before 13.00 p.m by email

and submit the draft to secretariat also.

Editing The final step of the writing process is editing. When yowill have to check to make shine the grammar, spelling, punctuationcorrect. Task 2

10. Edit first draft writing, pay attention to the mechanics of

11. Submit by email to get final revision draft. 12. Submit your final writing on the




HE PRE-WRITING STAGE

. CITED & QUOTATION . BOOKS

Citation entries for books generally list three main sections for information about your source: author name: last name first; full title of the work: book and journal titles are underlined or italicized; article titles are put in quotation marks; and publication information: city of publication, name of publisher, and date.

ach of these sections is followed by a period and two spaces. A Book by a Single Author:

Light, Paul C. Forging Legislation. New York: Norton, 1992. Fairbanks, Carol. Prairie Women: Images in American and Canadian Fiction. New Haven: Yale UP, 1986.

. An Anthology: Allen, Robert C., ed. Channels of Discourse: Television and Contemporary Criticism. Chapel Hill: U of North Carolina P, 1987.

III. A Book by Two or More Persons:

Berry, Jason, Jonathan Foose, and Tad Jones. Up from the Cradle of Jazz: New Orleans Music since World War II. Athens: U of Georgia P, 1986.

. An Anonymous Book: Encyclopedia of Photography. New York: Crown, 1984.

. A Work in an Anthology: ince articles are only a part of a larger work, you must also provide your reader with page umbers. The numbers should be for the whole article, not just for the pages you have sed.

Hansberry, Lorraine. A Raisin in the Sun. Black Theater: A 20th Century Collection of the Work of Its Best Playwrights. Ed. Lindsay Patterson. New York: Dodd, 1971. 221-76.

Lazard, Naomi. “In Answer to Your Query.” The Norton Book of Light Verse. Ed. Russell Baker. New York: Norton, 1986. 52-53.

T 1A

EI.

II

IV

VSnu


B. ARTICLES IN NEWSPAPERS AND PERIODICALS Citation entries for newspapers and periodicals generally list three main sections of information about your source: author name: last name first; full title of the work: newspaper and periodical titles are underlined or italicized; article titles are put in quotation marks; and

this will vary according to the amount of information available--follow the examples.

y a period and two spaces. per Article:

loomington Herald-Times 12 Oct. 1992: A1.

d Learning Process.”

ot underline the work or put it in quotation marks. III. An

. a magazine published weekly or every two weeks: h. “Marriage in the ’80s.” New York 1 June

B. a m ry month or two months: Frazer, Lance. “Yours, Mine, or Ours: Who Owns the Moon?”

6.

IV. AnA. a journal that pages each issue separately:

arthelme, Frederick. “Architecture.” Kansas Quarterly .

. a journal with continuous pagination: (i.e., the numbers in one issue begin where

V. An

e and alphabetize the title.

I. An Article With a Title That Contains a Quotation or a Title Within Quotation Marks

ian l Thought 28 (1992): 35-58.

publication information:

Each of these sections is followed bI. A Newspa

Fowler, Jennifer Jill. “Hilly Hundred Tour Called ’the best ever.’” B Wheeler, David L. “Artificial-Intelligence Researchers Develop Electronic ’Tutors’ to Ai Chronicle of Higher Education 20 May 1987: 6-8.

II. A Letter to the Editor:

Identify letters by adding the description, “Letter,” after the name of the author. Do n

Article from a Magazine: A

Prince, Dina 1987: 30-38. agazine published eve

Space World Nov. 1986: 24-2 Article in a Scholarly Journal:

B 13.3 (1981): 77-80

Bthe preceding issue left off):

Brock, Dan W. “The Value of Prolonging Human Life.” Philosophical Studies 50 (1986): 401-26.

Anonymous Article: If no author is given for an article, begin with the titl“Drunkproofing Automobiles.” Time 6 Apr. 1987: 37.

V: Carrier, Warren. “Deconstructing Keats’s ’Ode on a Grec Urn.’” Critica


BOOKS AND BOOK CHAPTERS 1. An e

. (1985). Left brain, right brain (Rev. ed.). New

2. An a(1991). Boston: Houghton

3. A chia: A neurobiological

erspective. In M. Moscovitch (Ed.), Infant memory (pp. 145-172). New York:

: Changes over the D. A. Devenny (Eds.),

Developmental time and timing (pp. 143-165). Hillsdale, NJ: Erlbaum.

ARTIC SPAPERS

Citations for journal and magazine articles follow the same general form as ame sections:

: capitalize only the first word of the title, and don’t underline it r put quotation marks around it;

e periodical or journal (spelled ed) and page

. A journal with continuous pagination (i.e., the page numbers in one issue begin eft off):

essed memories. American Psychologist,

S., & Teuber, H.-L. (1968) Further analysis of the ippocampal syndrome: 14-year follow-up study of H. M. Neuropsychologia, 6,

in mechanisms of vision. Scientific merican, 241(3), 150-164.

, 7,

lark County schools teaching sign, integrating deaf and hearing students.

e citation begins with the title and would be alphabetized under the first significant word. If an author had been listed,

ntire book: Springer, S. P. & Deutsch, GYork: W. H. Freeman. Brand, M. & Harnish, R. M. (Eds.). (1986). The representation of knowledge and belief. Tucson, AZ: University of Arizona Press. nonymous book: The American heritage dictionary (2nd college ed.).

Mifflin. apter in an edited volume: Nadel, L., & Zola-Morgan, S. (1984). Infantile amnespPlenum. Levine, S. C. (1993). Effects of early unilateral lesionscourse of development. In G. Turkewitz &

LES IN JOURNALS, MAGAZINES, AND NEW

citations of books, with the sauthor name(s), last names first; year of publication, in parentheses; full title of articleopublication information, including the title of thout—not abbreviated—and italicized) and the volume (also italiciznumbers. 1where those in the previous issue lLoftus, E. F. (1993). The reality of repr48, 518-537. Milner, B., Corkin, h215-234. 2. A journal that paginates each issue separately: Hubel, D. H. & Wiesel, T. N. (1979). BraA

3. An article in a magazine: Steinberg, J. A. (1991, March). Putting your business on the map. MacUser158-163, 166-167.

4. An article in a newspaper: C(1996, January 29). Indiana Daily Student, p. 4. Because no author is listed for this article, th


the year and date in parentheses would be listed after the author’s name, as in other tations. In the text, this source would be referred to by a shortened

CITATION FORMS FOR ELECTRONIC MEDIA

a print source:

ctronic version]. Developmental Pyschology, 35, 986-1000. ersion and the print version are identical; if you think

2. Multiple-page document created by a private organization:

One efinvolve ecial care to integrate the evidence into your pa Here ar ne ineffective and one more effective. Ineffec

1) Tof the family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat…wan

how it is dropped into the paragraph without any connection between

nd the writer’s point.

A More2) Today, Americans are too self-centered. Even our families don't matter as much

Other people and activities take precedence, as James Glethe family meal as a sit-down occasion is vanishing. Adults and children alike eat…on the way to their next activity” (148). Sit-down meals are a time to share and

er, that connection has become less valued, as families beggro

periodical civersion of the title (e.g., “Clark County Schools, 1996”).

1. Internet article based onSwanson, H.L. (1999). What develops in working memory? A life span perspective [EleIn this example, the online vthe online version differs from the print version, include the URL and the date you accessed the article.

National Parent Information Network. (n.d.) Character education: The role of parents, teachers, and the community. Retrieved October 18, 2001, from http:/npin.org/library/2001/n00584/n00534.html

Using Quotations: A Special Type of Evidence fective way to support your claim is to use quotations, but because quotations someone else’s words, you need to take spragraph.

e two examples of quotation use, otive Use of Quotation oday, we are too self-centered. “We are consumers-on-the-run…the very notion

on the way to their next activity” (Gleick 148). Everything is about what we t. This example is ineffective because the quotation is not integrated with the writer’s ideas. Notice the claim and the quotation. Furthermore, the quotation’s significance is not discussed, which makes it difficult for the reader to see the relationship between the evidence a Effective Use of Quotation

anymore as they once did.ick says in his book, Faster,” We are consumers-on-the-run…the very notion of

connect with others; howevin to prize individual activities over shared time, promoting self-centeredness over up identity.


Citing

t in your own words], a better way to view the issue is [your own point] ([URL, date of publication or access]). Summarize: In her book, Source P’s main points are Y, W, and R [information in

Identifying bibliographical refences

a) b)

1. Kosai, Yutaka and Ogino, Yoshitaro (1984) The Contemporary Japanese

Economy. London:Macmillan. ________________________________

. Weiner, Myron (1971) ‘Political integration & political development’, in Frinkle, J.L. & Gable, R.W. (eds) Political Development and Social

_________________________________________________

3. National Research Council, Committee on Research Priorities in Tropical

_

__________________________________________________________

4. Elston, C.D (1981) The Financing of Japanese industry, Bank of England 4:510-518.

5.

__________________________________________________________

Your Sources Quote: According to Source X, “[direct quotation]” ([date or page #]). Paraphrase: Although Source Z argues that [his/her poin

condensed form].

Task 1

Look at the bibliographical entries below. state whether they afre for a book, article etc. what do the numbers in btrackets refer to (e.g. date of publication etc.)?

____________________________________

__________________________________________________________

2

Change. New York: John Wiley. ___________________

__________________________________________________________

Biology (1980) Research Priorities in Tropical Biology. Washington DC: Academic Sciences.

___________________________________________________________________

Quarterly Bulletin 21,____________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

Mason, A. (1990) ‘Politics and the state’, Political Studies XXXVIII,575-87.

____________________________________________________________________


CompilLook at the following extract from a bibliography and decide in what ways it is inadeq 1. BLOOMFIELD, L. (1964) Literate and illiterate speech. In Hymes, D. (Ed.)

Langauge in Culture and Society, New York: Harper and Row. __________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

EN, S. (1982) Language Two, Oxford

______

______

3. __________________________________________________________________

__________________________________________________________

4. RAIME m study o

WHITWOxford__________________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

THE WHILS2. SU a. PA

Paraphrasing is a writing skill in which you “rephrase” (rewrite) information from e

in your writing all, or nearly all, of the content of the original passage, a paraphrase is almos

A summary, by contrast, is much shorter than the original. A summary includes only t ummarizing and paraphrasing, however, you must not change the meaning of the original.

Task 2 ing a bibliography

uate or incomplete.

2. DULAY, H., BURT, M. and KRASHUniversity Press. ____________________________________________________________

____________________________________________________

STERN, H. H. (1983) Fundamental Concepts of Language Teaching. Oxford.

S, A. (1985) What unkilled ESL students do as they write: a classroof composing, TESOL Quarterly.

__________________________________________________________________

_______________________________________________________

5. , R. V. The ELT Curriculum: Design, Innovation and Management. and New York: Basil Blackwell.

T-WRITING STAGE

MMARIES & PARAPHRASES

RAPHRASES

an outside source in your own words without changing its meaning. Because you includ

t as long.

he main ideas of someone else’s writing, restated in your own words. In s


When paraphrasing, it is important to avoid plagiarizing: that is writing a araphrase that is too similar to the original. Paraphrase is unacceptable when it’s contains

the same vocabulary and sentence stru the original. The following shows paraphrase.

different languages have developed that language ahs often been a barrier rather dreamed

of setting up an international, universal language, which all people could speak and bvious.

e the same tongue, cultural and economic ties might be much

Language is the principal means of communication between peoples. However,

a barrier rather than an aid to understanding among the world population. For many years

orld having a universal language re clearly

undoubtedly become closer culturally and economically. It would probably also

Accept

ere are so many languages in the world, language is an obstacle rather than an aid to communication. For a long time, people have wished for an international language that speakers all over the world could understand. A universal language would

onomical bonds. It would also create better feelings

plagiarism. Even though the writer has changed many of the words, the sen

pcture as

unacceptable and acceptable

Original passage:

Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many

than an aid to understanding among peoples. For many years, people have

understand. The arguments in favor of a universal language are simple and oIf all people spokcloser and good will might increase between countries (kispert).

Unacceptable paraphrase:

because there are numerous languages, language itself has frequently been

people have envisioned a common universal language that everyone in the wcould communicate in. the reasons forunderstand. If the same tongue were spoken by all countries. They would

create god will among nations (kispert).

able paraphrase:

Humans communicate through language. However, because th

certainly build culturally and ecamong countries. (kispert)

The first paraphrase is

tence structure is very similar to the original. In the second paraphrase both the vocabulary and sentences structure are different.


Task 1 Write your notes and paraphrases in the space provided. Work with a partner or in group if you wish.

Artificial languages Since the time of Descartes, it is estimated that no fewer than five hundred attempts have been m de to create artificial languages for international use. The most successful by far

, a language constructed around the end of the nineteenth century by r. Zamenholf of Poland, Esperanto is a language that is extremely easy to learn and

speak, and GrA morea groupEsperane Interl

otes: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________

_____________________________________________________________________________________________________

Paraph________________________Taken

. SUMMARIES t that a summary is shorter. When you

mmarize, you compress large amounts of information into the fewest possible sentences. In ordeout theof the oshow y Origin

es. For many years, people have dreamed of setting up an international, universal language, which all people could speak and understand. The arguments in favor of a universal language are simple and obvious. If all people spoke the same tongue, cultural and economic ties might be much closer and good will might increase between countries (kispert).

ahas been EsperantoD

with its word drawn mainly from English, German, the romance languages, Latin eek. recent arrival on the international scene is Interlingua, scientifically constructed by of language experts out of Latin, the romance language, and English. But whereas to has a large body of people who actually speak it scattered through out the world

ingua has not yet achieved much popularity. (pei 175-176).

N___________________________

rase: ________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________________ from: Pei, Mario A. All About Language. Philadelphia: Lippincott. 1954

b

A summary is similar to a paraphrase excepsu

r to do this, you include only the main points and main supporting points, leaving details. However, just as when you paraphrase, you must not change the meaning riginal. The original passage used in the model above is repeated here in order to

ou clearly the difference between a paraphrase and a summary.

al passage:

Language is the main means of communication between peoples. But so many different languages have developed that language ahs often been a barrier rather than an aid to understanding among peopl


Summary:

unicate mainly through language; however, ‘having so many different languages creates communication barriers. Some think that one universal language would bring countries toget nomically and also increase good

people have dreamed of setting up an international, universal language the

rise in line with fees

figures from the US for recent

grauates is $4,800. Up from $2,000 ii n 1977. The government has been deliberately shifting the emphasis from grants to loans and more students have been forced to take out loans because rising fees.

are borrowing more than they did 10 years ago to pay for rising college tuition

People comm

her culturally and ecofeelings among them (kispert)

Compare this summary with the acceptable paraphrase. Notice that some details are omitted from summary that were included in the paraphrase

Thatarguments are simple and obvious.

Taken from: Kispert, Robert J. “ Universal Language.” World Book Encyclopedia. 1997 Model 2 Look at the four ways in which students have attempted summaries of the source. Which of these are acceptable. Discuss with your friends.

SalariesStudents are borrowing more money to finance college education compared with 10 years ago but, when they graduate, their loan payments are taking up a smaller percentage of their salaries. One half of all graduates borrow some money, according toDepartment of Education, up from 34 per cent in 1977. The average debt

‘College students s,’ said Acting Secretary of Education Ted Sanders. But when you take earnings in

account, debt should not be a hardship for most graduate.’ Summaries:

borrowing more money to finance college education compared with 10 years ago but, when they graduate, their loan payments are taking up smaller

b)

to US Dept. of ducation figures, compared with 34% in 1977. The government had deliberately

a) Students are

percentage of their salaries. ½ of all graduates borrow some money, according to figures from the US Dept. of Education, up from 34% in 1977. The government has been deliberately shifting the emphasis from grants to loans, and more students have been forced to take out loans because of rising fees. Students are borrowing more money to finance college education than 10 years ago but, after graduating, their loan repayments are taking up a smaller percentage of their salaries. 50% of all graduates borrow money, accordingE


been sifting emphasis from grants to loans. More students have been forced to take out loans because of increasing fees.

c)

to take out the former. However, when earnings are ken into account, the debts should not be a hardship for the majority of graduates

ay from grants being in line with US government needed to repay the money is smaller.

ead the text below, and then summarize the content of each in one or two sentences. Japan is prone to earthquakes and typhoons. But sound construction, education and communications mean that people are less vulnerable than citizens of poorer

Japan suffered 43 disasters from 1960 tom 1981 with an average 63 deaths

The difference in the killing power of disaster between rich and poor areas is

fornia, killed a total of just 65.

rs to live on vulnerable ground, they

sed by 12 per

Bangladesh is one of the world’s poorest nations. Over 100 million people live in the delta of two of the world’s greatest rivers; about 15 million of them than 10 ft above sea level. Taken from: L. Timberlake, The greatest threat on earth’, the independent 12.9.88

More money is being borrowed by students to finance college education. Half borrow some money, compared with 34 % in 1977, according to US Dept. of Education figures. The government ahs emphasized loans rather than grants and rising fees have forced studentsta

d) More students (50%) are taking out loans to finance college education than in the past (34% in 1977) due tom rising fees, the move aw

Task 3 R

nations. per disaster; Bangladesh had 63 catastrophes over the same period with an average death toll of over 10,000.

dramatic. A 1972 earthquake in Managua, Nicaragua, killed 5,000 people; whereas the previous year a stronger quake in similarity densely populated are around San Fernando, Cali As the poor populations of the third world increase and as social, political and economic systems force these growing numbefall foul of catastrophes increasing numbers. Annual earthquake victims increased by 5000 per cent from the 1960s to the 1970s; hurricane victims increacent. Poverty increases the effect of disaster hundreds fold, and


THE P

•

diting he final step of the writing process is editing. When you edit a paragraph or essay you ill have to check to make shine the grammar, spelling, punctuation and capitalization are

OST-WRITING STAGE Revision It has been said that there is no good writing, only good re-writing. Now that you have written your writing piece, it is time for you to look at writing again to see how you can improve it.

• Submit first draft to get comment deadline tomorrow before 13.00 p.m by email and submit the draft to secretariat also. After getting your first draft revision, revise your draft to get second revision by email.

ETwcorrect.

• Edit writing, pay attention to the mechanics of writing such as punctuation, style, diction, etc.

• Submit by email to get final revision draft. • Submit final writing on the day of English class.

























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