DESIGNING A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME TO ENHANCE PARENTAL ENGAGEMENT IN THE EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME AT A DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY SCHOOL IN THE NELSON MANDELA BAY METROPOLE, SOUTH AFRICA THROUGH PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH BY PEARL JUANITA CHERROL WILLIAMS 2020
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DESIGNING A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME
TO ENHANCE PARENTAL ENGAGEMENT IN THE
EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME AT A
DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY SCHOOL IN THE NELSON
MANDELA BAY METROPOLE, SOUTH AFRICA THROUGH
PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH
BY
PEARL JUANITA CHERROL WILLIAMS
2020
ii
DESIGNING A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME TO
ENHANCE PARENTAL ENGAGEMENT IN THE EDUCATIONAL
SUPPORT PROGRAMME AT A DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY
SCHOOL IN THE NELSON MANDELA BAY METROPOLE, SOUTH
AFRICA THROUGH PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH
BY
PEARL JUANITA CHERROL WILLIAMS
Submitted in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of PhD in the Faculty of
Education to be awarded at the Nelson Mandela University
April 2020
Supervisor: Professor J.L. Geldenhuys
iii
DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE
NAME: PEARL JUANITIA CHERROL WILLIAMS
STUDENT NUMBER: 207097869
QUALIFICATION: DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY (EDUCATION)
TITLE OF PROJECT: DESIGNING A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
PROGRAMME TO ENHANCE PARENTAL
ENGAGEMENT IN THE EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT
PROGRAMME AT A DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY
SCHOOL IN THE NELSON MANDELA BAY
METROPOLE, SOUTH AFRICA THROUGH
PARTICIPATORY ACTION RESEARCH
DECLARATION:
In accordance with Rule G5.6.3, I hereby declare that the above-mentioned thesis is
my own work and that it has not previously been submitted for assessment to another
University or for another qualification.
SIGNATURE: ________________
DATE: ___15/04/2020__
iv
DEDICATION
This research is dedicated in the loving memory of Eugene “Shepherd” Plaatjes, my
Pastor, mentor, friend, and cousin, who inspired me to live life to the fullest. Thank
you, Gino, for your unselfish love, generosity, kindness, and patience that influenced
me to do the unthinkable.
“umuntu ngumuntu abantu”
v
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
All hail to God who granted me the necessary strength, courage, and wisdom to
successfully finish this race. Thank you for shaping my life and making all things
beautiful in your time.
In pursuit of social justice and equity within disadvantaged public schools, I was
greatly challenged to “think outside the box” and to “reach beyond” my own
expectations. Hence, without the involvement and contributions of key stakeholders,
including the support of my family and friends, this research would not be possible.
Therefore, I wish to applaud the selfless and impeccable assistance of the following
people in this research:
Professor J.L. Geldenhuys, for all your expert advice, guidance, and supervision
throughout this investigation. I cherish our conversations that stretched my
understanding of detail to the brim. It made me realise the great responsibility we
have in shaping the lives of the less fortunate in our community and country.
The NMU libraries and librarians, for your expert service and support throughout the
study. Thank you for your patience, kindness and the extended library hours which
enabled me, as a part time student, to pursue my vision.
I salute all the parents who participated in this study. Thank you, parents, for your
commitment, resilience, and friendship throughout the investigation. I acknowledge
you herewith as true heroes and active partners in the development of our
communities and society.
Dr. R. Connelly and Mrs. R. Plaatjes, as leaders at NMU. Your professional expertise
and helpfulness in the empowerment of our disadvantaged communities are highly
appreciated. I am truly grateful for your generosity and loyalty towards people and this
investigation which have encouraged the participants to pursue their own dreams.
Dr. B. Damons, the director of the Centre for the Community School at NMU. Thank
you for granting me an opportunity to network with fellow students and experts in the
vi
field, namely Professor L. Wood and Professor M. Brydon-Miller, who inspired me to
complete this research.
My colleagues and friends, you have intentionally and unintentionally shaped my
understanding of humanity and the spirit of Ubuntu. Thank you for indirectly steering
me towards this research and simultaneously my role in society.
Ms S. Greeff, my language editor, for your extensive support, kindness, and patience
with this study. I thank you sincerely for your thoughtfulness and expertise which
contributed to the successful completion of the thesis.
The study would be not be possible without the continuous love, support, and
encouragement of my family. Selwyn, Davon and Jade, thank you for allowing me to
venture into and finish this journey. Ronelle, Dathan and Hannah, you are truly a
blessing to me. Thank you, family, you are the best!
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LIST OF ACRONYMS
ALAR Action Learning and Action Research
ALS Action Learning Set
ANA Annual National Assessment
AR Action Research
CSTL Care and Support in Teaching and Learning
DBST District-based Support Team
DoE Department of Education
EFA Education for All
ESP Educational Support Programme
HIV/AIDS Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome
IE Inclusive Education
LOLT Language of Learning and Teaching
LSA Learner Support Agent
LST Learner support teacher
NCESS National Committee on Education Support Services
NCSNET National Commission on Special Needs in Education and Training
NEP National Education Policy
NGO Non-governmental Organisation
NMU Nelson Mandela University
NPO Non-profitable Organisation
NSNP National School Nutrition Plan
OBE Outcomes based Education
PAM Personnel Administrative Measures
PAR Participatory Action Research
PIP Parental Involvement Programme
QLTC Quality Learning and Teaching Campaign
RDP Reconstruction Development Program
REC-H Research Ethics Committee (Human)
RSA Republic of South Africa
SASA South African Schools Act
SBST School-based Support Teams
SGB School Governing Body
viii
SIAS Strategy, Identification, Assessment and Support
TA Teacher-assistant
UNESCO United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation
ix
ABSTRACT
Over the past decades parental involvement in education has increased rapidly within
disadvantaged schools in South Africa. This transformation is evident in the legislation
of the country which celebrates a spirit of Ubuntu in a democratised society, and,
education at large. The ideal of effective school-home partnership across racial
boundaries are, for example, emphasised and strengthened via parental involvement
at all public schools. Parents, according to the Department of Education (DoE,
1996b:11; 2000c:29; 2001b:29; 2008:23; 2009:17; 2014b:27; n.d.:6), are considered
key role-players in school governance and encouraged to support equal educational
opportunities for all learners. It implies that the praxis of parental involvement –
especially at disadvantaged schools – is a huge benefit to learners with existing
backlogs in education. In relation to this view, Stofile and Green (2007:63) emphasise
the significance of parental involvement in school life as it can assist greatly in
addressing the divere needs of disadvantaged learners.
The dynamics associated with parental involvement are investigated in this study
through two cycles of participatory action research. Initially ten parents from one of
the disadvantaged primary schools within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole were
purposively selected to participate in an in-depth qualitative research study pertaining
to the design of a suitable parental involvement programme for disadvantaged
learners. All the relevant information was gathered during action learning sets,
individual interviews, and observations to triangulate the data and fill in possible gaps.
This data was coded and categorised throughout the cyclical process via inductive
participatory data analysis, as described by Patton (2015:216 & 551).
Three main themes with sub-themes emerged from the study, namely (1) deficits of
the academic programme: remedial education, teacher-assistants, homework-
support, technical abilities; (2) the neglect of social wellness programmes: need for
parental guidance, necessary professional assistance, upgrading of safety measures,
availability of clothing bank, sustainability of a nutritional programme; and (3) voids in
communication and relationships: the home environment, community, school
environment. These themes and sub-themes successfully answered all the research
questions.
x
An increasing number of learners at disadvataged primary schools are neglected
and/or leave school at a very young age. This scenario is often linked to poor
communication and/or a lack of adequate educational support programmes to
enhance better learning outcomes. The design of a PIP aimed to address the diverse
needs of learners at a specific disadvantaged primary school with the full cooperation
of their parents. Nested within the Ecological Model of Bronfenbrenner, the
participating parents were engaged in comprehensive discussions about educational
support programmes that the school could embark on with them. Numerous
programmes were identified as fundamental to transforming the quality of education
for many disadvantaged learners. This research therefore encouraged greater
parental involvement at disadvantaged primary schools in order to sustain better
learning outcomes.
Keywords: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model, Collaboration, Disadvantaged
primary schools, Educational support programmes, Parental Involvement
Programme, Participatory Action Research, Transformative paradigm
xi
TABLE OF CONTENTS
DECLARATION BY CANDIDATE ............................................................................. iii
DEDICATION ............................................................................................................ iv
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ..........................................................................................v
LIST OF ACRONYMS .............................................................................................. vii
ABSTRACT ............................................................................................................... ix
LIST OF FIGURES................................................................................................. xvii
LIST OF TABLES .................................................................................................. xviii
LIST OF APPENDICES .......................................................................................... xix
CHAPTER ONE ........................................................................................................ 1
ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY .............................................................................. 1
1.1 INTRODUCTION ............................................................................................ 1
1.2 BACKGROUND .............................................................................................. 1
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT ............................................................................... 7
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION ................................................................................ 8
1.5 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES ............................................................ 8
1.6 ELUCIDATION OF CONCEPTS..................................................................... 9
1.6.1 Mainstream ............................................................................................ 9
1.6.2 Disadvantaged schools ......................................................................... 9
1.6.3 Disadvantaged learners....................................................................... 10
1.6.4 Parent .................................................................................................. 10
1.6.5 Parental involvement ........................................................................... 10
1.6.6 Educational support programmes…………………………………………11
1.6.7 School-based structures ...................................................................... 11
1.7 REFLECTING ON MYSELF ......................................................................... 11
1.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY ......................................... 14
1.8.1 Microsystem ........................................................................................ 15
1.8.2 Mesosystem ........................................................................................ 15
1.8.3 Exosystem ........................................................................................... 15
1.8.4 Macrosystem ....................................................................................... 15
1.8.5 Chronosystem ..................................................................................... 15
1.9 RESEARCH SITE, POPULATION AND SAMPLING .................................... 16
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1.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS .................................................................... 17
1.11 RESEARCH PARADIGM ............................................................................. 18
1.12 RESEARCH DESIGN .................................................................................. 19
1.12.1 Qualitative research ......................................................................... 19
1.12.2 Case study ....................................................................................... 20
1.12.3 The researcher ................................................................................. 20
1.12.4 Participatory Action Research .......................................................... 21
1.12.4.1 Cycle 1 ......................................................................................... 21
1.12.4.2 Cycle 2 ......................................................................................... 21
1.13 DATA COLLECTION ................................................................................... 22
1.14 DATA ANALYSIS ....................................................................................... 22
1.15 TRUSTWORTHINESS ............................................................................... 23
1.16 CHAPTER OUTLINE ................................................................................... 23
1.17 SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 24
CHAPTER TWO ..................................................................................................... 25
A CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT IN SOUTH
AFRICAN SCHOOLS .............................................................................................. 25
2.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 25
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT ................. 28
2.3 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ............................................................................ 29
2.4 SUBSYSTEMS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION FOR PARENTS TO PLAY A
ROLE ……………………………………………………………………………….34
2.4.1 School governance .................................................................................. 34
2.4.2 The school-based support team .............................................................. 35
2.4.3 The district-based support team .............................................................. 37
2.5 VALUES UNDERPINNING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION ............................... 38
2.6 AVAILABLE EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMMES ........................ 42
2.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT ...................................... 50
2.8 CHALLENGES TO PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT .......................................... 52
2.8.1 Poor socio-economic environments .................................................... 53
2.8.2 Time constraints .................................................................................. 54
2.8.3 Feelings of inadequacy ....................................................................... 54
2.8.4 Own beliefs .......................................................................................... 55
2.8.5 Language of learning and teaching ..................................................... 55
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2.8.6 Prejudice ............................................................................................. 56
2.8.7 Teachers’ reluctance ........................................................................... 56
2.9 SUMMARY ................................................................................................... 57
CHAPTER THREE .................................................................................................. 59
METHODOLOGY .................................................................................................... 59
3.1 INTRODUCTION .......................................................................................... 59
3.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................... 60
3.2.1 Microsystem ........................................................................................ 62
3.2.2 Mesosystem ........................................................................................ 63
3.2.3 Exosystem ........................................................................................... 64
3.2.4 Macrosystem ....................................................................................... 66
3.2.5 Chronosystem ..................................................................................... 67
3.3 RESEARCH PARADIGM ............................................................................. 67
3.4 MY INVOLVEMENT AS RESEARCHER ...................................................... 71
3.5 RESEARCH SITE ......................................................................................... 73
3.6 POPULATION AND SAMPLING .................................................................. 74
3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS ..................................................................... 76
3.7.1 Informed consent ................................................................................. 76
3.7.2 Respect for participants ....................................................................... 77
3.7.3 Beneficence ......................................................................................... 78
3.7.4 Justice ................................................................................................. 78
3.7.5 Selection of participants ...................................................................... 79
3.8 RESEARCH DESIGN ................................................................................... 79
3.8.1 Qualitative research design ................................................................. 80
3.8.2 Case study .......................................................................................... 81
3.8.3 Action Research .................................................................................. 82
3.8.4 Participatory Action Research ............................................................. 84
3.8.4.1 Cycle 1 .......................................................................................... 86
3.8.4.2 Cycle 2 .......................................................................................... 89
3.9 DATA COLLECTION .................................................................................... 92
3.9.1 Action learning set ............................................................................... 92
3.9.2 Interviews ............................................................................................ 96
3.9.3 Observation ......................................................................................... 98
3.9.3.1 Field notes .................................................................................... 99
xiv
3.9.3.2 Journal ........................................................................................ 100
3.10 DATA ANALYSIS ..................................................................................... 102
3.11 TRUSTWORTHINESS (VALIDITY) .......................................................... 106
3.11.1 Credibility ....................................................................................... 106
3.11.2 Transferability................................................................................. 107
3.11.3 Dependability (reliability) ................................................................ 108
3.11.4 Conformability ................................................................................ 108
3.12 REFLECTION ........................................................................................... 109
3.13 SUMMARY ............................................................................................... 110
CHAPTER FOUR .................................................................................................. 111
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS .................................. 111
4.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 111
4.2 BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF THE SCHOOL AND PARTICIPANTS ....... 111
4.3 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THEMES AND SUB-THEMES . 116
4.3 THEME 1: DEFICITS OF THE ACADEMIC PROGRAMME ....................... 117
4.3.1 Remedial support .............................................................................. 118
4.3.2 Teacher-assistants ............................................................................ 121
4.3.3 Homework-support ............................................................................ 123
4.3.4 Technical abilities .............................................................................. 126
4.4 THEME 2: THE NEGLECT OF SOCIAL WELLNESS PROGRAMMES ..... 128
4.4.1 Need for parental guidance ............................................................... 129
4.4.2 Necessary professional assistance ................................................... 132
4.4.3 Upgrading of safety measures ........................................................... 135
4.4.4 Availability of clothing bank ............................................................... 139
4.4.5 Sustainability of a nutritional programme........................................... 141
4.5 THEME 3: VOIDS IN COMMUNICATION AND RELATIONSHIPS ............. 144
4.5.1 Voids in communication and relationships in the home environment 145
4.5.2 Voids in communication and relationships in the community ............ 146
4.5.3 Voids in communication and relationships in the school environment 147
4.5.3.1 Management-parent relationship ................................................ 147
4.5.3.2 Teacher-learner relationship ....................................................... 149
4.5.3.3 Learner-teacher relationship ....................................................... 150
4.5.3.4 Teacher-parent relationship ........................................................ 151
4.5.3.5 Parent-teacher relationship ......................................................... 151
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4.5.3.6 Learner-learner relationship ........................................................ 152
4.6 SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 154
CHAPTER FIVE .................................................................................................... 158
GUIDELINES FOR THE PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME ................ 158
5.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 158
5.2 GOALS ....................................................................................................... 159
5.2.1 Short-term goals ................................................................................ 159
5.2.1.1 A resource centre........................................................................ 159
5.2.1.2 Reading intervention programme ................................................ 161
5.2.1.3 Safety-and-security programme .................................................. 164
5.2.1.4 Social wellness programme ........................................................ 166
5.2.2 Medium-term goals ............................................................................ 167
5.2.2.1 Homework-support programme .................................................. 168
5.2.2.2 Nutritional programme ................................................................ 168
5.2.2.3 Clothing bank .............................................................................. 169
5.2.3 Long-term goals ................................................................................ 171
5.2.3.1 Communication-and-relationship programme ............................. 171
5.2.3.2 Teacher-assistants programme .................................................. 172
5.2.3.3 Technical abilities........................................................................ 173
5.2.3.4 Parental guidance ....................................................................... 173
5.3 MOTIVATION FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A PIP AT SCHOOL Z ... 174
5.3 SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 177
CHAPTER SIX ...................................................................................................... 178
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY ................................... 178
6.1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 178
6.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK .................................................................. 179
6.2.1 Microsystem ...................................................................................... 179
6.2.2 Mesosystem ...................................................................................... 181
6.2.3 Exosystem ......................................................................................... 181
6.2.4 Macrosystem ..................................................................................... 182
6.3 CASE STUDY............................................................................................. 184
6.3.1 Research question 1 ......................................................................... 184
6.3.2 Research question 2 ......................................................................... 186
6.3.3 Research question 3 ......................................................................... 186
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6.3.4 Research question 4 ......................................................................... 187
6.4 PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED DURING THE RESEARCH ......................... 188
6.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY ............................................................... 189
6.5.1 Learners ............................................................................................ 189
6.5.2 Parents .............................................................................................. 190
6.5.3 Teachers ........................................................................................... 190
6.5.4 Schools.............................................................................................. 190
6.6 POSSIBLE TOPICS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH ....................................... 191
6.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY SCHOOLS .. 192
6.8 SUMMARY ................................................................................................. 193
REFERENCE LIST ............................................................................................... 195
xvii
LIST OF FIGURES
Figure 1.1: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model ...................................................... 16
Figure 1.2: Study Layout ......................................................................................... 24
Figure 3.1: The Microsystem ................................................................................... 62
Figure 3.2: The Mesosystem ................................................................................... 64
Figure 3.3: The Exosystem ..................................................................................... 65
Figure 3.4: The Macrosystem ................................................................................. 66
Figure 3.5: Participatory Action Research Cycles ................................................... 91
Figure 3.6: Action Learning Set ............................................................................... 93
Figure 5.1: The Integration of Short-term, Medium-term and Long-term Goals .... 158
Figure 5.2: Short-term Goals ................................................................................. 159
Figure 5.3: Reading kit .......................................................................................... 162
Figure 5.4: Medium-term Goals ............................................................................ 167
Figure 5.5: Long-term Goals ................................................................................. 171
Figure 5.6: The Resource Centre .......................................................................... 175
Figure 5.7: The Reading Intervention Programme ................................................ 176
Figure 5.8: The Safety-and-Security Programme .................................................. 176
Figure 6.1: Failing Schools .................................................................................... 178
Figure 6.2: Collaborative Leadership .................................................................... 184
Figure 6.3: A footprint for future school-home-community partnership ................. 191
xviii
LIST OF TABLES
Table 3.1 Data collection process within two cycles of PAR………………………. 101
Table 3.2 Educational Support Programmes ........................................................ 105
Table 4.1: Biographical details of School Z ........................................................... 112
Table 4.2: Biographical details of the participants ................................................. 113
Table 4.3: Emerging themes and sub-themes from the empirical study ............... 116
xix
LIST OF APPENDICES
APPENDIX A: ETHICAL CLEARANCE FROM NMU ............................................ 242
APPENDIX B1: REQUEST TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION TO CONDUCT
RESEARCH .......................................................................................................... 243
APPENDIX B2: CONSENT FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION .......... 244
APPENDIX C1: REQUEST TO THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL TO CONDUCT
RESEARCH .......................................................................................................... 245
APPENDIX C2: CONSENT FROM THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL ........................... 247
.............................................................................................................................. 247
APPENDIX D1: INVITATION TO PARENTS TO PARTICIPATE IN THE STUDY 248
APPENDIX D2: CONSENT FROM PARENTS ..................................................... 250
APPENDIX E1: INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW SCHEDULE ....................................... 251
APPENDIX E2: TRANSCRIBED INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW ................................. 253
APPENDIX F1: ACTION LEARNING SET SCHEDULE ........................................ 256
APPENDIX F2: TRANSCRIBED ACTION LEARNING SET ................................. 257
APPENDIX G: SUMMARY OF FIELD-NOTES AND REFLECTIVE JOURNAL
INSCRIPTIONS .................................................................................................... 269
APPENDIX H1: CYCLE 1: EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME ............... 271
APPENDIX H2: CYCLE 2: EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME ............... 272
APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE TO PARENTS IN THE SCHOOL COMMUNITY273
1
CHAPTER ONE
ORIENTATION OF THE STUDY
1.1 INTRODUCTION
This study focused on the important role that parents play as co-partners in the
education of their children and emphasised the need for a parental involvement
programme (PIP) at disadvantaged primary schools. A qualitative singular case study
design embedded in a participatory action research (PAR) design, guided this
investigation at one of the disadvantaged primary schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay
Metropole.
1.2 BACKGROUND
The establishment of a new democratic government in 1994 resulted in the
implementation of an inclusive education (IE) system in South African schools, which
was expected to change the course of schooling. This system was also accepted by
many other countries during the 2000 World Conference held in Dakar, Senegal
(United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organisation - UNESCO, 2000).
One of the major shifts concerning IE is the active role ascribed to parents in school
life. The South African Schools Act 84 (SASA) (Department of Education - DoE,
1996b) captures and transports the importance of parental involvement in inclusive
learning environments to promote equal and quality education for all (EFA). Parents,
for example, are recognised as key stakeholders in school governance as well as in
school programmes (DoE, 1996b:11). This great responsibility bestowed upon
parents underpins the vision of inclusion echoed by the Constitution of South Africa
and permeates educational policies (DoE, 1996a:15-16; 2000b:37).
Mncube (2009:83-85) acknowledges school governance as a political move to re-
direct power and responsibility back to parents. As explained in Chapter Two, parents,
as members of the school governing body (SGB) are given a powerful voice in
decision-making processes concerning the quality of education for their children and
are ultimately responsible for learners’ holistic development at public schools. Parents
2
know their children best and are valuable resources in helping them reach their fullest
potential (Grant & Ray, 2013:4). The South African Schools Act (DoE, 1996b:14)
therefore grants parent-members of the SGB one additional seat or vote compared to
the combined total of other members who have voting rights. In this way many
parents, who were previously marginalised during Apartheid, are encouraged to build
the kind of school that they envisage for their children. School governing bodies,
according to the Department of Education (DoE, 1996b:12), must promote the best
interest of the school and strive to ensure growth through the provision of quality EFA
– which is entrenched in values such as democracy, partnership and social justice.
Within this context, public schools are motivated to function independently as
organisations and take ownership of the learning and teaching environment. In order
to achieve this goal, it was thus important for all stakeholders in education to share a
common vision and work collectively towards it. Moreover, the Department of
Education (DoE, 1996b:12) emphasises the accessibility of material and human
resources to disadvantaged public schools and refer to the following strategies to
strengthen the infrastructure for an inclusive education system.
Firstly, material support in terms of government-funding is provided to all public
schools according to their needs. A big portion of these funds are, for instance,
accessible to historically disadvantaged schools because of previous financial
backlogs. The South African Schools Act (DoE, 1996b:17-18), White Paper 6 (DoE,
2001b:38), the revised Personnel Administrative Measures document (PAM) (DoE,
2003:3-4), and other departmental documents (DoE, 2005c:13; DoE, 2014/2015 )
confirm that large amounts of money are allocated to poor, no-fee schools in support
of an inclusive learning environment. In addition, all public schools are encouraged to
raise supplementary funds in support of the diverse needs of learners.
Secondly, human resources involve the training of SGB-parents in their new roles as
governors at public schools. It is the responsibility of the DoE to provide high quality
training to SGBs on a continuous basis so that they can function effectively in
structures at schools (DoE, 1996b:12; 2003:63). Parents of the SGB must be able to
recruit and/or mobilise others, including members of the larger community in school
programmes. The Department of Education (DoE, 1996b:16) furthermore
3
acknowledges the presence of an SGB member in the management of school
committees such as school-based support teams (SBSTs), which is essential in
preventing and/or minimising barriers to learning and development. For this reason,
the Department of Education (DoE, 2000c:29; 2001b:29; 2008:23; 2009:17;
2014b:27; n.d.:6) encourages SGBs, including school principals, to reach out to other
stakeholders who can share in the commitment and vision of quality EFA. In this
manner, Tinto (2003:2-4) claims that an atmosphere and/or pedagogy of collective
learning is established.
Lastly, the active involvement of all parents is critical to the learning outcomes of
children. Greater parental involvement is required with the implementation of
outcomes-based education (OBE) as an approach to the curriculum (DoE, 2000a:2;
Singh, Mbokodi & Msila, 2004:302). The curriculum recognises the principle of ‘all-
hands-on-deck’ and parents have many opportunities to influence their children’s
schoolwork via a continuous assessment system. Parental involvement in the
curriculum adds richly to the quality of education for many disadvantaged learners.
Presently, almost thirty years after the dawn of the new democratic South Africa, the
lack of parental involvement at disadvantaged primary schools is a huge concern.
Many parents are isolated from the school environment and tend to be ill-equipped
and uninformed about their new roles and responsibilities at public schools. Mbokodi
and Singh (n.d.:38) accordingly emphasise that SGBs at historically disadvantaged
schools often ignore the goals set out in SASA and fail to function effectively, to the
dismay of an increasing number of learners in need of additional support.
This huge gap in the IE system regularly leads to power struggles amongst the main
stakeholders in education, namely parents and teachers, who work in isolation to
promote quality EFA. In numerous cases, Mncube (2009:85) maintains that SGBs in
South Africa tend to aggravate power struggles as they ignore the pivotal voice of
parents in decision-making. Moreover, teachers and principals tend to over-power
parents and intercept the responsibilities of SGBs (Smit & Liebenberg, 2003:2). The
lack of parental involvement at disadvantaged schools is closely connected to factors
such as the inadequate training of parents, poor support of school management and
parents’ personal barriers, which are briefly described below.
4
The inadequate training of many parents at disadvantaged schools hampers their
functioning in the SGB. A three-day workshop for SGB-members, hosted by the DoE,
is barely enough to prepare parents appropriately for both the smooth running of the
school and the promotion of quality EFA. According to SASA (DoE, 1996b:18),
provincial funding is available to the DoE, enabling them to establish training
programmes for newly elected SGBs and to provide members with continuous
training, equipping them more effectively for their function or to assume additional
functions. Parents in SGBs are though hugely challenged to support the diverse
needs of disadvantaged learners as the DoE has detached and shifted their
responsibility to other entities, namely non-governmental organisations (NGOs) (DoE,
1996b:11; 2000c:19; 2008:26; 2014b:27). Compared to parents at underprivileged
schools, Singh et al. (2004:301) and Mncube (2009:85) emphasise that parents at
former Model C schools often rely on their existing managerial expertise in SGBs and
strongly encourage the empowerment of Black parents.
School management frequently falls short in providing support to SGB-parents as
they themselves still grapple with the concept of inclusion and usually hold firm to a
bureaucratic form of management. Interestingly, Lazaridou and Kassida (2013:4)
indicate that principals often encourage parental involvement, but do not actively
engage them in school life. The reluctance of many principals to share power with
parents in the education of children, leads to the collapse of structures at many
disadvantaged schools (Cox-Petersen, 2011:185). Maxwell (2008:116) consequently
emphasises the prominence of vision in leadership which goes beyond what one
person can accomplish. School principals need to establish partnerships as the South
Constitution cannot be managed by an individual, but rather trust in the willingness,
commitment and ability of all stakeholders to uphold the interest of the school (DoE,
1996b:11; 2000b:32-33; 2001b:29; 2003:64-67; 2005b:8-9; 2008:30; 2009:38;
2014b:25; n.d.:6; Kaabwe, 2003:116; Swart, Engelbrecht, Eloff, Pettipher & Oswald,
2005:80; Carrington & Robinson, 2006:329; Bloch, 2008:127; Swart & Pettipher,
2011:21). Bisschoff, Du Plessis and Smith (2004:19) also urge schools to welcome,
accommodate and support parents in school life.
Parents in school governance often face personal barriers such as unemployment,
poverty, illiteracy, and language difficulties that hinder their active participation in
5
decision-making processes. This view is shared by Hamlin and Flessa (2016:6), who
add further challenges like time constraints, cultural differences, and a lack of
familiarity with the school system. Many parents feel inadequate and unwelcome at
their child’s school (Singh et al., 2004:301; Benner, 2010:40; Hornby, 2011:12;
Prinsloo, 2011:39-40). Mncube (2009:83) therefore claims that parents are unlikely to
share their opinions of school governance.
The poor representation of parents in school governance negatively influences the
larger parent-school relationship in many disadvantaged communities. An increasing
number of parents for instance, neglect to support school functions, fail to engage
completely in their children’s schoolwork and overlook important parent meetings.
The unresponsiveness of parents in school life, according to Cox-Petersen
(2011:113) and Hornby (2011:12), is a common phenomenon amongst the poor who
believe that schools are exclusively responsible for learning and teaching.
This status quo at many disadvantaged schools adds to the present crisis in
education, namely poor reading, writing and numeracy skills. Most children in South
Africa cannot read with meaning by grade 4 and this pattern weakens their chances
of completing matric successfully, enrolling for higher education, finding a job and
being socially mobile (George, 2016). In the same way, Mbabela (2015) and Masondo
(2016) report that the Minister of Basic Education, Angie Motshekga, currently places
learners three years or more behind in their education. More and more learners
experience academic failure (Annual National Assessment – ANA DoE, 2014a),
which Bauer and Brazer (2012:90) link to the many second language learners who
progress through English as second language curriculum. Only about 40% of Black
children finish their 12 years of education (Carter, 2008:21). Bloch (2008:127)
accordingly describes many township schools as dysfunctional and highlights the
shortcomings of many disadvantaged learners.
Schools in South Africa still have a long way to go in terms of achieving the goal of
inclusive education (Geldenhuys & Wevers, 2013:3). Mwamwenda (2004:336), Maili
(2008: xix) and Pieterse (2010:3) similarly warn that an increasing number of learners
are at-risk in their education and require continuous supervision, care and assistance.
In line with this view, Bauer and Brazer (2012:17) claim that the challenge is providing
6
the kind of change necessary to improve student achievement and by extension,
school performance, which Swartz (2015:121-122) relates to different levels of
support for the unique characteristics of learners. In association with this perspective,
Bisschoff et al. (2004:19), Barbour, Barbour and Scully (2005:19), Mannya (2016) and
the Department of Education (DoE, n.d.:6) appeal to all stakeholders to revisit the
education system and re-commit themselves to quality EFA. Failure to do this will
result in the loss of the youth with the escalating rate of unemployment (Nini, 2016).
Due to this scenario in many disadvantaged primary schools in South Africa, this
study intended to explore and examine the immediate measures of support available
to disadvantaged learners. A brief account of learner support, teacher support and
parental involvement in an inclusive learning environment follows.
Learner support is essential for the achievement of equal educational opportunities
for all and is highly recommended by the National Commission on Special Needs in
Education and Training (NCSNET) and the National Committee on Education Support
Services (NCESS). In support of learners, the Department of Education (DoE,
1996b:11; 1996c:19 & 96; 2000a:7; 2001b:26; 2009:23; 2014b:25), suggests
partnership amongst teachers, parents, SBSTs, district-based support teams
(DBSTs), special schools, communities and different governmental departments to
meet the diverse needs of disadvantaged learners. Effective education support is
established in a holistic, integrated, community-based framework (Pieterse,
2010:107). However, Engelbrecht (2006:253) maintains that basic EFA remains a
huge challenge in South African schools, especially in disadvantaged areas.
Teachers are the primary sources of support to learners in the classroom. White
Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:18) and the National Education Policy (NEP) (DoE, 1996c:47)
encourage teachers’ professional development to facilitate and manage the diverse
needs of learners at public schools. Real transformation, however, requires a long-
term commitment to professional, in-service development since learner support is
hugely dependent on the quality of teacher support (Eloff, Engelbrecht, Pettipher &
Swart, 2002:176; Eloff & Kgwete, 2012:351). In this regard, Hay, Smit and Paulsen
(2001:215), Stofile and Green (2007:56-59) and Grant and Ray (2013:9) refer to
cases in South Africa where many teachers still think in terms of special schools for
learners due to a lack of knowledge, skills and training of IE to support diversity.
7
Swartz (2015:128) accordingly proposes numerous strategies for teacher support,
namely assistance in delivering sound inclusive curriculum and assessment
practices, guidance in their role and involvement in the education of disadvantaged
learners, and support in managing maladaptive behaviour in learners.
While many countries support parental involvement in the education of their
children, La Rocque, Kleiman and Darling (2011:115) pronounce that it is often
difficult to promote and maintain in schools. The Comprehensive Model, Consensus
Model, Participation Model, Shepard and Rose’s Model, Hoover-Dempsey and
Sandler’s Model as well as the Epstein Model, are examples of parental involvement
programmes that are used in many countries (Epstein, 2009:14; Swartz, 2015:146).
In South Africa, schools can review, refine and apply these ideas to suit their
respective needs, but Smit and Liebenberg (2003:1), Louw, Sonnekus and Wilson
(2006:44), Mncube (2009:84) and Motala and Luxomo (2014:94) caution that more
exclusive, quality research is necessary at disadvantaged schools in South Africa.
Without parents’ pro-active involvement, historically disadvantaged schools are
unlikely to succeed in their effort to improve EFA (Singh et al., 2004:301).
To endorse equal educational opportunities for all learners at one of the
disadvantaged primary schools, this research deliberately included their parents.
There is very little research on parental involvement or parent-school partnerships in
South Africa and this study purposely aimed to engage parents towards an IE system.
As a benefit of the investigation, I devised a plan to actively include parents as co-
partners in education via the design of a PIP. The programme envisaged a platform
where parents could collectively intervene and change the quality of education for
disadvantaged learners – to the benefit of their comminuty and society at large.
Moreover, the study strived to re-direct power back unto parents in the education of
the disadvantaged.
1.3 PROBLEM STATEMENT
The quality of education at many underprivileged primary schools has dropped
seriously over the past two decades. ‘Red flags’ are raised as education has come to
a halt for an increasing number of disadvantaged learners who lose interest in their
8
schoolwork, become rebellious and/or leave school to join gangsters. This
development in school communities often exists due to the poor implementation and
management of an IE system, which places enormous pressure on classroom
teachers. Many teachers, for example, tend to be over-worked and struggle to cope
with the challenges of diversity in the classroom – to the extent where they leave the
profession. Valuable opportunities to enhance quality EFA are therefore wasted and
negatively influence learners who often retaliate in one way or the other.
Against this background, the following research problem was formulated:
At present there is a lack of parents’ active involvement in the education of
their children at one of the disadvantaged primary schools within the Nelson
Mandela Bay Metropole.
1.4 RESEARCH QUESTION
The following primary question was formulated to address the research problem:
How can parents, as part as the school community, be integrated at a
disadvantaged primary school within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole to
assist learners?
The following secondary questions were formulated to answer the primary question:
▪ How are parents currently supporting their children’s education at one of the
disadvantaged primary schools?
▪ What are the roles and responsibilities of parents in relation to educational
support?
▪ What educational support programmes (ESPs) can the disadvantaged primary
school embark on with parents to increase learner performance?
▪ How can educational support programmes assist with the design of the
parental involvement programme?
1.5 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVES
In line with the research question the following research aim and objectives were
formulated:
9
The main aim of the investigation was:
To design a programme for parental involvement at one of the disadvantaged
primary schools in order to promote quality learning and teaching experiences
for learners.
The objectives of the investigation were to:
▪ Identify how parents are currently supporting their children’s education at one
of the disadvantaged primary schools;
▪ Identify the roles and responsibilities of parents in relation to educational
support;
▪ Identify educational support programmes that the disadvantaged primary
school can embark on with parents to increase learner performance;
▪ Design a parental involvement programme using information on educational
support programmes and the findings of the participatory action research.
1.6 ELUCIDATION OF CONCEPTS
In this section, concepts linked to the investigation are explained. These concepts will
be clarified in more detail later in the literature review chapter.
1.6.1 Mainstream
The term mainstream refers to all public schools that lack the necessary infrastructure
for diversity. According to White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:17), learners in mainstream are
usually not receiving any assistance from the school and are fending for themselves.
1.6.2 Disadvantaged schools
Marckwardt, Cassidy and McMillan (1992:362) define the term disadvantaged as a
position of inferiority and unfavourable environments. A disadvantaged school can
thus point to a poor and neglected setting (Geldenhuys, Kruger & Moss, 2013:10-11).
For example, the Department of Education (DoE, 1996b:46; 2000c:1), George (2016)
as well as Nel and Grosser (2016:83) relate factors such as unemployment, over-
population, crime, violence, poor language proficiency, poor parental support, inferior
10
education, under-qualified teachers, large classes and deplorable physical conditions
to disadvantaged school communities.
1.6.3 Disadvantaged learners
Disadvantaged learners in this study points to children who are vulnerable in their
education. All the learners at the research site, for instance, were reliant on some
form of intervention due to backlogs in their education as well as the effects of poverty
on their development. In line with this perspective, White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:18)
regards the disadvantaged as victims of Apartheid and re-named them learners with
barriers to learning and development. Many of these learners, according to Heppen
and Terriault (2009:3), are often identified by their poor school attendance and poor
academic performance.
1.6.4 Parent
A parent is the primary caregiver of children who usually creates a safe and healthy
environment for them. The term parent can be ascribed to anyone raising a child, for
example a legal guardian, grandparents and people who have shared custody of the
child (DoE, 1996b:4; Cox-Petersen, 2011:23).
1.6.5 Parental involvement
Parental involvement refers to getting parents involve in their children’s life and
schooling. Ireland (2017:1) describes it as the extend of parent-participation and
commitment to various activities in education, namely, general meetings, parent-
teacher conferences, school-events, volunteering or serving on committees. On a
more social platform parents can also get more involve in extra-mural coaching and
cultural events. Hence, Makgopa and Mokhele (2013:220) perceive parental
involvement as a multifaceted term that includes supporting learner’s academic
achievement and participating in school-related programmes. This study therefore
intented to create opportunities for all parents across racial and socio-economic
boundaries to share equally and uniquely in the development of their children. Epstein
(2009:14) accordingly emphasises the importance of a family-home-school Model
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and suggests parenting, communicating, volunteering, learning at home, decision-
making and collaborating with the community as methods of parental involvement.
1.6.6 Educational support programmes
In this research, educational support programmes are related to activities or projects
that can add richly to the holistic development of disadvantaged learners. For
example, SIAS (DoE, 2014b:28) refers to nutritional support, health promotion, safety
programmes, social welfare services, psycho-social support, material support,
curriculum support and co-curricular support as essential programmes at public
schools.
1.6.7 School-based structures
School-based structures refer to SGBs who are ultimately responsible for the smooth
running of schools. According to SASA (DoE, 1996b:13-14) and the Department of
Education (DoE, 2000b:32), school governing bodies comprise of principals,
teachers, parents, and learners in grade eight or higher. Public schools that cater for
learners with barriers to learning and development also need to consider
representation of their parents, disabled organisations, experts in the field and if
applicable, disabled persons in their SGBs (DoE, 1996b:14-15).
1.7 REFLECTING ON MYSELF
Considering the current challenges at various disadvantaged schools, I am bound to
take stock of my own attitude, management, and leadership in relation to an inclusive
learning environment. I have been a grades 4-7 Mathematics teacher for the past 28
years and I have made a conscious decision to keep abreast of the changes and
challenges in education through self-empowerment. For this reason, I have improved
my professional qualifications through the Nelson Mandela University (NMU),
attended curriculum and management workshops, served on SGBs as well as on
different school committees in order to acquaint myself with policy.
12
During this period, I have gained extensive knowledge and understanding of an IE
system and insight about learners with barriers to learning and development that I
related to my own learning environment. Several of my learners for example, originate
from poor and unemployed homes and lack the basic requirements for school such
as uniforms, writing equipment and parental support. These learners are often
malnourished, struggle to concentrate in the classroom, neglect to complete their
tasks and resort to truancy, which negatively influences their schoolwork. Many
Afrikaans and Xhosa-speaking learners who are enrolled in English-medium classes
experience failure and are severely challenged to read, write, and speak appropriately
for their specific grade. In relation to the criteria outlined in White Paper 6 (DoE,
2001b:18), most of these learners are vulnerable and can thus be identified as
learners with barriers to learning and development.
In addition, I gained valuable insight of an IE system and realised the poor
implementation of an inclusive education environment at some disadvantaged
primary schools. These schools had no real infrastructure for IE, as their SGBs and
committees like SBSTs were non-existent and hampered the attainment of quality
EFA. As a result, classroom teachers lacked the necessary support to comply with
the demands of diversity and an increasing number of disadvantaged learners were
deprived access to the curriculum. In my search for answers, I learned about various
power struggles amongst the different stakeholders in education who were blaming
each other for the poor conditions at their respective schools, at the cost of losing
learners to a crude and corrupt society.
As an educator myself, I became very frustrated for not being able to adequately
support my learners and wanted to change my approach to learning and teaching. In
association with this outlook, McNiff (2002:28) emphasises that we need to learn new
ways of improving our work as learning is for life and not only for college.
Consequently, I adopted a more learner-centred, OBE approach to education and:
▪ Got to know my learners better as well as their learning-styles;
▪ Adjusted my presentations, assignments, test papers as well as examination
papers with more visual concepts and practical activities to address different
learning-styles;
13
▪ Encouraged learners to participate actively in their learning through small-
group learning and peer-tutoring;
▪ Related mathematical terms and concepts to real-life experiences;
▪ Recognised and rewarded the academic achievement of learners by means of
small gifts and a floating trophy.
After several weeks it was with great relief that I noticed an improvement in some
learners’ attitudes as well as in their academic performance, while others were still
severely challenged and struggled to keep up alongside their peers. Many of these
learners were attention-seekers and lacked the necessary nurturing at home.
Therefore, I unswervingly motivated, counselled and rewarded them, when needed,
in the best possible way. I was, though, not able to attend to the individual needs of
all the learners due to institutional challenges and time-constraints.
I then grasped the significance of partnership and more specifically that of parents,
as co-partners, in education. In the spirit of “Ubuntu” and as a parent myself, I
embraced the uniqueness and diversity amongst parents in society, which could add
greatly to the quality of education for many disadvantaged learners. Ultimately, a
positive learning environment includes the collaborative support and shared vision of
teachers and parents. Nonetheless, parental involvement is often seen as a huge
problem at some disadvantaged schools that continue to function in isolation. A lack
of harmony between school management and school governance often results in
schools limiting the involvement of parents and ignoring their voices (Smit &
Liebenberg, 2003:2; Mncube, Harper & Du Plessis, 2011:219).
When I commenced with my doctoral studies, I asked myself, “How can I improve the
quality of education for learners who are at-risk in their development?” After
pondering, I decided to draw on my personal and professional experience as a vehicle
to assist them. In my life journey I have, for instance, always been actively involved
in various school and community projects with parents whereby I co-ordinated
successful welfare and entrepreneurial programmes for the disadvantaged. Once
again, I deemed it possible to recruit, mobilise and involve parents from the local
school community in transforming education to the benefit of the disadvantaged. By
using a system of action research, more particularly PAR, I set out to design a parental
14
involvement programme at one of the disadvantaged primary schools in the Nelson
Mandela Bay Metropole. The famous African proverb says that, “It takes a village to
raise a child,” and in a similar way this research was expected to encourage fairness
and social justice by means of the active involvement of parents in the design of a
PIP.
As a teacher-researcher, I was interested in educational research to improve my work.
In line with this perception, Wood and Govender (2013:177) maintain that improved
learning experiences and outcomes are reached when researchers and participants
collaborate in the creation of knowledge. Organisational learning is therefore
established (McNiff, 2002:28).
1.8 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK OF THE STUDY
Theory is based on a belief system. It is my conviction that children learn and are
affected by different life experiences ranging from home, school, the community as
well as social media. Cox-Petersen (2011:19) and Swart and Pettipher (2011:13-14)
equally acknowledge that learners do not develop or learn in isolation, but rather are
inter-connected with their environment and circumstances which influence their
holistic development.
The implementation of IE in South African schools recognises the importance of
different systems consisting of stakeholders at different levels of expertise, upholding
equal educational opportunities for all learners. Nel, Nel and Hugo (2016:17)
consequently associate IE with a constructivist theory as well as Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Theory that explains the context in which children learn and make sense
of their world through different systems. Child development is based on five systems,
namely the microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem which interact
with the chronosystem (Bronfenbrenner, 1979:5-6). I reviewed these systems and
introduced it as the theoretical framework for this study, as explained by Swart and
Pettipher (2011:14-15) and Grant and Ray (2013:37-40).
15
1.8.1 Microsystem
The microsystem refers to the child’s immediate world and include his or her active
participation at home, school and in the neighbourhood. Parents, close family, friends,
and teachers are examples of this system as children form intimate relationships with
them.
1.8.2 Mesosystem
The mesosystem consists of people in the microsystems as well as their influences
on the development of children. These experiences or influences can either be
positive and support learners, or negative and limit their development. Examples
include child-care, education, and employment systems.
1.8.3 Exosystem
The exosystem represents the environment surrounding the child. This setting can
consist of different systems that affect people in the microsystem and indirectly
influence the development of children. Local community organisations and services
form an integral part of the exosystem.
1.8.4 Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest societal influence on the development of children.
Within the social context, children are surrounded by different beliefs, ideologies and
values that make a huge impression on them. Examples of this system include
government policies, political systems, the media, and social networks.
1.8.5 Chronosystem
The chronosystem represents the time in which the child lives. For instance, child
development is monitored through the interaction of different systems such as the
microsystem, mesosystem, exosystem and macrosystem over a period. Figure 1.1 is
an illustration of Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model.
16
Figure 1.1: Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model
Source: Swartz (2015:91)
Bronfenbrenner’s holistic, inter-related model places the child at the centre of his or
her own development and recognises the valuable influence of their family, school
and peers early in life. In other words, the presence of parents at disadvantaged
primary schools can largely benefit learners, especially those with barriers to learning
and development. It is also noted that, many researchers such as Larson and Buss
(2005:356) and Dexter, Dexter and Irving (2011:72) similarly applaud both Maslow’s
Self-actualisation Model and Bandura’s Social Learning Model that emphasise the
power of adults, in this case parents, in the development of their children. Within this
framework, the research encouraged the integration of parents in educational
programmes at a disadvantaged primary school.
1.9 RESEARCH SITE, POPULATION AND SAMPLING
I am a teacher at one of the disadvantaged primary schools in Booysen Park and
chose to conduct my study in the same learning environment, in support of the poor
and the vulnerable. Booysen Park is situated on the northern boundary of Port
Elizabeth and I am well-acquainted with the daily challenges and problems associated
17
with the area, namely poverty, violence, crime and gangsterism. As a teacher-
researcher I was thus able to draw on my existing knowledge, skills, and experience
to promote the investigation. A detailed description of Booysen Park follows in
Chapter Three.
The target population for the study included parents at one of the disadvantaged,
primary schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole. From this population, a small
sample of ten parents, namely four parents of the SGB, two parents each of the SBST,
quality learning and teaching campaign (QLTC) and community police-sectors were
initially anticipated to participate in the investigation. It was unnecessary to include
everybody in the study, but rather select a sample that best answered the research
question or help solve the problem (Babbie & Mouton, 2004:164; Pascoe, 2014:135).
Purposive sampling was adopted to obtain a comprehensive, in-depth, and expert
understanding of the design of a PIP. Of importance was how parents, for instance,
support their children’s education, aligned with the roles and responsibilities of IE and
committed to quality EFA by means of ESPs. In line with this view, Neuman
(2011:267) describes purposive sampling as valuable for special situations, in this
case the design of a PIP. In a similar manner, Herr and Anderson (2005:5) and
Pascoe (2014:142) add that we purposefully include participants with the appropriate
characteristics to answer the research question.
The sample comprised of parents from diverse socio-economic backgrounds and
differed in terms of gender, race, culture, age, religion, and professional qualifications,
forming a good representation of the rest of the parents affiliated to the disadvantaged
primary school. These parents were also hugely interested in the education of their
children and resourceful within their respective communities. Due to its personal,
inter-active nature this study adhered to ethical guidelines as prescribed for social
sciences.
1.10 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Research ethics refer to the moral philosophy and integrity which underpin the
research project. In social research, Louw (2014:263) emphasises the importance of
18
research ethics as it affects all the participants. Neuman (2011:144) accordingly
emphasises that researchers are responsible to guide, protect and oversee the
concerns of people in the study and research participants should never be abused or
harmed in any manner (Strydom, 2011a:115).
This study adhered to the ethical protocol as stipulated by the Nelson Mandela
University Research Ethics Committee (Human) (REC-H) to protect the rights of all
the participants and to guide my action as a researcher. Piper and Simons (2011:27)
proclaim that ethical committees act as guardians to ensure that researchers consider
issues that are likely to arise from the study. In line with this view, the Belmont Report
(1979:4), Babbie and Mouton (2004:520), Neuman (2011:148) as well as Louw
(2014:264) suggest various ethical principles, which were adopted in this study and
are described in further detail in Chapter Three. This value-driven awareness
informed the empirical approach to the investigation.
1.11 RESEARCH PARADIGM
Guba and Lincoln (1989:80) and Creswell (2013:20) define a research paradigm as
a basic set of beliefs, doctrines or philosophies which guides social research. Babbie
(2007:31) also links a paradigm to a worldview to solve problems. For this research,
the following paradigm is anticipated.
Transformative paradigm
The transformative paradigm is closely related to underprivileged people. It emerged
in response to poor communities who were previously marginalised and now it forms
an integral part of research (Mertens, 2009:2; 2011:2). In honour of inclusivity and
diversity amongst people, Romm (2014:134) and Mertens (2016:6) encourage
researchers to commit to values such as social justice and human rights in the field.
The transformative paradigm is underpinned by philosophical assumptions, namely
ontology, epistemology and axiology, which according to Mertens (2013:28-29) and
Romm (2015:412) relate to the needs of the participants, their collective responsibility
and involvement in finding solutions to the problem as well as ethics. Within this social
environment, Mertens (2011:2; 2016:6) emphasises the need for researchers to
19
address power relations amongst participants as it can add to the existing challenges
of school communities.
1.12 RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design refers to the detailed procedural plan of how you are going to
answer the research problem. The plan includes all processes from formulating
questions to collecting and analysing data for the investigation (Creswell, 2013:5;
Davis, 2014:93). In addition, Patton (2015:91) differentiates between the qualitative,
quantitative and mixed-method approaches to social research. Each of these
addresses research problems uniquely and I opted for qualitative research to fully
comprehend parental involvement in an inclusive learning environment.
1.12.1 Qualitative research
Creswell (2013:44) states that qualitative research is conducted in the natural
environment of the participants and must be treated with the necessary care. It is an
open-ended, explorative and emerging approach, allowing for a deeper
understanding of the research question, whilst engaging with the participants in the
process of action inquiry (Babbie & Mouton, 2004:270; Coghlan & Brannick, 2010:5;
Denzin & Lincoln, 2011:2-3; Neuwman, 2011:424). Creswell (2013:49) regards
qualitative research as a lonely and time-consuming process without any specific
guideline or procedure.
Researchers use different strategies to qualitative research in response to their
respective research questions. Mouton (2001:57) and Fouché and Schurink
(2011:312) identify five strategies, namely narrative biography, ethnography,
phenomenology, grounded theory, and case study. After reviewing these approaches
in relation to this investigation, I opted for a single case study at a disadvantaged
primary school.
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1.12.2 Case study
Creswell (2013:97) and Strydom and Bezuidenhout (2014:176) define a case study
as a type of design that represents a single case or multiple cases. A process, activity,
event, programme, or individual is observed in a specific time and setting (Fouché &
Schurink, 2011:321). Stake (2005:446) equally emphasises that the case report
represents a particular case and not the world.
A case study tells a story of real-life experiences of people in their physical
environment over time. A rich, holistic, and in-depth understanding of the social
phenomenon is obtained (Mukherji & Albon, 2010:81). As in qualitative research,
Creswell (2013:102) proclaims that some case studies lack clear beginnings and
endings and therefore he encourages researchers to set boundaries that adequately
surround their case. It is important to review the case study in correlation with the role
of the researcher to maintain the quality and integrity of the research.
1.12.3 The researcher
Babbie and Mouton (2004:317) identify the critical role of the researcher as the
change agent and complete collaborator in qualitative research. The researcher is the
tool for facilitating change rather than the owner or director in the research project
(Walter, n.d.:2). Similarly, Whyte (1991:40), Babbie and Mouton (2004:322) and
Strydom (2011c:492) also refer to the researcher as a coach or resource that
empowers those who are being studied to function effectively in their own interest.
The active participation of parents in the design of a PIP would greatly influence the
position of the researcher. It is against this social setting that greater democracy and
trust should be established and maintained throughout the investigation to achieve
the required goal of equal educational opportunities for all learners. In realising the
crucial role of the researcher in this case study, I accepted the responsibility and
committed to work collectively with all the participants for the duration of the
investigation and elaborate on it later in Chapter Three. This inter-active approach to
the design of a PIP at one of the disadvantaged primary schools guided the study
towards PAR.
21
1.12.4 Participatory Action Research
Jacobs (2014:198) and Walter (n.d.:3) describe PAR as a type of action research (AR)
popular in educational research, especially in improving one’s learning and teaching
practice. The approach is commonly used amongst poor communities as a powerful
strategy to problem-solving (Whyte, 1991:7; Babbie & Mouton, 2004:314). For
example, democracy in the workplace is encouraged through a bottom-up approach
to research where the investigated become the investigators (Strydom, 2011c:493).
This study embraced the resourcefulness, uniqueness and diversity amongst
underprivileged people and recognised their capacity to endorse quality education for
their children. In reverence to this philosophy, parents at one of the disadvantaged
primary schools were encouraged to actively participate and collaborate in the design
of a PIP in aid of disadvantaged learners. During this time, transparency, and
empowerment of all were of central focus to promote equality and unity amongst the
participants concerning possible ESPs for learners with barriers to learning and
development. In association with PAR, Walter (n.d.:6-7) advocates the success of a
practical outcome as well as positive change irrespective of a research leader or
timeline. For this investigation, the following steps were adapted from the work of Kurt
Lewin in Kemmis and McTaggart (1988:12) and McNiff and Whitehead (2002:41)
during two cycles of PAR.
1.12.4.1 Cycle 1
The aim of Cycle 1 was to gain comprehensive knowledge about ESPs that
disadvantaged primary schools could embark on with parents, in support of
disadvantaged learners. Five steps consisting of the situation analysis, planning, and
designing the PIP, implementing support to the participants in relation to the PIP,
observation and parents’ personal experiences and reflection informed this cycle.
1.12.4.2 Cycle 2
The aim of Cycle 2 was to determine the most suitable design of a PIP at the particular
school. Five steps like those used in Cycle 1, namely planning and designing the PIP,
22
implementing the PIP, observation and parents’ personal experiences, and reflection,
were initiated to attain the necessary information. Both these cycles generated rich
data and is discussed in Chapter Three.
1.13 DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is an active process of enquiry aimed at answering the entire research
question:
How can parents, as part as the school community, be integrated at
disadvantaged primary schools within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole to
assist learners who are at-risk in their education?
According to McNiff (2002:17) and Coghlan and Brannick (2010:75), various methods
of data collection are utilised in qualitative research to generate evidence for the
study. This study adopted multiple methods including action learning sets (ALSs),
individual interviews and observations, which could also be used to triangulate the
data. An in-depth interpretation of these data collection instruments is provided in
Chapter Three.
1.14 DATA ANALYSIS
Data analysis creates the evidence for the study and answers the research question.
Schurink, Fouché and De Vos (2011:397) describe data analysis as the “process of
bringing order, structure and meaning to the mass of data”. It is a challenging and
time-consuming process which transforms data into findings (Bezuidenhout & Cronje,
2014:228-232).
Inductive participatory data analysis was predicted for the study due to the active
involvement of parent-participants in the design of a PIP. An inductive approach to
research is a qualitative model that embraces the views of people in their natural
habitat to bring about change (Thomas, 2003:1). Non-researchers, according to
Patton (2015:216 & 551-597), assist in collecting data as well as in the process of
data analysis, which is evident in the following layers:
23
▪ First layer: The study participants discuss the data that they have generated
through verbatim transcripts of the ALSs and interviews; data is read several
times to create themes;
▪ Second layer: Themes are selected collaboratively.
Data analysis was a continual process throughout this study. The information
gathered during Cycles 1 and 2 were gradually debated and revised to create themes.
All the data was sifted, sorted, and organised into categories that were further divided
into broader themes. These themes and sub-themes are presented in Chapter Four,
Table 4.3 to demonstrate how the data answers the research question.
1.15 TRUSTWORTHINESS
Trustworthiness is a key criterion in qualitative research. It encourages authenticity,
reliability, faithfulness, and dependability in social research (Marckwardt et al.,
1992:1349) and trustworthiness thrives on values that incarnate our character.
Whitehead and McNiff (2006:98) similarly use the term validity instead of
trustworthiness and proclaim that it explains the standards of judgement used for
research and demonstrates the fairness of the claim.
Data presented in this study was verified in terms of criteria proposed by both Lincoln
and Guba (1985:236-243) and McNiff and Whitehead (2006:103-105), namely
comprehensibility, truthfulness, authenticity and appropriateness in social validation
as well as credibility, transferability, dependability and conformability, which are
alternatives to internal validity, external validity, reliability and objectivity in
quantitative research. These criteria are explained in further detail in Chapter Three.
1.16 CHAPTER OUTLINE
The investigation is outlined as follows and Figure 1.2 illustrates the study layout.
Chapter One provides the orientation for the study;
Chapter Two includes a literature review of parental involvement in South African
schools;
Chapter Three describes the methodology of the study;
24
Chapter Four presents and discusses the findings of the study;
Chapter Five reflects and gives guidelines of the PIP;
Chapter Six offers a summary, conclusion and recommendations based on the
research findings.
Figure 1.2: Study Layout
Source: Adapted from Ntseto (2009)
1.17 SUMMARY
This chapter introduced the orientation and rationale of the study. Important aspects
including the theoretical framework, research site, sample and ethical consideration
were discussed. In addition, a brief account of the research design, steps for PAR,
data generation instruments, data analysis and trustworthiness, including an outline
of the investigation were provided.
Empirical
Empirical
25
CHAPTER TWO
A CRITICAL LITERATURE REVIEW OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
IN SOUTH AFRICAN SCHOOLS
2.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter discusses parental involvement at public schools in South Africa and,
alludes to their full participation at a disadvantaged primary school in the Nelson
Mandela Bay Metropole. In order to understand the praxis of parental involvement in
education a brief description of this phenomenon, in South African context prior to
1994 – Apartheid, is presented. During Apartheid parental involvement implied
different activities to different schools and different races. Rulwa-Mnatwana (2014:26)
claims that the Department of Education was split in 18 racially divided educational
departments and functioned strictly on a medical model that accommodated learners
with barriers to learning at special schools and their peers in mainstreams. The belief
was that only specially trained teachers could effectively assist the distinct needs of
these learners. Education therefore was primarily the responsibility of schools while
parents mainly financed it (Lemmer & Van Wyk 2004:161; McKenzie & Loebenstein
2007:186). Linked to this notion, Swart and Pettipher (2011:17) and Naicker (2000:1)
emphasise that the fragmented, dual education system largely benefitted White
people who often played an active role in the education of their children, while non-
whites, especially Black people, were severely discriminated and excluded from
school life. In other words, parental involvement and sound home-school relationships
were fostered amongst the white minority in South African schools. Against this
background, the Integrated National Disability Strategy White Paper (DoE, 1997)
testifies to the long struggle of many Black parents towards equal educational
opportunities for their children, alongside their peers in mainstreams. This concern
was addressed during the World Conference held in Salamanca when many
countries, including South Africa, committed to the inclusion of learners with barriers
to learning and parents as co-partners in mainstreams (UNESCO, 1994:37).
After 1994, the newly elected democratic government of South Africa amended and
transformed educational legislation in association with an inclusive education system.
26
This system encourages equal educational opportunities to all learners and
recognises the active participation of all parents at public schools. Evidence of this
transformation is enshrined in the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (RSA)
(RSA, 1996:3) and is further entrenched in educational policies (DoE, 1996b;
2001a:3; 2011:8) to advocate a vision for social inclusion and democracy in South
African schools. A community-based framework of education is introduced to meet
the diverse needs of learners with barriers to learning and development, which
according to Hay and Hay (1999:92) and the Department of Education (DoE,
2014b:27), is a more cost-effective approach to the management of diversity in public
schools. Ladbrook (2009:36) therefore regards White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b) as the
vessel to build an open, lifelong and high-quality education and training system for
the twenty-first century and SIAS (DoE, 2014b), as the guide to accomplish this goal.
For the last twenty-five years parental involvement at many disadvantaged schools in
South Africa has often been lacking. Redding (n.d.:20) describes parental
involvement as the engagement of parents with their own children, with parents of
other children as well as with their children’s school. This important relationship,
according to Grant and Ray (2013:10), is often ignored by disadvantaged families.
Poor families fail to understand their authority and responsibility towards an inclusive
learning environment (Smit & Liebenberg, 2003:2; Pieterse, 2010:123; Ndebele,
2015:72). In line with this perception, Van Wyk (1996:33), McKenzie and Loebenstein
(2007:190) and Goodall (2015:174) point to incidents whereby parents in SGBs are
manipulated by teachers and principals, who still regard them as outsiders. Vogel
(2008:16 & 18) therefore claims that poor parental involvement at disadvantaged
schools is one of the accepted problems of the 21st century that may eventually
influence the social well-being of many children.
The reality is that an increasing number of learners at disadvantaged primary schools
experience learning difficulties, which Wevers (2012:92) in his research describes as
socio-economic and systemic barriers to learning. These learners also experience
disabilities (Wevers, 2012:92). Socio-economic factors include poverty, the non-
recognition and non-involvement of parents as well as negative attitudes towards and
stereotyping of differences. Examples of systemic barriers refer to an inflexible
curriculum, inappropriate language and communication, inadequate support services,
27
inadequate policies and legislation, inadequately trained educators, and inaccessible
and unsafe built environments. Disabilities are associated with intrinsic barriers to
learning, namely cognitive and intellectual restraints and medical conditions such as
physical hindrances. Due to these challenges at many disadvantaged schools, Briggs
(2005:3), Cole (2006:134) and George (2016) identify that many learners are daily
vulnerable in their education and future development.
Collaboration and partnerships with parents are key features in the achievement of
quality EFA. Parents are their child’s first teacher and this powerful form of parental
engagement is often established away from school (Omoteso, 2010:254; Goodall,
2015:173). Mji (2007:31), Motala and Luxomo (2014:82) and Lemmer (n.d.:88)
equally agree on the positive transformation in children’s schoolwork when they are
supported at home, as required by IE. This study thus strived to put policy into practice
by actively involving parents in the design of a PSP at one of the disadvantaged
primary schools. Partnership between different stakeholders, in this case parents, in
the holistic development of children are closely linked to Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological
Model and is explained in further detail in Chapter Three.
The definition of a parent within South African context is, however, complex due to
several changes to the traditional, nuclear family structure. According to the
Department of Education (DoE, 1996b:4), a parent is described as the person who
accepts the responsibilities of the parent and is legally entitled to the custody of a
learner or functions as a guardian. A parent can be single, married, a relative, legal
guardian, older sibling, surrogate, foster parent or group such as a commune
(Lemmer & Van Wyk, 2004:91; Ndebele, 2015:72-73). In addition, Lemmer (n.d.:87)
also points to an increasing number of youths, across racial boundaries, who are
heading households and acting as parents. Research suggest that these homes are
usually a temporary solution over short periods as parents often migrate in search of
work (Hall, 2019:1). For example, in 2018, 101 children out of a sample of over 25
000 children were heading households, which, according to the Children’s Act could
mean that parents were too sick or too old to effectively manage the home.
Nonetheless, Hall (2019:1) proclaims that children from the age of sixteen can legally
obtain an identity document and receive grants on behalf of their younger siblings. In
this study a parent refers to a range of people, including foster parents, guardians,
28
single parents, grandparents and siblings from mixed racial households. A historical
perception of parental involvement in education is presented.
2.2 HISTORICAL BACKGROUND OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
As indicated in Section 2.1, the history of parental involvement is engrained in
malicious cycles of discrimination against non-whites, especially Blacks who were
marginalised from their children’s education. Naicker (2000:1), Nieuwenhuis,
Beckmannn and Prinsloo (2007:146) and Stofile and Green (2007:52) acknowledge
that many citizens, in this case parents, were deprived of their human rights and
bound by the policies of the country in terms of education. For example, the
segregation laws of Apartheid confined parents in their own education as well as that
of their children’s. Education served purely as a vehicle that divided and favoured a
minority group in South Africa, namely, White people (Fiske & Ladd, 2005:41-43). The
following timelines demonstrate the influence of political stances on parental
involvement in education.
Initially there was no formal schooling for people with disabilities in the early twentieth
century. Disabled children were stigmatised as outcasts and cared for by families,
churches and religious organisations (Naicker, 2000:1). It was only after 1974 that the
government approved the enrolment of children with disabilities at special institutions
and/or training centres. These facilities were located far away from home and Swart
and Pettipher (2011:17) claim that poor families were less likely to fund their children’s
tuition compared to wealthier families.
During the late twentieth century, intelligence quotient testing based on learners’
mental and physical competence, guided parents in the enrolment of children in either
special or mainstream schools. Cole (2006:36), Swart and Pettipher (2011:6) and Nel
et al. (2016:15) associate special schools with a medical model and a curriculum that
differs vastly from that of learners in the mainstream. Whereas this model was
intended to lighten the burden for many parents and their children, it made them prey
to victimisation and exploited their vulnerabilities (McKenzie & Loebenstein,
2007:187). Moreover, White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:9) adds that special schools were
restricted and under-resourced for non-whites, especially Black children, and
29
excluded and abandoned many poor families. This political development negatively
influenced disadvantaged families who, according to Fiske and Ladd (2005:59), were
often forced to transfer their responsibility in children’s education entirely to the
school.
The Department of Education (DoE, 2001b:10) and Wevers (2012:27) advocate that
the political turmoil and value of the medical model was locally and globally
challenged by the National Disability Strategy and the human rights perspective,
which birthed a more democratic learner-centred approach to education after 1994.
In South Africa, Motala and Pampallis (2002:14) and Jadezweni (2019) refer to this
intervention as a healing process for the core fight against slavery, an unjust
education system and ultimately an identity. In his freedom speech, Nelson Mandela,
the first Black president of South Africa stated that, “Education is the most powerful
weapon we can use to change the world and Mindset Network is a powerful part of
that world changing arsenal” (Mandela, 2003).
The role of parents can be especially profound at disadvantaged primary schools. It
is about interacting and cohering with the school to the benefit of the child
(Bronfenbrenner, 1979:6; Singh et al., 2004:301; Vogel, 2008:22; Nyarko, 2011:378;
Reynolds, Crea, Medina, Degnan & McRoy, 2014:752; Goodall, 2015:172; Lemmer,
n.d.:88). In South Africa, the Department of Education (DoE, 2009:17) acknowledges
the efforts of public schools to create opportunities for parental involvement. In
retrospect, the aim of this study is to develop a programme for the involvement of
parents of learners from a disadvantage primary school within the relatively new
inclusive education system. We are therefore going to look at IE within a democratic
society and how parents can be involved to a larger extend.
2.3 INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Inclusive education is a global term or strategy used to encourage parental
involvement in school life and to include learners with barriers to learning and
development at public schools. Lomofsky and Lazarus (2001:304), Stofile and Green
(2007:61), Hodkinson and Vickerman (2009:12) and Nel et al. (2016:10 & 11)
recognise the ability of all children to learn in the mainstream and their need, from
30
time to time, for some kind of assistance. Learners with special educational needs
must be accepted and valued for their unique contributions to school life, alongside
their peers (Engelbrecht, 2006:256; Hick, Kershner & Farrell, 2009:2). This holistic
and human movement towards education was accepted by many countries world-
wide (UNESCO, 1994). Nevertheless, different countries respond differently to
inclusive education.
Internationally significant progress in terms of IE is visible through intervention by
schools with learners’ parents and their community. According to Mncube (2009:84),
international researchers found that by listening, encouraging, empowering and
delegating responsibility to parents, their schools functioned more effectively. In
addition, research conducted by the United States, United Kingdom and the
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development reveal that learner
outcomes largely depended on information provided by parents (Meier & Lemmer,
2015:1). As a result, parental involvement in education was largely pursued to
address the diverse needs of learners at schools. Hence, parental involvement means
different things to different countries. For example, developed countries such as
England and Wales perceived parents’ responses to school commitments as parental
involvement, while others point to a variety of home activities (Okeke, 2014:2). All
these activities, namely, attending school events, supporting learners in the
classroom and reading to your child at home, are valuable forms of parental
involvement and add richly to the concept of partnership in education.
In recognition of the human and material demands for the implementation of an
effective IE system, many developed countries accepted and sponsored the
philosophy of parental involvement to sustain full inclusion at their schools. Peters
(2004:10) and Walton (2006:14) similarly refer to the financial backing to schools in
the United States and England. Numerous models or programmes of parental
involvement originated such as the academic model of human development,
described by Meier and Lemmer (2015:1), as well as others like Epstein’s home-
school partnership, mentioned in Sections 1.2, 1.6.5 and 2.6. The contribution of
Epstein, for instance, is broadly used by researchers across the globe to encourage
parental involvement in education.
31
Child Trends (2018:1; 2019:1) claims that parental involvement in Spain has
increased tremendously from 1996 – 2007 and again in 2016 – 2017. Statistics further
reveal that more parents are availing themselves for general meetings such as school
events and parent-teacher conferences, while a smaller number commit to
volunteering. Quiggan, Megra and Grady (2017:3) accordingly relate indicators like
race, level of formal education, the LOLT at schools, as well as the socio-economic
status of parents to this phenomenon. There is, however, an increasing interest
amongst all parents in the education of their children, especially at primary level.
Leathers (2018) reports on social media of parents who are recruited and formally
trained by district directors for Florida’s Family Engagement Pledge and the Parent-
Academy at their schools. In line with this perspective, Bartolome, Mamat and
Masnan (2017:45) also refer to Parent Teacher Associations and the Brigada Eskwela
programmes in the Philippines that encourage shared partnership in terms of school
reform and learners’ welfare, while Quiggan et al. (2017:4) add that many parents
preferred to homeschool their children due to unsafe environments. Within this
context, numerous programmes of involvement are managed by parents.
Locally in South Africa a former Minister of Education, Kader Asmal, launched an
investigation to evaluate the quality of education available to learners in special
schools. The joint report of the NCSNET and the NCESS indicated huge injustices to
learners, which according to White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:5), entails the poor quality
of education to a minority, lack of resources, ignorance towards learners with barriers,
an inadequate curriculum and a non-holistic approach to education. Fiske and Ladd
(2005:62) and Stofile and Green (2007:53) further add that many learners in need
were mainstreamed by default and others unaccounted for, leaving many children
under-educated, under-skilled and under-prepared in social, economic and civic life.
The Ministry further recognised how the past education system divided and
discriminated against people of colour. The Apartheid system not only favoured
learners based on their disability, but also in terms of race and socio-economic status
(DoE, 2001b:9; Nel et al., 2016:8). Former White schools, for instance, were well-
resourced financially, while Black and Coloured schools could barely support
themselves. An IE system, according to White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:18), therefore
32
acknowledges all learners at disadvantaged public schools as “victims” of Apartheid
and calls them learners with barriers to learning and development.
Inclusive education is based on a multifaceted framework to redress the disparities
and inequities of Apartheid (DoE, 2001b:4; Stofile & Green, 2007:52; Engelbrecht,
2009:111). It implies that disadvantaged schools must cater for the diverse needs of
a large group of learners, which Lomofsky and Lazarus (2001:314), Green and
Engelbrecht (2007:3) and Nel et al. (2016:9) view as a real challenge. A paradigm
shift from an individual to a system approach is necessary to manage IE successfully
and emphasis has shifted from fixing the child to fixing the system (Stofile & Green,
2007:60; Ladbrook, 2009:35; Swart & Pettipher, 2011:6). This scenario resulted in
numerous changes to the curriculum and funding in public schools.
Soudien (2007:129) states that inclusive education is grounded in a single, learner-
centred curriculum in support of disadvantaged learners. Based on the diverse needs
of learners, the curriculum has been modified timeously and is now called the
Curriculum and Assessment Policy Statement (DoE, 2011:3). According to the
Department of Education (DoE, 2000a:22), it is supported by a continuous
assessment system that is interested in the development of learners alongside their
peers rather than whether they pass or fail. A formal, academic curriculum inside the
classroom and an informal, practical curriculum outside the classroom were
implemented to promote equal educational opportunities to all learners (DoE,
2000a:2). The Department of Education (DoE, 2001b:19-20) acknowledges the
different needs of learners, draws on their strengths, empowers and enables them to
fully engage and access the learning environment.
The role of parents and teachers, as primary and secondary caregivers is crucial to
the accomplishment of learner outcomes. Firstly, teachers are identified as the main
resources for the facilitation of an IE system at public schools and are ascribed seven
new roles, namely learning mediator; interpreter and designer of learning
programmes and materials; leader, administrator and manager; scholar, researcher
and lifelong learner; community, citizenship and pastoral role; assessor and subject
specialist (The National Education Policy - NEP DoE, 1996c:47; Engelbrecht,
2006:257). White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:18), Engelbrecht (2006:257), Ladbrook
33
(2009:40) and Avalos and Barrett (2013:77) accordingly encourage teachers’
personal empowerment and professional development to facilitate diversity in the
classroom. In addition, the Department of Education (DoE, 1996b:5 & 38; 2009:41)
and Lomofsky and Lazarus (2001:304) recognise the pertinence of parental
involvement in their children’s schoolwork, especially during the first nine years of
schooling alongside their peers of the same age-cohort. Sonnenschein, Stapleton and
Metzger (2014:152) argue that parents too need to be educated in terms of the
inclusive curriculum and their children’s academic skills to assist them effectively.
An inclusive education system is largely dependent on the participation of key role-
players at public institutions. The collective support of the DoE, the community, NGOs
and different government departments adds richly to an inclusive learning
environment and influences the learning outcomes of disadvantaged learners (DoE,
1996b; 2001b:26; 2009:17; 2014b:25; Lunt & Norwich, 2009:98; Nel, Nel &
Lebeloane, 2016:66). In fact, Swartz (2015:94) connects a social learning
environment at public schools to the holistic development of children in the broader
community and society. Action is taken, and things are done to give meaning to
inclusion (Florian, 2009:38). For example, the collaborative expertise and
commitment of different stakeholders enhance the quality of education for many
learners at disadvantaged primary schools. Engelbrecht and Green (2005:33) and
Stofile and Green (2007:63) highlight the influence of a social environment as the
most effective way of addressing the diverse needs of learners in South Africa.
The funding of an inclusive learning environment is essential to learners with barriers
to learning and development. In terms of the historically disadvantaged schools, White
Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:38), Lomofsky and Lazarus (2001:315) and Fiske and Ladd
(2005:86) proclaim that a higher percentage of the state subsidy is allocated to them.
Generous funding is made available to poor or no-fee schools to promote quality EFA
(DoE, 2003:3-4; 2005c:13; 2018/2019). Furthermore, SASA (DoE, 1996b:45-46)
stipulates that public schools can raise additional funds to guarantee the effective
management of an inclusive learning environment. But due to huge financial backlogs
of the past it is often difficult for disadvantaged schools to maintain quality education
for learners. Lomofsky and Lazarus (2001:315) similarly claim that a big portion of
school budgets is spent on basic requirements such as flush-toilets, sanitation, safety
34
hazards and repairs to school buildings, while Butler and Mbabela (2015) and Harper
(2016) raise awareness about several cases of fraud and the mismanagement of
school funds that rob the poor from gaining access to quality EFA. As the focus of the
study entails parental involvement in education, legislation regarding the critical roles
assigned to parents is clarified.
2.4 SUBSYSTEMS OF INCLUSIVE EDUCATION FOR PARENTS TO PLAY A
ROLE
There are three subsystems in IE in which parents are expected to play a role, namely,
school governance, school-based support teams and district-based support teams –
which are now explained.
2.4.1 School governance
In association with a democratic education system in South Africa, parents as
indicated in Section 1.6.6, form an integral part of school governance where they
serve as chairperson and majority stakeholders in SGBs. The South African Schools
Act (DoE, 1996b:5) encourages the inclusion of people with special needs in school
governance. Moreover, amendments to SASA permits SGBs to co-opt additional
members of the community to represent racial and linguistic differences in the school
community (DoE, 2000c:2). These stakeholders, in conjunction with teachers and
non-teaching staff at primary school level, function as a collaborative school-based
team, which according to Lemmer and Van Wyk (2004:262), are elected on a three-
year basis. The election of the SGB is considered as the third biggest democratic
process in the country (DoE, 2005d:5).
The inclusive role of parents in school governance is very profound and encompasses
the management and sustainability of the whole school system. An array of their
functions is clearly defined via SASA (DoE, 1996b:19) and is re-iterated by
researchers such as Van Wyk (2001b:117) and Lemmer and Van Wyk (2004:262) to
guide parents in their journey as school governors. Parental involvement in SGBs
refer to the development of different school policies, a code of conduct for learners,
recommendations on appointments or dismissals of teaching and non-teaching staff,
35
curriculum support as well as the maintenance of the school property. Most
importantly, SASA (DoE, 1996b:46) stipulates the role of parents in managing school
funds and/or budgets and creating systems to improve quality educational
opportunities for all. For example, as indicated in Sections 1.2, 2.1 and 2.2.1, as well
as Pengpid, Peltzer and Igumbor (2008:50) and Ladbrook (2009:68), partnership in
combination with supplementary funding would allow schools to employ more
teachers and to upgrade school amenities. Learners from disadvantaged
communities are more challenged and costly in terms of education (Fiske & Ladd,
2005:54).
Within this context, parents in school governance represent hope and future
prosperity for many disadvantaged school communities. It is therefore imperative for
parents to arrange regular meetings and consult with the wider parent group to
promote the wishes of most parents for their children (Lemmer & Van Wyk, 2004:262).
In support of parents, SASA (DoE, 1996b:18) further encourages the DoE to
supervise and ensure that principals and departmental officers assist SGBs well in
their reign.
2.4.2 The school-based support team
The school-based support team, referred to as the institutional-level support team in
White Paper 6 (DoE 2001b:29), is an internal school structure, implemented in
support of learners with barriers, teachers and the school. It is the first level of support
at school and is rooted in a community-based support model comprising of
specialised teachers, volunteer teachers, non-teaching staff and parents who liaise
with the local community, the DBST and other support providers (DoE, 2001b:29;
2008:127-128; 2014b:25-26; Raymond & Ntombela, 2013:104; Raymond & Pienaar,
2013:203). According to the Department of Education (DoE, 2005a:36), there are no
prescribed guidelines for the composition of the SBST since schools often require
different types of assistance. Pieterse (2010:18) consequently advocates that the
SBST is a problem-solving team designed to empower teachers more effectively in
the management of diversity in the classroom.
36
The main aim of the SBST, as identified in Section 1.2, is to minimise and/or remove
barriers to learning and development. It is therefore essential for SBSTs to be actively
involved in the development of effective teaching and learning experiences (DoE,
2005a:7). The Department of Education (DoE, 2001b:29; 2014b:8) encourages
SBSTs to work in conjunction with teachers and parents to put in place, co-ordinate
and monitor educational support services for learners. For example, they encourage
the early identification of learners in need, oversee the reports and/or
recommendations of classroom teachers and consult parents concerning individual
support plans (ISPs) for their children. In addition, the Department of Education (DoE,
2005a:35; 2014b:123-125) emphasises the contribution of SBSTs in developing
relevant strategies for disadvantaged learners, empowering teachers and recruiting
local and wider resources to meet the diverse needs of learners with barriers to
learning and development. School-based support teams are thus ascribed continual
commitment that is linked to a continuous process of action and reflection. This broad
trail of support to the whole school system is eventually submitted to the DBST as
proof of intervention (Nel et al., 2016:66).
Undoubtedly, the role of SBSTs is critical in the achievement of quality EFA at
disadvantaged primary schools. The assumption is often that members of SBSTs are
all adequately prepared for their role – which is not usually the case. In her research,
Rulwa-Mnatwana (2014:69) discovered that many SBSTs were traumatised by
experiences in the field and severely challenged in terms of capacity, resources,
problem behaviour of learners, unrealistic workloads and overall a lack of support to
perform their duties. The Department of Education (DoE, 2005a:19 & 36; 2009:22)
therefore urges school principals to assist and accommodate SBSTs in the daily
planning or timetabling of the school. Public schools, according to the Department of
Education (DoE, 1996c:12-13; 2008:23 & 128; 2014b:8), can strive to improve the
quality of education for many learners with highly intensive support needs. The
intention is to make parents resources for others, in this case learners and teachers
at a disadvantaged primary school, and to fully empower, train, inform and organise
them in terms of inclusive education, understanding inclusive communities,
developing community networks and parent participation (DoE, 2001b:29; 2005a:31-
33; 2014b:39; McKenzie & Loebenstein, 2007:197; Hay & Raymond, 2013:252).
37
Likewise, the DoE also have an important role to play in the effectiveness of SBSTs
at schools. For example, Mahlo (2013:165) points to the permanent employment of
learner support teachers (LSTs) in some districts in Gauteng where these
professionals serve in SBSTs to build the capacity of teachers, parents and schools.
In the Eastern Cape, as depicted in Sections 2.6 and 5.2.1.4, learner support agents
(LSAs) without any intensive training are performing this duty on a temporary basis
and are regularly disregarded by school staff and/or parents. To add to this
predicament in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole, the Department of Education
(DoE, 1996c:12-13; 2008:23 & 128; 2014b:8) advocate that SBSTs can only refer
learners with severe barriers to learning and development to DBTSs for more
specialised support.
2.4.3 The district-based support team
The district-based support team is an external structure that is led by the local District
Director in support of an IE system. According to the Department of Education (DoE,
2005a:16 & 41), the composition of DBSTs is flexible and informed through an “asset-
audit of community resources” that involves a group of professionals, as required by
SBSTs. Therapists, psychologists, remedial teachers, health professionals and
experts from special schools form an integral part of DBSTs ranging from provincial
to regional and the local district-level (DoE, 2008:153; Pieterse, 2010:125). This
flexibility suggests that DBSTs are well equipped to meet the diverse needs of
learners with barriers to learning and development.
Primarily, the Department of Education (DoE, 2005a:6) recognises the goal of DBSTs
in terms of providing a full range of educational support services to learners with
barriers, teachers and schools (DoE, 2001b:29). For this reason, DBSTs work in
proximity to the District Director and the SBST because of their respective roles in the
local and broader community. The Department of Education constitutes a cost-
effective, collective framework of intervention (DoE, 2005a:10; 2014b:8; Nel et al.,
2016:66), which according to SIAS (DoE, 2008:44-45), directs the establishment of a
well-organised action plan or learning programme to overcome barriers. The
effectiveness of these programmes is regularly evaluated, monitored and if needed,
modified by DBSTs (DoE, 2005a:14). Teaching strategies, learning support materials,
38
assessment instruments and support systems inside the classrooms are examples of
work allocated to DBSTs. In times of need, the Department of Education (DoE,
2005a:18) also prescribes the support of other professionals like teachers, staff from
special schools, resource centres, full-service/inclusive schools and higher education
to share in the sustainability of quality EFA.
The measure of support from DBSTs directly influences the teaching and learning
process and dictates the quality of education to disadvantaged learners. It is thus
critical to monitor the effectiveness of members of DBSTs over a wide range of
competencies (DoE, 2014b:26). Of particular importance for this study is their ability
to address particular psychological, social and physical health problems; to develop
general health promotion programmes; the counselling of parents – including stress
management; the training of parents to develop their capacity to provide support to
learners; and to acquire the services of leadership, management and governance
experts to support governing bodies regarding their roles at public institutions. Due to
this personal and human approach to research a closer look is directed at essential
values that strengthen an IE system in South Africa.
2.5 VALUES UNDERPINNING INCLUSIVE EDUCATION
Marckwardt et al. (1992:1386) define values as something of worth, a belief, standard
or precepts. These beliefs stir emotions and feelings which are entrenched in one’s
psyche. Cushner, McClelland and Safford (2000:104) equally acknowledge the
development of internalised values as important to a person’s everyday life. It is a
person’s moral compass which gives meaning to a person’s individual and social life
(DoE, 2001a:10; Nieuwenhuis, 2005:183). Each person is influenced differently and
adopts a set of values true to her or himself. To protect the rights of all people in South
Africa, in this case parents, Beckmannn and Prinsloo (2005:258) similarly identify a
set of values adopted by the democratic government to inspire transformation at all
levels, including education.
Ten core values were selected from the Constitution and Bill of Rights as the
backbone of an IE system in South Africa. Democracy, social justice and equity,
equality, non-racism and non-sexism, Ubuntu (human dignity), an open society,
39
accountability (responsibility), the rule of law, respect and reconciliation are perceived
as momentous values aimed at correcting the injustices of the past and re-uniting
people (DoE, 2001a:12-16). Within an inclusive learning environment, SASA (DoE,
1996b) communicates these values by means of numerous changes to the roles of
teachers, learners, parents and the wider community in education, which according
to Malherbe (2005:195) and Nel et al. (2016:12) must be shared by all stakeholders
to preserve human dignity. A shared vision, mutual understanding and respect are
important attributes for building a school or society at large (Fiske & Ladd, 2005:157;
DoE, 2011:10).
The focus of this study was on parental involvement at one of the disadvantaged
primary schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole. These parents were well-
acquainted with the challenges in their school community and a huge asset to the
design of a PSP in support of disadvantaged learners. Therefore, values such as
human dignity (Ubuntu), non-racism and non-sexism as well as social justice and
equity were accepted and applied to secure a respectful and trusting relationship
amongst all the participants.
▪ Human dignity (Ubuntu)
Ubuntu derives from the African philosophy for living, “I am human because you are
human”. This active appreciation for human dignity is nested in knowing yourself and
others and understanding your space and others in a multicultural school environment
(DoE, 2001a:14; 2011:12; Davis, 2012:131). It means that Ubuntu encourages mutual
respect and understanding for human differences in a social context. Everybody,
according to the Constitution of the RSA, has inherent dignity and the right to have
their dignity respected and protected (RSA, 1996:6). One individual cannot be more,
or less a human than another, nor more or less than a person (Nieuwenhuis,
2005:187). Shared humanity encourages a shared vision, and in turn, promotes
teamwork and ignites the spirit of Ubuntu in education. Malherbe (2005:188)
accordingly acknowledges the contribution of all people in society.
Human dignity in education is introduced and guided by SASA (DoE, 1996b). The
Department of Education (DoE, 1996b:3) encourages the development of all people’s
talents and capabilities in pursuit of an inclusive learning environment. By including
40
black, brown and white in a team, each person can learn something of value from the
other (Willie, 2005:84). It is important for all stakeholders in education, including
parents, to support and serve their school community in the best way possible. The
Department of Education (DoE, 2001a:14; 2011:12) advocates that from this team
spirit, practices of compassion, kindness, altruism, generosity and respect for human
dignity emanate, which according to Sachs (2005:7) and McKenzie and Loebenstein
(2007:197), were non-existent during Apartheid and robbed the poor and vulnerable
of their dignity and responsibility as human beings. Against this background, the study
intended to change the learning environment by celebrating parents’ diversity in the
design of a PSP where they would be able to impart their knowledge, skills, expertise
and desires for the education of disadvantaged learners.
▪ Non-racism and non-sexism
Non-racism and non-sexism outline the challenge for South Africans to strive towards
practices that treat everyone as equals (DoE, 2001a:13). UNESCO (2001:5) and
Kaabwe (2003:202) accordingly declare that many Black people and especially
women are victims of double discrimination. During Apartheid, Black women were
confined to household duties and could seldom complete their school career, while
men achieved higher literacy levels to compete in the workplace (Aikman &
Unterhalter, 2013:33). Even though this scenario is slowly changing, UNESCO
(n.d.:1) indicates a 71.4% literacy level amongst women compared to the 83.7% of
men.
To address non-racism and non-sexism in South Africa, the Department of Education
(DoE, 2011:11) acknowledges that Black students and female students should be
provided with equal educational opportunities to maximise their potential, just as
White students and male students. Lomofsky and Lazarus (2001:303), White Paper
6 (DoE, 2001b:4) and Singh (2005:60) concur that race and gender disparities of the
previous education system excluded and devalued many people in South Africa. The
manifestation of racial and gender inequality has severely damaged interrelations in
society and it is a timeous process to correct this wrong (Sachs, 2005:7).
The South African Schools Act (DoE, 1996b:3) sets out to combat sexism and racism
at public institutions by means of an inclusive education system that welcomes a
41
rainbow nation. It seems though, as if gender inequalities are easier to overcome than
racial discrimination, as Fiske and Ladd (2005:95) and Sayed and Ahmed (2013:114)
highlight the subtle exclusion of mostly Black learners who often fail to comply with
school choices in terms of admission, language and school fee policies. Singh
(2005:75) similarly adds that the wide-ranging challenges associated with social class
and poverty hugely contribute to racial exclusion, which according to Aikman and
Unterhalter (2013:31), side-line initiatives for change. In association with this
perspective, Holliday, Hyde and Kullman (2004:21) urge that people do not think less
of others and refrain from racism and sexism. This study deemed it necessary to invite
parents across racial and gender limitations to participate actively in ESPs in support
of all learners to promote non-racism and non-sexism. It was anticipated that,
regardless of their differences, all parents shared a common interest in the education
of disadvantaged learners.
▪ Social justice and equity
Social justice and equity are mechanisms to fight injustices, oppression, capitalism,
prejudice, racism and sexism in our schools and society at large (Engelbrecht,
2009:111; Blignaut, n.d.:2). It is a process built on respect, care, recognition and
empathy which strives towards a fair and democratic future for all (Willie, 2005:79;
Ryan, 2006:3; Theoharis, 2007:222). In line with this view, Gale (2000:253), Ryan
(2006:6) and Blignaut (n.d.:2) add that social justice and equity cater for the poor,
diversity, integration and social cohesion. The South African school system for
example, places huge emphasis on social justice and equity in the attainment of high
standards for all. Slee (2001:16), Theoharis (2007:223), Hick (2009:165), Artiles,
Harris-Murri and Rostenberg (n.d.:261) affirm that an IE system is consistent with the
general aspiration for social justice and equity as it embraces diversity and strives to
meet the diverse needs of learners. Ryan (2006:7), Blignaut (n.d.:3) and Sapon-
Shevin (n.d.:12) furthermore associate social justice and equity with the
empowerment and emancipation of the disadvantaged, which is intended for the
greater good of all. Public schools for instance, need to accommodate learners who
are studying in a language other than their mother tongue, if so preferred (DoE,
2001a:3 & 12; 2011:10; Malherbe, 2005:89; Walton, 2016:143).
42
To promote social justice and equity at public schools, SASA (DoE, 1996b:11)
emphasises the pivotal role of parents in various school-related structures, namely
the SGB, committees and educational programmes. All parents, including the poor,
can support public schools in managing an IE system (McKenzie & Loebenstein,
2007:197). Schools are therefore encouraged to accept and to appreciate the
resourcefulness of poor parents. Willie (2005:78) and Ryan (2006:8) similarly
articulate the importance of synchronising different skills, knowledge, attitudes and
values to the benefit of all learners. Authority has been vested to all parents in shaping
the course of education for their children (Artiles et al., n.d.:264).
Fiske and Ladd (2005:79) and Blignaut (n.d.:4) emphasise how poverty in
disadvantaged communities often separate the privileged from the underprivileged
and impedes on social relations. In relation to this view, Blignaut (n.d.:3) claims that
social justice and equity can only be achieved when power relations are shared
amongst stakeholders and individual freedom is maximised at all levels, which
according to Nieuwenhuis (2005:195), cannot be accessed sufficiently through
legislation, but rather via the hearts of people. It matters how we treat one another
(Ryan, 2006:5). This study yielded to the concept of social justice and equity in
education and strived to empower and emancipate the participants by means of a
PSP. To design a suitable programme for the specific disadvantaged primary school
examples of educational support programmes are explored.
2.6 AVAILABLE EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMMES
SIAS (DoE, 2014b:28) lists nine areas of concern in terms of educational programmes
to sustain a caring, supportive teaching and learning (CSTL) atmosphere at public
schools. These community-based programmes include nutritional support, health
promotion, infrastructure for water and sanitation, safety programmes, social welfare
services, psycho-social support, material support, curriculum support and co-
curricular support that encourage the participation of parents as co-partners and
volunteers in school life (Rockwell, Andre & Hawley, 2010:297; Nel et al., 2016:66).
A brief description of the programmes is presented due to its ties to learners with
barriers to learning and development at disadvantaged primary schools and its
relevance to a more sustainable PSP.
43
▪ Nutritional support
Nutrition is an important aspect of a healthy and balanced lifestyle. According to
Bilchitz (2008:246), in South Africa about 1.5 million children under the age of six
years old are malnourished. Starvation seems to be a common denominator in the
Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole as Ellis (2017) reports on the death of twenty children
and the admission of 140 others at local hospitals in a twenty-month period. Parental
involvement is thus extremely important at underprivileged schools in order to monitor
and provide for the needs of learners. Ellis (2017) and O’Reilly (2017) report on
groups of concerned parents in disadvantaged communities in Port Elizabeth, who
displayed initiative in growing vegetable gardens and establishing soup kitchens in
support of a balanced diet for children.
In addition, the Constitution of the RSA (RSA, 1996:5) guarantees everyone the right
to basic nutrition and in conjunction with the Department of Education, supports
scholars by means of a National School Nutrition Plan (NSNP). This plan includes a
generous budget and a stipend for parental involvement at all disadvantaged schools
to manage, promote and secure a healthy diet for learners (DoE, 2017/2018). Cox-
Petersen (2011:73) claims that healthy nutrition endorses successful learning
experiences and ultimately adds to the well-being of children. Jansen and Blank
(2014:152) consequently encourage schools to accommodate and assist parents
towards the effective management of school nutrition programmes.
▪ Health promotion
Health promotion in education refers to both the physical and the psycho-social
learning environment. In this context, Johnson and Green (2007:167) decree the
importance of safe and supportive learning environments that meet the basic health
requirements of disadvantaged learners. Most of the children in South Africa live in
poverty and are victims of a range of health challenges which includes chronic and
acute ill-health (Fleisch, 2008:48). For example, Viljoen (2007:74) reveals how the
Human Immunodeficiency Virus/Acquired Immunodeficiency Syndrome (HIV/AIDS)
pandemic threatens the health of millions of children in South Africa. About 250 000
school children are infected and between two to four million children are AIDS
orphans (Prinsloo, 2011:31).
44
White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:55) claims that health promotion is a pre-condition for
successful learning outcomes. For this reason, the NEP (DoE, 1996c:18 & 20)
encourages school governance to intervene and implement strategies applicable to
the needs of their learners. In line with this perception, the DoE has employed LSAs
at some schools to assist the various needs of disadvantaged learners (Cindi, 2018).
They liaise with teachers, parents and medical professionals in support of learners
who are directly or indirectly affected by HIV/AIDS. Dodd and Konzal (2002:119) and
O’Reilly (2017) equally acknowledge the valuable role of parents as community health
workers, both inside and outside the school environment to promote healthy living
conditions.
▪ Infrastructure for water and sanitation
The infrastructure for water and sanitation in South Africa is mainly the responsibility
of the government. As the frontrunners, the Department of Water and Sanitation
(n.d.:1) recognises their part in the delivery of affordable water and sanitation services
to all South Africans. These services include clean drinking water and adequate
sewage disposal to prevent the spread of contagious diseases in society (O’Shea,
2013:633). Yet, this is not always the case. The Integrated National Disability Strategy
White Paper (DoE, 1997:7) and Nel et al. (2016:21) state that many households in
disadvantaged areas lack access to amenities such as running water and flush toilets.
In the same instance, the Municipal News (2017) and Klaasen (2018) report on huge
budget cuts to water schemes in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole and urge
households to use water more sparingly to support the infrastructure for water and
sanitation to the poor.
At school level, Donald, Lazarus and Lolwana (2010:120-121) emphasise the
effectiveness of life skills education which deals with real-life challenges. Life skills
support the empowerment of learners about personal hygiene and their appreciation
for water, which according to Johnson and Green (2007:168-169), can be achieved
with the assistance of parents in school projects. Parents can help with the
development of programmes, advise the staff and take leadership in coordinating
programmes (Cotton, Mann, Hassan & Nickolay, 2003:83; Rockwell et al., 2010:328).
In addition, Magadla (2017) reports on a case where a learner took the initiative to
liaise with the International Leadership Academy to install taps in his community.
45
Valuable, hands-on resources for life skills programmes are available to schools that
include the Department of Water and Sanitation.
▪ Safety programmes
Safety programmes are urgently required in distressed, disadvantaged communities.
Neuman (2009:128), Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009:79) and Dayimani (2017)
emphasise that many children from disadvantaged areas are daily confronted by
social evils such as domestic violence, rapes, robberies, shootings, murders, gangs,
drugs, vandalism and prostitution that threaten their safety. In numerous events,
children are negatively influenced by this social environment and resort to bullying or
become targets of bullies in the school community (Winslade & Williams, 2012:3 &
121).
Marckwardt et al. (1992:176) define bullies as persons who terrorise or impend on
those who are weaker than them. Bullies utilise power and control as a manipulative
tool to encourage discrepancies and division amongst others (Lincoln, 2002:34). They
rarely demonstrate effective leadership, but merely exploit their own insecurities
concerning the world and people around them. In general, Vogel (2008:19)
emphasises that bullies regularly misinterpret behaviour, believe that others want to
harm them and cultivate both an attitude of favouritism and antagonism, which
according to Lincoln (2002:34), encourages confusion and chaos throughout the
learning adventure. In a similar manner, some disadvantaged learners too impose
their anger and misery on others by means of bullying, domineering or simply
aloofness (Roffey, 2011:142).
Bullying manifests in different forms of violence in society. Lincoln (2002:15 & 55) and
Winslade and Williams (2012:3) affirm the crudeness associated with violence and
stress its rapid infiltration at schools. In the South African context, Jadezweni (2019)
claims that the labels of violence might have changed, but the battle is still the same.
Disadvantaged learners, for example, are daily challenged to respond to verbal and
non-verbal stimuli of bullying, namely fighting and teasing that prescribe whether they
are bullied or not (Marais, 2014). In most cases, Winslade and Williams (2012:121)
advocate that bullying is concealed and parents hardly notice or realise its
seriousness.
46
According to Lincoln (2002: vii), schools were previously the safest institutions of
society, but currently very hostile due to the level of violence amongst learners, which
are regularly exposed through social media. When harm is inflicted by child bullies,
Dignam and Soan (2008:76) pronounce that victims sometimes retaliate and toughen
the vicious cycle of destruction in schools. The sabotage of a safe environment for
schooling is illustrated by Lincoln (2002:6) and Capa, O’Reily and Sobuwa (2017),
who point to learners who carry deadly weapons in their book-bags or jackets, wear
gang-related headgear or armbands, strongly impose on others and simultaneously
jeopardise the safety of teachers at local schools. Due to this scenario, many
disadvantaged schools symbolise war zones and cannot guarantee the safety of
stakeholders, including parents, without any proper protocol or programme to guide
it. The tools to overcome bullying are inherent, but the choice to use them lies with
the individual (Jadezweni, 2019).
The South African Schools Act (DoE, 1996b) is very clear about safety precautions at
public schools. Strict rules and regulations are prescribed to promote a violence and
drug free institution with the support of SGBs and parents participating in community
policing forums (DoE, 1996b:65-67). Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009:70) advocate that
parents must be visible on school playgrounds to protect learners properly. Parents
can assist schools with gang related challenges in the neighbourhood and empower
scholars in terms of their own safety (Jansen & Blank, 2014:152; Constantino,
2016:187). Marais (2014) also speaks of a parent in the community who inaugurated
an anti-bullying campaign through martial arts training to learners – as young as six
years old, while Cotton et al. (2003:80) also mention parents who are managing
scholar patrol programmes in aid of learners’ safety across heavy traffic.
▪ Social welfare services
The Constitution of the RSA (RSA, 1996:5), White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:30) and SIAS
(DoE, 2014b:34) acknowledge the right of all children to gain access to social welfare
services, if so needed. Many children from disadvantaged school communities are in
desperate need of social welfare services due to personal challenges at home and at
school. Donald et al. (2010:190) similarly identify substance abuse, violence,
sexuality development, HIV/AIDS, social discrimination and the issue of AIDS
orphans as some of the immediate concerns in education that must be dealt with.
47
Parental support and guidance are essential for the well-being or happiness of
children. It is important for children to find security, support, meaning and identity in
their family (Donald et al., 2010:199). For this reason, Dodd and Konzal (2002:277)
encourage parents and community groups to work in conjunction with schools and to
provide learners with the best possible services. Interaction with experts in the school
community informs parents about social programmes and services available to their
children (Lemmer & Van Wyk, 2009:28). Winslade and Williams (2012:31), Grant and
Ray (2013:334), Jansen and Blank (2014:152) and Constantino (2016:187) identify
examples of social welfare programmes, namely, counselling, spiritual guidance,
clothing banks and care teams that parents can embark on with schools.
▪ Psycho-social support
Dorland and Newman (2007:1573) define psycho-social as a combination of both
psychological and social aspects. Psycho-social support thus implies assistance for
mental and physical challenges in society. Within disadvantaged school communities,
numerous learners are mentally and physically challenged and struggle to cope with
the demands of school life. In a similar way, Fleisch (2008:48), Van Aardt (2017) and
Wilson (2017) refer to children who are permanently handicapped and orphans living
on the streets for days without any food. Another example of psycho-social trauma is
displayed by the hundreds of distressed school children and students who have
publicly raised their concerns about the high rates of crime, rape and violence (Hyman
& Molyneaux, 2017; Markman, 2017).
All stakeholders in education must be pro-active in the provision of psycho-social
support to learners at disadvantaged schools. According to SIAS (DoE, 2014b:18-
23), school-based support teams and DBSTs must provide the necessary assistance
to learners with barriers to learning and development by means of intervention
programmes. These programmes are organised in conjunction with the specific needs
of learners both inside and outside the classroom (DoE, 2009:21; Landsberg,
2011:66-67). For example, Reporter (2016a) refers to a concerned parent who
established and offered professional services to victims of trauma, while Van Aardt
(2017) reports on a parent who liaised with local churches to educate poor
communities about disability tolerance via a project called the Dare to Care
Campaign.
48
▪ Material support
Learning and teaching support material are essential to stimulate the responsiveness
of learners in the mainstream. Both Fleisch (2008:130) and the Department of
Education (DoE, 2009:37) stress the significance of textbooks, readers, assistive
technology and specialised equipment to uphold equal educational opportunities in
public schools. In the event of disadvantaged learners, no pressure should be placed
on poor parents to pay for standard devices since the government subsidises low,
moderate and high levels of material support (DoE, 2009:38; 2018/2019). It implies
that disadvantaged primary schools must provide for the diverse needs of learners
with barriers to learning and development. In line with this perspective, SIAS (DoE,
2014b:21-24) encourages more permanent programmes at local schools.
As members of the SGB and SBST, explained in Sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, parents
have a powerful voice and are greatly responsible for material support to learners,
classroom teachers and the entire school system. Dodd and Konzal (2002:279)
furthermore encourage schools to liaise with churches and community leaders in the
provision of additional material support. Parents can, for example, volunteer in
supervising asset registers for material support, co-ordinate helpline programmes
and/or fundraising projects at local schools as means of assistance (DoE, 2001a:21;
2009:38; Van Wyk & Lemmer, 2009:79; Jansen & Blank, 2014:152).
▪ Curriculum support
According to Donald et al. (2010:17-18), the curriculum must support the diverse
needs of learners. But, due to the poor implementation of an IE system at
disadvantaged schools, many learners are severely challenged by the inflexible
curriculum. White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b:19-20) identifies the content, language of
learning and teaching, pace of teaching and how learning is assessed as huge
barriers to the curriculum. Moreover, Jansen and Blank (2014:66) add to this list, the
large class sizes that discourage individual support to disadvantaged learners. It
means that greater emphasis must be placed on curriculum support at public schools.
Schools need to become community centres that offer a wider range of curriculum
support to their young learners (Bruwer, 2016:201).
49
Dodd and Konzal (2002:118) and Olender, Elias & Mastroleo (2010:94) encourage
the assistance of parents in curriculum-related programmes during and after school
hours. Parents can act as teacher-assistants inside the classroom as well as tutors in
reading, writing and mathematics programmes outside the classroom (DoE, 2009:23;
Donald et al., 2010:124; Cox-Petersen, 2011:56; Grant & Ray, 2013:73). Dodd and
Konzal (2002:251) explicitly suggest small group tutoring as an effective way for
parents to manage the curriculum successfully, while Reporter (2016b) points to more
creative and practical learning experiences in science, hosted via a community-based
programme.
▪ Co-curricular support
Marckwardt et al. (1992:254) relate co-curricular to extra-curricular activities that
include athletics, student councils and clubs. Within this range, the Department of
Education (DoE, 2000a:2) identifies various sport codes and social, cultural and
educational events, which are viewed as an informal curriculum outside the
classroom. The practical connotation of this curriculum is that it allows learners to
explore and develop their practical skills and simultaneously boost their confidence.
Children have different learning needs and should participate actively in co-curricular
programmes (Vincent, 2000:2; Nel & Nel, 2016:36). Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009:70)
consequently highlight the need for additional co-curricular support via parents.
Rishel (2008:51), Donald et al. (2010:124), Olender et al. (2010:95) and Grant and
Ray (2013:335) identify an array of programmes to actively involve parents as co-
curricular facilitators at school, namely sport, cooking, cake decorating, sewing,
music, art, computer skills, field trips and library activities. Neuman (2009:15) likewise
acknowledges these programmes in terms of after-school activities held in schools,
churches and community associations. Parents are resourceful and, as noted earlier,
want to support their children and to be given an opportunity to do so.
Rockwell et al. (2010:297 & 328) refer to parents at school as volunteers and
advocate that their involvement in programmes is a solution for some of the
challenges that disadvantaged schools have faced for many years. In South Africa,
research concerning parental involvement is limited and mainly effected by wealthier
social groups (Smit & Liebenberg, 2003:1). Cotton et al. (2003:115) accordingly warn
50
that, “…making a school a good place to be does not just happen”. Assistance in the
establishment of realistic educational support programmes is required (Hay & Hay,
1999:91; Redding, n.d.:8). In relation to this notion, this study draws from different
entities including international and national resources to design a PSP at one of the
disadvantaged primary schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole, South Africa
through PAR. This programme evolved from some of the material which is now
presented and later elaborated in Chapter Five.
Stofile and Green (2007:60) discovered in their research that most parents with
learners without barriers to learning and development favoured an inclusive learning
environment that exposed their children to diversity and fostered harmony amongst
them. In a similar manner, Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009:74) and Redding (n.d.:24)
encourage schools to celebrate the different interests, talents, schooling and time
schedules of their parent community and to involve them actively in educational
programmes. For example, Lemmer (n.d.:89) points to a Christian-inspired, strengths-
based model that is more interested in how families succeed despite their challenges,
while Van Wyk (2001b:135-136) draws on international approaches to parental
involvement, namely a functional or the Epstein Approach, a social capital or the
Coleman Approach, a parent empowerment or the Cochran and Dean Approach as
well as a cultural competence or the Moll, Amanti, Neff and Gonzalez Approach,
referred to in Section 1.2.
In her personal reflection on these different approaches to parental involvement in
South Africa, Lemmer (2007:218) leaned more towards the comprehensive model of
partnership, which is closely linked to Epstein’s Model of family-home-school
partnership. This partnership includes parenting, communicating, volunteering,
learning at home, decision-making and collaborating with the community (Epstein
2009:14).
2.7 SIGNIFICANCE OF PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
As the primary nurturers and role models for their children, parents purposely
intervene and guide their education. Smit and Liebenberg (2003:2), Rose and Howley
(2007:97), Omoteso (2010:259), Bartolome et al. (2017:41) and Guest Post (2019:1)
51
similarly link parents and the community to child development, while McKenzie and
Loebenstein (2007:190) explicitly emphasise the nurturing role of mothers for
academic success. The commitment of mothers is essential in ensuring that the
community and school objectives in raising a functional child are achieved (Nyarko,
2011:378). Epstein (2019:68) accordingly confirms that parental involvement,
including the role of fathers, in school life is of great worth to learners, teachers and
parents.
Firstly, it is important for learners at primary school level to connect adequately with
their school and home environment to encourage stability and a sense of belonging.
Parents are important to their children and in partnership with the school, richly add
to learners’ education (Bronfenbrenner, 1979:7; Smit & Liebenberg, 2003:2;
Ladbrook, 2009:68; Fan, Williams & Wolters, 2012:21). UNESCO (2004:146) and
Rose and Howley (2007:68) proclaim that parental involvement inside the classroom
encourages more individual attention to learners in need. Their reading performance
is likely to improve, along with literacy and language skills as well as a love for reading
(Ndebele, 2015:72-73), which positively influence other areas of development. Fan et
al. (2012:21), Grant and Ray (2013:8), Pavlakis (2015:4) and Redding (n.d.:13) refer
to improved grades and test scores, better school attendance, fewer retentions or
placements in special education classes, improved social skills, completion of high
school and access to tertiary education as positive advantages. Leather (2018) and
White (2018:1) add to this list lower suspension rates, decreased drug and alcohol
usage and fewer instances of violent behaviour. Parental involvement in education
thus encourages children to be successful in school, as well as beyond school. While
learners at primary schools might be more enthusiastic about their parents at school,
Goodall (2015:174) claims that secondary learners rather preferred their parents’
moral support and guidance at home.
Secondly, disadvantaged primary schools are hugely challenged in the
implementation of an IE system and require additional assistance to accommodate
diversity. The commitment of stakeholders such as parents is profound in sustaining
an infrastructure for IE (Nyarko, 2011:378; Williams, 2012:117). Parents can
volunteer in various structures, committees and programmes, as indicated in Section
2.6, to encourage equal educational opportunities for all learners. Vogel (2008:20)
52
similarly stresses the involvement of parents as perfect assistants, helpers and
coaches for classroom teachers. In this way, better relationships are fostered, the
morale of teachers are improved, and more quality-driven education is provided to
learners (Sutton, 2017:1; Bang, 2018:1788). Meier and Lemmer (2015:2)
consequently accentuate the value of mutual respect and school responsiveness to
parents’ perceptions. Overall, parental involvement influences the whole-school
development and improves the culture of learning and teaching, which is closely
linked to school effectiveness (Van Wyk, 2004:259-260; Grant & Ray, 2013:9; Hinkle,
2017:2).
Lastly, parents themselves are empowered when they participate actively in school
life. McKenzie and Loebenstein (2007:187), Vogel (2008:20), Sutton (2017:1) and
White (2018:1) agree that parents gain first-hand experience and knowledge of the
learning environment, understand their children better and become more confident to
help them with their schoolwork. In a similar manner, Lemmer and Van Wyk
(2004:261) adds that as parents work with teachers, they become more aware of the
teachers’ skills. For instance, parent volunteers are often mentored by teachers and
have direct access to their professional world. As a result, parents often adopt a more
positive attitude towards education, are satisfied with their child’s school, want to
improve their own skills and education and pursue more leadership roles at the school
(Grant & Ray, 2013:9; Goodall, 2015:172; Meier & Lemmer, 2015:2). Linked to this
perspective, Epstein and Jansorn (2004:11) and McKenzie and Loebenstein
(2007:199) confirm that the interest of parents in education is accelerating. Yet, in
South Africa parents are hardly visible at many disadvantaged primary schools and
to understand this phenomenon better, the difficulties experienced by parents are now
reviewed.
2.8 CHALLENGES TO PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT
According to Fan et al. (2012:22), parental involvement is still evolving at many
disadvantaged public schools. Contrary to former White schools, Lemmer and Van
Wyk (2004:262) and Fiske and Ladd (2005:69) recognise that, for example, SGB
parents at underprivileged schools are less equipped to use their powers effectively
towards quality EFA. McKenzie and Loebenstein (2007:187) and Omoteso
53
(2010:256) furthermore identify different kinds of internal and external pressures
related to poor parental involvement. These challenges include personal factors such
as poor socio-economic environments, time-constraints, feelings of inadequacy and
personal beliefs as well as school factors, namely the language of learning and
teaching (LOLT), prejudice and teacher reluctance. These are described below.
2.8.1 Poor socio-economic environments
Parents from poor socio-economic environments are extremely challenged as co-
partners in education. Factors such as unemployment, crime, gangs, violence, abuse,
the rapid growth of the HIV/AIDS pandemic, high divorce rates, single parent homes
and the inability to communicate in the LOLT threaten the effectiveness of partnership
(Fiske & Ladd, 2005:69-79; Nel et al., 2016:21; Lemmer, n.d.:90). In relation to
unemployment, Smit and Liebenberg (2003:2) and Fleisch (2008:52) highlight
parents’ daily fight for survival and their dependency on government grants.
Conditions of homelessness further hamper a stimulating environment to support
children’s education (Pavlakis, 2015:4). The effect of poverty is often visible in the
form of mothers working long hours and child labour. In line with this view, Omoteso
(2010:254-256), Motala and Luxamo (2014:82) and Chetty (2017) refer to numerous
occasions whereby women are forced to join men in the workplace, children are
trading in the streets and young girls resort to prostitution to support their families.
Poverty often results in psychological and material effects which negatively influence
the education of children (Wise, 2005:41; McKenzie & Loebenstein, 2007:190).
Due to their poor socio-economic environment, parents are often stigmatised and
classed by society. Lemmer and Van Wyk (2004:263) and Sachs (2005:7) define
social class in terms of patterns of the advantaged and disadvantaged in society. The
disadvantaged are generally living in townships and the advantaged in more upmarket
areas. Currently, though, people of different socio-economic levels may be found in
any suburb in South Africa (Ndebele, 2015:74). Social class therefore embodies the
mind set of people and what they believe to be true for themselves and others. Fiske
and Ladd (2005:53) accordingly accentuate the notion of many schools to cater
financially for the middle class and discourage the masses of low-income parents.
McKenzie and Loebenstein (2007:187) similarly add that the degree of fit between
54
the values and knowledge of the home and those of the school, often include or
exclude parents in the school community. This form of social segregation in public
schools greatly disturbs parental involvement (Ladbrook, 2009:31).
2.8.2 Time constraints
Parents are severely challenged to support their children’s education due to time
constraints. Pavlakis (2015:3) asserts that low income and middle-class parents are
equally challenged to fully engage in the social and educational worlds of their
children. Most working-class parents spend their time working very long hours and
travelling very far to work and back home to provide for the basic needs of their
children (Ndebele, 2015:85). These parents are often too exhausted to assist their
children’s education. Parents often lack adequate time to bond with their children and
may be less concerned about school issues (Van Wyk, 2004:271; Vogel, 2008:16;
Omoteso, 2010:254; Grant & Ray, 2013:10). Lemmer (n.d.:96-100) claims that
parents frequently transfer their responsibilities to the school and other care-giving
services such as nannies, domestic workers and after-care. Hence, it does not
necessarily mean that parents are ignorant towards their children’s development.
Some parents are genuinely concerned about their children’s academic achievement,
self-confidence and happiness, but are limited by time (Swartz, 2015:132).
2.8.3 Feelings of inadequacy
Feelings of inadequacy frequently hamper the involvement of illiterate and/or poor
parents in the education of their children at public schools. Fiske and Ladd (2005:59),
Ladbrook (2009:31), Prinsloo (2011:31) and Lemmer (n.d.:90) state that children,
especially Black children, are often raised by their grandparents who rarely had any
formal education or by unemployed parents of which only 34% completed secondary
schooling. Similarly, Smit and Liebenberg (2003:2), Fleisch (2008:25) and Hay and
Raymond (2013:250) announce that parents frequently struggle to overcome their
inferiority towards higher qualified professionals, are hesitant to visit their children’s
school or to assist them appropriately and transfer their responsibilities to teachers.
In the event of disadvantaged learners, McKenzie and Loebenstein (2007:197)
55
acknowledge the stressors of many parents who are unable to support their children’s
education financially.
2.8.4 Own beliefs
In numerous cases, parents have their own set of beliefs regarding their children and
education. According to Fiske and Ladd (2005:58) and Motala and Luxomo (2014:90),
several parents perceive school as the place where children go to receive education.
Some parents struggle to understand the curriculum and their active involvement in it
(McKenzie & Loebenstein, 2007:190; Ladbrook, 2009:68). Parents, for example, do
not accept the responsibility associated with IE and distance themselves from school
life to the detriment of their children. Nyarko (2011:378) equally adds that poor
parental involvement discourages educational transformation in disadvantaged
primary schools in South Africa. A paradigm shift is necessary to bring about change
in parents’ beliefs and actions (Swart & Pettipher, 2007:105).
2.8.5 Language of learning and teaching
The language of learning and teaching is usually a huge challenge for Afrikaans and
Xhosa speaking parents who enrol their children in English medium streams. Parents
believe that literacy and fluency in English, as a means of communication, are
beneficial for future job opportunities for their children (Motala & Luxomo, 2014:88).
Kroes (2005:239), Wise (2005:42), Pienaar, Stofile and Raymond (2013:39) and
Ndebele (2015:73) also view English as the leading language in society that binds all
other languages and cultures together. Nevertheless, parents disregard the
consequences of children learning in a second or third language, namely the process
of guidance and intervention and fail to support them adequately (Cushner et al.,
2000:104; Williams, 2012:98; Moletsane, Stofile & Raymond, 2013:73). During
interactions with parents, Hay and Hay (1999:90) observe that parents often
communicated through gestures and/or non-verbal language.
Poor communication with their child’s school increases the risk of non-parental
involvement. Instead, a reciprocal communication channel is required to promote
partnership and a sound working relationship amongst schools and families (Lemmer
& Van Wyk, 2004:269-270). The Department of Education (DoE, 2009:18) and Hay
56
and Raymond (2013:250) accordingly encourage schools to investigate the
communication needs of their parents and to use it where possible as many parents
cannot read and rely on their children to translate correspondence from school.
Telephone calls, e-mails and cell phone services are different forms of communication
that can be used to interact effectively with parents (McKenzie & Loebenstein,
2007:191; Reynolds et al., 2014:762).
2.8.6 Prejudice
Davis (2012:67) refers to prejudice as a powerful tool that conveys meaning in society.
Many people at disadvantaged schools are usually prejudiced towards needy and
vulnerable parents. Smit and Liebenberg (2003:2-3) and Grant and Ray (2013:10)
refer to situations at schools where children are publicly victimised and humiliated due
to the shortcomings of their parents. Many learners are, for instance, physically
neglected and their parents fail to contribute financially to school functions. In line with
this view, McKenzie and Loebenstein (2007:190) and Davis (2012:98) assert that
schools fail to comprehend how poverty influences families and continue to make it
difficult for them to access it. Disadvantaged schools need to change their attitude
towards poor parents (Smit & Liebenberg, 2003:2; Ndebele, 2015:86).
2.8.7 Teachers’ reluctance
Teachers’ reluctance toward parental involvement is one of the major barriers to an
inclusive learning environment. Parents are destined to interact with teachers
concerning their child’s scholastic progression (McKenzie & Loebenstein, 2007:189).
Teachers, though, are frequently unwilling to engage with parents due to their own
challenges (Lemmer & Van Wyk, 2004:274; Grant & Ray, 2013:10). Stofile and Green
(2007:56-59) refer to heavy workloads and the ill-management of diversity in the
classroom which triggers low morale amongst many teachers in South Africa. Most
teachers ignore the high aspirations that poor parents have for their children and are
more concerned that they might judge their professional abilities in the classroom
(Grant & Ray, 2013:9; Swartz, 2015:139). Teachers, according to McKenzie and
Loebenstein (2007:190) and Lindsey, Karns and Myatt (2010:53), deliberately criticise
poor families to avoid working with them. The cooperation of teachers is of the utmost
57
importance for the successful implementation of an IE system as well as positive
learning outcomes. Some teachers do occasionally include parents in the education
of their children, but the effects thereof remain to be seen (Ladbrook, 2009:69).
Despite of all the challenges related to parental involvement at disadvantaged
schools, Baatjies (2016), Goliath (2016), Ngcukana (2016), Qwabe (2017), Butler, De
Kock and Koen (2017) and Hills (2017), report on recent incidents in the northern
areas of Port Elizabeth where parents united in mass action against the shortage of
teachers, poor conditions of schools, violence, abuse and gangsterism. It implies that
parents are interested and want to be pro-active in the education of their children.
Partnership with parents is inevitable in reaching the goal of equal educational
opportunities for all (DoE, 2009:42; Omoteso, 2010:255).
2.9 SUMMARY
Chapter Two addressed the critical role of parents in the education of their children,
and largely society. The philosophy of partnership and a spirit of Ubuntu amongst
citizens, in this case parents, is deeply entrenched in the Constitution of South Africa
(DoE, 1996a:15-16), SASA (DoE, 1996b:12), White Paper 6 (DoE 2001b:29) and
SIAS (DoE 2014:27), as means to redress the inequities of the Apartheid laws which
mostly favoured white and rich people in South Africa. Little or no evidence of parental
involvement, however, exist at disadvantaged schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay
Metropole and poses great concerns to the achievement of quality EFA. Hay and Hay,
(1999:91) and Pieterse (2010) also recognise that effective educational support
programmes – comprising of parents – are established in a holistic, integrated,
community-based framework. The theory and practice associated with IE, for
example parental involvement, is very inconsistent in South Africa, marginalise many
parents and, in so doing, threatens the education of disadvantaged learners.
Compared to international trends, Van Wyk (2001b:120) and Geldenhuys and Wevers
(2013:3) emphasise that much more research regarding parental involvement in
South Africa is necessary to combat diversity at disadvantaged public schools.
58
Chapter Three will present a theoretical framework according to the Ecological Model
of Bronfenbrenner as well as a detailed description of the empirical research design
and methodology for the study.
59
CHAPTER THREE
METHODOLOGY
3.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter is an extension of the briefly discussed methodology and research
design section in Chapter One. The study sought to solve the research problem: At
present there is a lack of parents’ active involvement in the education of their children
at one of the disadvantaged primary schools within the Nelson Mandela Bay
Metropole. This was done with the use of a specific research paradigm and design
including detailed descriptions of procedures and techniques outlining how the
research was conducted.
Clough and Nutbrown (2012:36) assert that researchers differ slightly in their
definition of methodology according to their own training, discipline and purpose, but
they share a common idea of justification. For example, Silverman (2005:99) and
Corbin and Straus (2008:1) define methodology as a way of thinking about and
studying social phenomena, while Loseke (2013:9 & 11) views it as a craft associated
with different elements such as the research design and the research design process
which serve as the overall framework of the study. Eloff, Engelbrecht, Swart and
Oswald (2002:1) similarly recognise a variety of emerging innovations in methodology
such as reflexivity and multiple voicing. Clough and Nutbrown (2012:25) consequently
claim that researchers often choose a specific research methodology based on their
personal lens of social phenomena. Methodologies therefore cannot be true or false,
only more or less useful (Silverman, 2005:99).
The study focused on designing a PIP for learners at one of the disadvantaged
primary schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole, with the full participation of
their parents. As indicated in Sections 1.2 and 2.2.2, parental involvement is profound
in school governance and school life in general. It is a cost-effective way to address
the diverse needs of disadvanataged learners (Hay & Hay, 1999:92; DoE, 2014b:27).
Epstein (2009:9) likewise recognises the value of strong reciprocal partnerships within
the school-home-community environment in aid of quality EFA, which, according to
Cox-Petersen (2011:19) and Nel et al. (2016:17), are encouraged by an inclusive
60
education system in South Africa. In line with this perception, Donald et al. (2010:37)
and Swart and Pettipher (2011:10) point to the complexity of influences, interactions
and interrelationships between the learner and multiple other systems, namely family,
friends, community, teachers and peers who are part of their daily social environment.
It is thus imperative to understand child development within a social context in
promoting equal educational opportunities. For example, Swartz (2015:93) links
social context to the physical environment where learners live, the home, as well as
the place where learning occurs, the school. Against this background, the models of
Maslow, Bandura and Bronfenbrenner were considered as a framework for this study.
3.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
I believe child development to be a societal issue that largely influences learners’
behaviour in life. In this research parental involvement is encouraged to secure better
learning outcomes for disadvantaged learners, which, correlates with the notion of
Cox-Petersen (2011:19) and Swart and Pettipher (2011:13-14) that children are inter-
related and inter-connected with their respective environments.This view is now
briefly described through Maslow’s hierarchy of needs and Bandura’s Social Model –
which contribute richly to Bronfenbrenner’s holistic approach to child development.
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs, according to Larson and Buss (2005:356) and Dexter
et al. (2011:102-103), illustrates five levels of prime motivators for human behaviour,
namely, physiological, safety, love/belonging, esteem and self-actualisation.
Maslow’s hierarchy successfully demonstrates the dependency of children on their
environment, the influence and inter-relationship of these motivators, how learners
make sense of their world and develop into a fully grown individual with his or her own
identity. In association with this perception, Dexter et al. (2011:104) emphasise that
individuals are likely to learn and risk more when the first four needs are being
adequately met on the road towards self-actualisation. It is thus only those individuals
with firm identities that would eventually be able to make responsible choices and act
upon it. Larson and Buss (2005:358) similarly assert that self-actualisers know who
they are and have a good idea of where they are going. Within this framework it is
61
obvious that child development is inspired by diverse eco-sytems such as homes,
schools, communities, government, as well as social media.
In relation to Maslow’s model, Bandura’s Social Model acknowledges the role of
children in their own development. Manyumwa (2016) describes this model as agentic
and recognises that people often initiate their own experiences and fate. Children are
active agents in their development and are consciously and unconsciously influenced
by the modelling or couching of adults (Bandura 2006:165; Dexter et al. 2011:72;
Engler 2013:5). For example, a child consciously learns to ride a bike, but
unconsciously inhabitats the values of their parents in order to belong. Moreover,
Dexter et al. (2011:73) regard aspects such as attention, retention, reproduction and
motivation as critical to modelling. The assumption is that children should
continuously be trained, monitored, mentored and inspired in their journey toward self-
actualisation. Both Maslow and Bandura’s models of child development is embodied
in Bronfenbrenners’ Ecological Model and therefore this holistic approach was
adopted and is now explained more widely.
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model places children in the centre of their own
development and responds well to the learner-centred approach echoed via IE. Just
like the Ecological Model, the inclusive education system depends largely on different
systems of support, namely parents and teachers. Related to this view, Swart and
Pettipher (2011:15) and Grant and Ray (2013:37) acknowledge that children’s
perceptions of their world influence the way they respond to people, as well as their
physical setting, which is evident in the Ecological Model. As indicated in Section 1.8,
this model is nested within four systems, namely the microsystem, mesosystem,
exosystem and macrosystem that interact with the chronosystem. Each of these
systems are likely to operate in ways that contribute to its stability yet retain the
possibility of flexibility and change (Pieterse, 2010:8). Nel et al. (2016:18 & 19)
similarly claim that whatever happens in one system will affect or be affected by other
systems. Therefore, the systems are inter-related, function in harmony with the
development of learners and influence them within a given time frame. Children are,
for example, raised and educated within a family, a school and community who are
all individually influenced and challenged by their respective environments.
Bronfenbrenner (1979:8), Donald et al. (2010:37), Pieterse (2010:201) and Swartz
(2015:86) therefore emphasise the establishment of reciprocal relationships and
62
encourage the assessment of what, why and how people believe, think and act.
Figures 3.1 to 3.4 illustrate the multi-levelled systems as described by
Bronfenbrenner, with a description of its connectedness and influences on child
development.
3.2.1 Microsystem
The microsystem represents the people in proximity to the child and includes family
members, friends, teachers and peers. These people play a huge role in the daily life
of children and in reference to Donald et al. (2010:40), shape many aspects of their
development. Within this context, Larson and Buss (2005:356) and Dexter et al.
(2011:102-103) recognise the vulnerability of younger children in their desire to
belong. Figure 3.1 is an illustration of the microsystem.
Figure 3.1: The Microsystem
Source: Adapted from Pieterse (2010:203)
The child’s family is usually their first encounter with other human beings. According
to Peil (1977:133) and Le Roux (1994:174), it is within the security of a family structure
that children are cared for and taught societal norms and values which assist their
integration into the larger community. Nonetheless, as explained in Section 2.1, the
family structure has changed immensely in South Africa where children are often
raised by single-parents, grandparents, siblings and day-care facilities. This
transformation often results in conflicting standards and principles that may disturb
63
the child’s development, for example, young children are encouraged to watch
television without proper supervision and are exposed to different forms of crime,
violence and abuse. In association with this perspective, Pieterse (2010:204)
accentuates the significance of a solid parent-child relationship.
School is an extension of the child’s family and as the secondary caregiver, it is
partially responsible for child development. The values and practices that a school
upholds are very important (Ferreira, Badenhorst & Wilkenson, 2007:65; Donald et
al., 2010:198). Van Wyk (2001a:195) similarly adds that the character of teachers, as
well as their relationship with children, are equally essential as predisposition of care
and respect can be felt by the learners. To influence learners positively, Larson and
Buss (2005:356), De Klerk-Luttig and Heystek (2007:3), Donald et al. (2010:198) and
Dexter et al. (2011:102-103) motivate adults to model and teach acceptable behaviour
to children under their care.
The peer group in the neighbourhood forms an integral part of children’s daily life.
Peer groups have a powerful effect on children, particularly during adolescence
(Donald et al., 2010:198). Children, for example, are often drawn to the values and
practices of the peer group, which might be a positive or negative influence, in order
to satisfy their own needs. To endorse good leadership, independence and social
interaction amongst children, Pieterse (2010:206) consequently points to strategies
that involve peer-tutoring and Life Skills programmes.
3.2.2 Mesosystem
Bronfenbrenner (1979:7) describes the mesosystem as interrelationships between
two or more settings. The mesosystem, as noted in Section 1.8.2, represents people
in the child’s microsystem, as well as their relationships with each other through the
child. These systems and sub-systems of parents and teachers interrelate and inter-
connect in the facilitation of quality educational support to learners (Pieterse,
2010:209). The extent of meaningful engagement and relationships amongst families
and schools consequently influence the formal education of children. An illustration of
the mesosystem is provided in Figure 3.2.
64
Figure 3.2: The Mesosystem
Source: Adapted from Pieterse (2010:209)
The existence of a healthy school-family relationship is necessary to maintain a
harmonious, steadfast and balanced environment for child development. In reference
to disadvantaged learners, Pieterse (2010:110) claims that the elevation of
partnership in the mesosystem has a positive ripple effect on all other sub-systems
within the microsystem and is critical for successful intervention. For example, Donald
et al. (2010:41 & 198-199) refer to a case where a girl in a local community was
supported by her peers and teachers, rather than her own family and negative
influences at home and school that encourage children to seek support elsewhere. In
line with this perception, Wolhuter and Van Staden (2007:398) warn of a range of
social problems, namely bullying, violence and crime which might attract children.
3.2.3 Exosystem
The exosystem, as depicted in Section 1.8.3, refers to other systems which indirectly
affect people in the child’s microsystem. Parents, for instance, might be challenged
in terms of employment and the workplace, while schools too experience a lack of
support from the DBST, NGOs and community organisations, which influence
children (Bronfenbrenner, 1986:728; Donald et al., 2010:41; Pieterse, 2010:211;
Swart & Pettipher, 2011:15; Grant & Ray, 2013:38). A demonstration of the
exosystem is presented in Figure 3.3.
65
Figure 3.3: The Exosystem
Source: Adapted from Pieterse (2010:211)
Bronfenbrenner (1979:3) maintains that parents’ working conditions and schedules
are the most powerful influences affecting child development. For instance, as
explained in Section 2.8.2, parents within disadvantaged school communities often
work for long hours away from home and are unable to support their children’s
education adequately. This is also prominent in many other households and Epstein
(2009:14-18) therefore suggests a neighbouring or community-minded approach to
education which allows the local community to intervene on behalf of parents in the
education of children.
The influence of the DBST, NGOs, as well as other community organisations is
profound in strengthening educational support services for learners with barriers to
learning and development. According to Epstein (2009:10), children are more eager
to learn and do their best if they are encouraged and appreciated by others. In this
way, a community can influence the way the school functions and vice versa (Swartz,
2015:89). There are, however, numerous challenges in terms of professional support
to disadvantaged learners. For example, Pieterse (2010:213) and Narsee (2014)
heighten the reality of long waiting lists for the placement of learners with severe
barriers to learning and development at special needs schools in the Nelson Mandela
Bay Metropole.
66
3.2.4 Macrosystem
The macrosystem is the largest societal influence on child development. It is
equivalent to two systems such as the wider community and the whole social system
(Bronfenbrenner, 1999:22; Donald et al., 2010:41). It means that the macrosystem,
as illustrated in Figure 3.4, encompasses the cultural, educational, social, political and
economic policies of a country or a nation at large.
Figure 3.4: The Macrosystem
Source: Adapted from Pieterse (2010:214)
Within the macrosystem, children are exposed to and regularly influenced by the
value systems, ideologies and practices dominant within specific groups in society.
Children for instance, are likely to inhabit the sacred gestures and beliefs of their
respective families and/or neighbourhoods. Pieterse (2010:213) therefore advocates
that decisions made in the macrosystem influence what happens in the micro-, meso-
and exosystems. Hence, these systems attempt to maintain a dynamic balance which
is known as equilibrium (Swart & Pettipher, 2011:15).
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3.2.5 Chronosystem
Child development is nested within timeslots. In his Ecological Model, Bronfenbrenner
(1986:732) relates the chronosystem to those developmental time frames which
continuously interact between different systems and their influence on individuals.
Children are greatly influenced by their environments during specific periods in their
life, but these influences change as the child matures (Pieterse, 2010:216; Swartz,
2015:91). It implies that younger children are more likely to be influenced by their
parents than older children who usually function independently. The placement of the
chronosystem in Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model, as presented in Figure 1.1, is
interwoven into the micro-, meso-, exo- and macrosystems. Bronfenbrenner (1993),
as quoted by Grant and Ray (2013:37-38), stress the benefits of this all-inclusive
approach to child development. The study similarly recognises the need for school-
home partnership within disadvantaged primary schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay
Metropole and encourages the active involvement of parents in the education of their
children. This philosophy primary informed my approach to the investigation.
3.3 RESEARCH PARADIGM
A research paradigm is a philosophy which guides an investigation. Guba and Lincoln
(1989:80), Babbie (2007:37), Delport, Fouché and Schurink (2011:298), Creswell
(2013:20) and Mertens (2013:28-29) associate a research paradigm with a map or
basic set of beliefs and philosophical assumptions that shape our way of thinking
about how the world works - ontology, and therefore how we gain knowledge about
the world - epistemology. These belief systems or lenses are linked to specific
worldviews which seek to address complexities of the real world (Troskie-De Bruin,
2010:2; Patton, 2015:89). Popkewitz (1984:33) and Babbie (2007:31) consequently
claim that studies are guided by means of the rationale for the research and the
commitment of researchers to specific methods of data collection, observation and
interpretations.
There are different paradigms to choose from. Guba and Lincoln (2008:257), Delport
et al. (2011:298), Loseke (2013:22) and Du Plooy-Cilliers (2014:23) identify
paradigms such as positivism, interpretivism and Critical Theory which unlock
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different meanings, suggest different kinds of theory and inspire different kinds of
research. To acquire and fully understand the commitment of parents in the aid of
learners with barriers to learning and development, this study opted for qualitative
research embedded within an inductive, interpretive and transformative paradigm.
Opposed to deductive reasoning, a top-down approach to research, the researcher
employed inductive reasoning which is a bottom-up approach. Loseke (2013:20)
describes inductive reasoning as generating new theory from emerging data. Specific
observations are made of a sample, in this study parents, and then conclusions are
drawn about the population from which the sample comes, disadvantaged
communities (Leedy & Ormrod, 2005:94-97; Babbie, 2007:49; Delport & De Vos,
2011:49). To grasp general, likely conclusions, Troskie-De Bruin (2010:3) inspires
researchers to stretch beyond the information and rely on the underlying principles or
rules. Schurink et al. (2011:399) furthermore identify the nature of inductive reasoning
as more open-ended and explorative, especially in the beginning. The focus is thus
explicitly on the views of people, in this case parents, within their natural social setting
to obtain a deeper understanding of the research questions. No form of generalisation
is encouraged and changes to the social phenomenon are avoided (Schofield,
2002:173; Alvesson & Sköldberg, 2009:10).
Inductive reasoning in this study was encouraged by means of the active involvement
of parents in the design of a PIP. The adoption of PAR, the instruments of data
collection, the technology utilised, as well as the inductive participatory approach to
data analysis (explained later in this chapter), all contributed richly to the generation
of data and theory significant to the social phenomenon. As inductive reasoning
favours the experiences of ordinary people within their natural habitat, it also supports
interpretivism.
Neuwman (2011:101-102) defines interpretivism as a systematic analysis of how
people interact and get along in their natural setting. Loseke (2013:24) likewise adds
that interpretivism seeks to understand the complexities of human experiences. It
involves meaningful encounters amongst people (Du Plooy-Cilliers, 2014:30-35).
Denzin and Lincoln (2003:4) and Creswell (2013:39) consequently urge researchers
to make interpretations of what they see, hear and understand as “this interpretive
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material is used to represent and transform the world”. Due to this wide scope
associated with interpretivism, it is active, on-going, builds theory and leads to greater
understanding of the research question (Denzin & Lincoln, 1994:119-120; Troskie-De
Bruin, 2010:2).
During two cycles of PAR, the participants were able to interact, share and exchange
their beliefs concerning possible ESPs for learners with barriers to learning and
development via ALSs. The addition of a video and/or voice recorder, as well as
journal and field note inscriptions of non-verbal cues, captured and further reinforced
valuable insight of how the parents socialised and what they perceived as quality
education for their children. Due to the inference of people in a social context,
interpretivism also yields to phenomenology.
Phenomenology is a qualitative tradition that Babbie and Mouton (2004:28), Titchen
and Hobson (2011:121), Creswell (2013:57), Du Plooy-Cilliers (2014:28) and Patton
(2015:115-116) define as the study of living human beings within their natural social
habitat. Ultimately the outcome of the research is, as explained by Fouché and
Schurink (2011:316), based on a careful portrayal of people in real-life, as in this case
parents. Hence, Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009:77), Fouché and Schurink (2011:317)
and Somekh and Lewin (2011:125 & 129) also identify a process called
phenomenological reduction or bracketing, which Swartz (2015:215) explains as a
procedure that depends on the critical awareness of the researcher’s own
understanding of the phenomenon. This kind of investigation is often complex and
difficult to conduct, but rewarding to those involved (Zuber-Skerritt, 2003:344).
For the duration of the study, major attempts as mentioned earlier, were made to
promote the voice of the participating parents in terms of the design of a PIP. To some
extent, though, it was necessary for the researcher to step in and take responsibility
for the task at hand. For example, the selected PIP, explained later in Chapter Five,
needed to be manageable and relevant to the immediate needs of learners at the
specific school.
Due to the active participation of the poor in this research, a transformative paradigm
was accepted, as introduced in Section 1.11. According to Mertens (2009:4;
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2012:256) and Biddle and Schaft (2015:324), a transformative paradigm permeates
all social studies with the purpose of addressing and redressing social justice and
human rights. This intersectional work crosscuts race, space and time, and can
empower and emancipate people who were marginalised during Apartheid (Dill &
Kohlman, 2014:11). This moral obligation towards people serves as the foundation of
an IE system in South Africa.
Mertens (2009:4) and Mertens, Bledsoe, Sullivan and Wilson (2016:3) claim that a
transformative paradigm stems from the awareness of power differences amongst,
namely male versus female, white versus black, educated versus illiterate and
advantaged versus disadvantaged. This ideology in research divided and
discriminated against certain groups. Underhill and McDonald (2010:100) therefore
encourage the movement towards partnership and unity amongst people in research
projects. People gain extensive knowledge of themselves and their community and
are empowered by a transformative paradigm (Mertens, 2012:256; Mertens et al.,
2016:3). For example, Walter (n.d.:3), Strydom (2011c:492) and Chevalier and
Buckles (2013:265) maintain that participants can identify and transform their
situation themselves.
The participants in this study comprised parents from an underprivileged school
community. As displayed in Table 4.2, these parents included men and women,
employed and unemployed, members of school structures and non-members of
school structures, as well as Coloureds and Blacks, which justified a transformative
paradigm. With this research, several attempts were made to empower parents
adequately in their new roles and responsibilities at public schools. For instance,
during the process of data analysis, the participants collectively researched possible
ESPs for disadvantaged learners and eventually identified activities that directed the
design of a PIP at the specific school. A neuroscience approach to learning, explained
in Section 3.8.4.1, was also facilitated by professionals at NMU that added richly to
the participants’ confidence and encouraged their involvement in school life. In giving
power back to the participating parents, Whyte (1991:40) stresses the influence of
researchers in mobilising as much relevant expertise as possible. Therefore, the role
of the researcher was carefully considered throughout the research.
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3.4 MY INVOLVEMENT AS RESEARCHER
Miles and Huberman (2002:395) and Loseke (2013:24) define researchers as
problem solvers who can express themselves in different roles. In relation to this
perspective, Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009:9), Fouché and Schurink (2011:327),
Neuman (2011:101) and Titchen and Hobson (2011:121) identify two approaches to
research, namely the insider-look or participant approach and the outsider-look or
observer approach, which can be applied individually or in conjunction with each
other. The insider or participant approach links researchers directly to the
phenomenon as it presents itself in the perceptions of people who live it, whereas the
outsider or observer approach places researchers indirectly within the social context
of the phenomenon and enables them to observe, record and interpret it. In order to
increase the quality of the research, I, as the researcher, opted for both a participant
observer approach that allowed me to act as an insider as well as an outsider
throughout the design of a PIP.
Denzin (2002:364), Neuwman (2011:101), Strydom (2011b:330-334), Creswell
(2013:45) and Du Plooy-Cilliers (2014:28) acknowledge that a flexible participant
observer approach to research grants researchers direct and indirect access to the
participant’s world, which in turn, can lead to closer relationships, responsiveness,
certainty and a deeper understanding of the research question. A specific group, for
instance, is described in the finest detail, including patterns in their diverse cultures,
customs and backgrounds (Schofield, 2002:173). Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009:9)
similarly agree that empirical material is constructed, interpreted and written which
enables researchers to stimulate critical reflection and awareness of the
phenomenon.
As a co-partner and facilitator of the investigation, I was encouraged to engage
actively with the participating parents during the different ALSs and thereby obtained
valuable, first-hand knowledge of their aspirations for their children. During these ten
months of fieldwork, we developed friendships, grew accustomed, shared personal
experiences and learned to respect and trust each other as equal partners in quality
EFA. I was also able to monitor the heartfelt concerns and dreams of the participants
via formal individual interviews as an outsider. The observer approach consequently
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complemented my relationship with the participants and allowed me to experience
their commitment to the design of a PIP by means of journal writings and field notes.
Within this social setting, Loseke (2013:24) cautions researchers to remain mindful of
their own values and biases which can interfere with the investigation. Researchers
must be able to distance themselves from any form of prejudice for the duration of the
study as the truth is dependent on people’s interpretation, in this case parents
(Fouché & Schurink, 2011:316). Nonetheless, Denzin (2002:364) and Du Plooy-
Cilliers (2014:28) motivate researchers to form interpretations of participants’ actions
in case they are holding back information relevant to the advancement of the
research. In association with this view, Struwig and Stead (2001:101) emphasise that
researchers must know when to participate actively in the study and when to detach
and act as an observer.
As mentioned in Section 3.11.4, I put aside my personal opinions for the design of a
PIP and depended largely on the insight of the participants during various processes
of data collection. At the same time, I monitored their verbal and non-verbal cues,
made written recordings and captured valuable data relevant to the study. To
preserve the quality of the research I thus remained flexible in my role as researcher
and adhered to the ethical principles discussed in Section 3.7.
According to Creswell (2013:49), researchers are greatly challenged by human
sciences which keep on evolving and changing. Many hours are devoted to fieldwork
where researchers engage in complex processes of data collection and data analysis
(De Vos, Strydom, Schulze & Patel, 2011:8; Neuwman, 2011:101; Du Plooy-Cilliers,
2014:28). Fouché and Schurink (2011:327) therefore encourage qualitative
researchers to prepare themselves emotionally and intellectually before they do
fieldwork.
To equip myself for fieldwork I explored the topic via literature, consulted experts in
the field and attended workshops, while maintaining good health. When I finally
commenced in the field, I was enthusiastic but also watchful to manage my time and
energy appropriately within the set space. I spent approximately ten months in the
field and generated rich data through two cycles of ALSs, individual interviews and
73
observations. In addition, many hours were dedicated to the sifting, sorting and
categorising of material relevant to the design of a PIP. The following research site
and sample were identified and selected for this investigation.
3.5 RESEARCH SITE
Strydom (2011b:329) points out that the research site should exploit the opportunity
to connect with the research problem. Therefore, this study was conducted in the
school community of Booysen Park where I am currently serving as a teacher. For
almost thirty years of employment at disadvantaged school communities within the
Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole, I have witnessed the continuous struggles and
frustrations of many poor parents. Underprivileged parents do not have the resources
or facilities available to support their children’s education adequately and are regularly
victimised and discriminated upon. My personal and professional knowledge of the
Booysen Park area therefore persuaded me to explore and investigate my own
practice.
Booysen Park is a well-established suburb located on the northern boundaries of Port
Elizabeth. Jarvis (1980) says that initially one thousand homes were built in the area
to provide lodging to about five thousand people. Most of the residents were working-
class Coloured people with the means to contribute positively towards the newly
developed community, including their children’s education. According to the Nelson
Mandela Municipality (Booysen Park, n.d.), public services such as a health clinic,
community centre, library, as well as three primary schools and a high school were
built in Booysen Park to accommodate families. For example, in 1989 the primary
schools had an average teacher-learner ratio of 1:28.
Today, more than thirty years later, numerous changes within the community of
Booysen Park are eminent. The influx of surrounding Reconstruction Development
Program (RDP) homes and squatter camps occupied by poor, unemployed and often
illiterate families of diverse cultures, races and nationalities, add greatly to the
transformation of the school community in Booysen Park (Williams, 2012:70). In
addition, McCowen (2013), Straton (2017), Louw (2018a) and Naidu (2018) report on
numerous cases of xenophobic and criminal violence, drug abuse, dealings with
74
illegal weapons and gangsterism in Booysen Park and the surrounding areas, which
have infiltrated and jeopardised the safety of learners and teachers at the schools. In
line with this perception, De Wet (2014: 490) testifies to the increase of school
violence and theft at several schools within the Eastern Cape and emphasises the
necessity for intervention. But the local schools as well as the DoE have failed to
implement and employ permanent security structures to safeguard schools. This
scenario adds to the existing challenges at schools, namely over-crowded classrooms
and learners with barriers to learning and development.
Against this background, many unemployed parents from the Booysen Park
community have mobilised and started to guard their respective neighbourhoods and
schools. They, for example, accompany their children to and from school daily and
serve the school on a voluntarily basis, regardless of their own needs. In recognition
of this loyalty towards their school community, the local police department adopted
these parents as policing sectors and empowered them accordingly via training and
workshops. Louw (2018b) recognises and praises this well-established partnership
between parents and the local police services and encourages others to join in and
make a difference in their communities. As a teacher-researcher in the community of
Booysen Park, I thus strived to change my practice in the form of quality schooling for
disadvantaged learners and viewed it as crucial to synchronise, empower and involve
parents actively in school life – which they struggled with desperately.
3.6 POPULATION AND SAMPLING
According to Loseke (2013:98-99), social research entails relationships about the
whole, a population and the part studied – a sample. A small group can represent the
big group, as it takes less time and is more cost-effective (Strydom & Delport,
2011b:391). Struwig and Stead (2001:122), as well as Patton (2002:230) equally add
that qualitative research focuses on small, information-rich samples or participants
who can best help to solve the problem. McMillan and Schumacher (2001:398),
Babbie (2005:113) and Mukherji and Albon (2010:195) therefore encourage
researchers to select a sample from the population to participate in the study.
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For this investigation, the target population included all the parents in Booysen Park
and surrounding areas, which constituted hundreds of people from diverse socio-
economic backgrounds, beliefs, genders, cultures, religions and races. From this
population, I initially selected a sample consisting of ten parents as there are no
specific rules for the sample size.
Loseke (2013:103) identifies two types of sampling in social research, namely
purposive and non-purposive sampling. In line with this view, Silverman (2005:129)
and Strydom and Delport (2011b:391) connect qualitative research to purposive
sampling, therefore I too opted for it to achieve detailed information. As indicated in
Section 1.9, the power of purposive sampling is seated in the gathering of specific
information from a selected group, namely people who can answer the research
question. A specific case is chosen because it illustrates some features or processes
in which we are interested (Silverman, 2005:129).
The investigation focused on parents, namely four SGB parents and two parents each
from the QLTC, SBST and policing sectors, who were inadequately utilised and often
ignored at the specific school. These parents were mostly unemployed, poorly
educated and committed to the positive development of their children within the
school community, see Table 4.2. The passion and personal experience of this
diverse group of parents added greatly to the design of a PIP in support of
disadvantaged learners.
Patton (2002:230) identifies sixteen different strategies for purposive sampling, of
which I adopted the snowball or chain sampling technique. Strydom and Delport
(2011b:393) describe it as excellent in cases where relatively unknown phenomena
are studied. The snowball effect is located in the understanding of a topic by one
person to the next and can result in numerous changes, for example, by asking people
who to talk to, the snowball gets bigger and bigger as knowledge of the case increases
(Patton, 2002:230; Geduld, 2009:50). Strydom and Delport (2011b:393) therefore
state that the selection of the sampling frame includes people who could make up the
sample until the research problem is solved.
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Due to the sensitivity and active involvement of participants in two cycles of PAR, this
study anticipated possible changes to the sample size. Some parents, for instance,
had work-related commitments and others not. Hence, these parents were all in
contact with other stakeholders in the school community, as well as in the wider
community who could contribute richly to the research. It meant that snowball
sampling encouraged the accumulation of multiple views related to the design of a
PIP. In order to maintain the integrity and quality of the research I adhered to ethical
principles.
3.7 ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS
Ethics in social research are related to moral principles which researchers follow for
the duration of the investigation. Professional ethics shape the foundation of research
and guarantee the trustworthiness and validity of the study (Briggs & Coleman,
2007:106). Christians (2008:206-207) and Strydom (2011a:114) identify two different
applications of ethical principles, namely adopting the moralities of the participants
versus the moralities of the researcher. Piper and Simons (2011:25) further
encourage researchers to use their discretion regarding ethical principles in social
research as mutual trust, acceptance and cooperation are essential amongst all the
parties involved in the research project.
Reflecting on the challenges involved in research, this study adhered to the ethical
principles as described by the Belmont Report (1979:1-5), Babbie and Mouton
(2004:520), Neuman (2011:148) and Louw (2014:264), namely informed consent,
respect for participants, beneficence, justice and selection of participants, which are
now discussed.
3.7.1 Informed consent
Informed consent is critical to social research. Neuman (2011:149) and Strydom
(2011a:117) proclaim that written notice containing all the relevant information about
the investigation such as the research topic, the research procedure, and the benefits
and risks associated with the study should be given to the necessary people.
Participation in social research is voluntary and researchers are reminded never to
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coerce or influence somebody into participation (Babbie & Mouton, 2004:521;
Neuman, 2011:149).
To be able to conduct this study, I applied for and attained ethical authorisation by the
NMU Research Ethics Committee (Human) via ethical clearance number H17-EDU-
ERE-004 (Appendix A). I also applied for permission from the Acting District Director
at the Department of Education in Port Elizabeth (Appendix B1) and received written
approval (Appendix B2) to embark on the investigation at one of the disadvantaged
primary schools in the district. A further written appeal was made to the school
principal (Appendix C1) who accepted and granted written consent (Appendix C2) for
the research to be done at his institution. Lastly, I met with the potential parent
participants and explained aspects related to the study, namely the voluntary nature
of research, protection, purpose, methodology, significance, possible risks and the
utilisation of a video and/or voice recorder. Permission was also obtained from the
NMU Research Ethics Committee (Human) for the use of these audio-visual media.
Appendices D1 and D2 are examples of the written agreements between me and the
parents regarding consent to participate in the study.
3.7.2 Respect for participants
People are unique and resourceful human beings who deserve to be treated with the
utmost respect. In social research, the Belmont Report (1979:1) cautions researchers
to accept the individuality of the participants as they make their own decisions and
act upon it. Ethical researchers should always remain unbiased and be sensitive to
the beliefs of the participants (Babbie & Mouton, 2004:522; Louw, 2014:265).
Throughout the research, the active involvement of all the participants was
continuously encouraged during formal and informal conversations. All the parents
were granted opportunities to share and exchange their views concerning educational
activities for the design of a PIP during the individual interviews, as well as the ALSs.
These contributions of the participating parents were valuable to the research and
therefore I treated them all equally and refrained from any form of bias, as mentioned
in Section 3.4.
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3.7.3 Beneficence
Beneficence is an extension of respect and is intended to secure the well-being of the
participants. Babbie and Mouton (2004:522), Neuman (2011:148) and Louw
(2014:266) mention two general rules for the expression of kindness to participants,
namely do no harm and maximise possible benefits while minimising possible harm.
Researchers often need to search for a deeper understanding of the phenomenon,
which according to the Belmont Report (1979:1-2), might expose the participants to
some risk.
This study acknowledged the vulnerability of many of the participants and remained
sensitive towards their personal challenges. So, in addition to formal research, they
were also engaged during school hours since they usually acted as invigilators in
classrooms where I, for example, offered my support in the overall management of
the learners. This development in our relationship provided me with several
opportunities to probe gently for sensitive information that was crucial to the design
of a PIP.
3.7.4 Justice
Justice is a moral compass. The Belmont Report (1979:2) associates justice with the
benefits and burdens of research which must be fairly distributed amongst the
participants. One group of people cannot be harmed to the benefit of another group.
Researchers must be honest and just towards all participants and discuss
experiences with them after formal sessions (Neuman, 2011:149; Strydom,
2011a:118-122; Louw, 2014:268). Nonetheless, the Belmont Report (1979:2)
indicates that differences based on experience, age, deprivation, competence, merit
and position do occasionally constitute criteria justifying different treatment for certain
purposes.
The benefits and burdens of the investigation were equally shared amongst the
participating parents. They were all informed about the empowering and
developmental nature of the research, as well as the invasion of their personal time
to attend formal gatherings during data collection. In order to be fair, I thus
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approached parents privately who missed out on several meetings but wanted to join
in celebrations afterwards.
3.7.5 Selection of participants
Researchers must always be fair in their selection of participants. According to the
Belmont Report (1979:4), individual as well as social fairness is pertinent to the
selection of research participants. Therefore, researchers must select people of
different races, cultures, genders, socio-economic statuses and backgrounds to
participate in their studies. As indicated in Sections 1.9 and 3.6, people who can
answer the research question must be included as participants. The Belmont Report
(1979:4-5) therefore warns researchers to guard against social, racial, sexual and
cultural injustices.
Parents of different ages, genders, races, cultures and socio-economic statuses were
selected as participants for the design of a PIP. These participants, as noted in
Section 3.6, were well-acquainted with the school community and were able to
provide insightful information pertaining to the educational needs of learners with
barriers to learning and development. I believed that the collaborative effort of all
parents was necessary to transform the quality of education for an increasing number
of disadvantaged learners. This inclusive and humane approach to social research
guided the research design.
3.8 RESEARCH DESIGN
A research design is the blueprint, complete plan and execution of the research
project. Mouton (2001:57) asserts that the research design is tailored to address
different kinds of questions. It is the logical sequence that connects the empirical data
to a study’s initial research question and ultimately to its conclusion (Yin, 2009:29).
Punch (2009:112) consequently relates the research design to five main ideas,
namely the strategy, conceptual framework, who or what will be studied, the tools or
procedures for data collection and analysing empirical material.
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Schofield (2002:172), Silverman (2005:8), Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009:7), Fouché
and Delport (2011:63), Creswell (2013:5) and Patton (2015:91) identify three different
research designs such as the quantitative, qualitative as well as the mixed-method
approach to research, which each embody unique features. Quantitative research is
a deductive strategy which tests hypotheses and generalises findings, while
qualitative research is an inductive approach that interprets the explicit views of
people within their natural habitat. Loseke (2013:20) furthermore advocates that a
combination of these two designs, namely the mixed-method approach, can add richly
to real-life research. Nonetheless, for the purpose of this study, which involved
designing a PIP with the active support of the parents, I selected a qualitative singular
case study design embedded in a participatory action research.
3.8.1 Qualitative research design
Qualitative research is based on the real-life experiences of people in their natural
setting. Non-statistical methods are used on relatively small samples (Silverman,
2005:9; Denzin & Lincoln, 2008:14; Fouché & Delport, 2011:65). Moreover, Denzin
and Lincoln (2008:4) and Creswell (2013:44) add that it is a holistic and complex
approach to research which crosscuts disciplines, fields and subject matter and
deploys a wide range of interconnected, interpretive practices to obtain a better
understanding of the phenomenon.
Strydom and Bezuidenhout (2014:193) maintain that qualitative research is interested
in how and why things happen. Multiple realities and perceptions of the phenomenon
are obtained through processes of data collection which encourage a flexible and
evolving study (Denzin & Lincoln, 2008:7; Corbin & Strauss, 2008:12; Creswell,
2013:44). Therefore, qualitative research adds rigour, richness and depth to the
investigation, which according to Key (1997:6-7) and Fouché and Delport (2011:65),
build theory and construct a detailed description of social reality. In this way,
qualitative research has the potential to transform the world (Denzin & Lincoln,
2008:4). As indicated in Section 1.12.1, qualitative research is a long and time-
consuming process without any clear guidelines.
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There are five different types of qualitative research designs, namely a narrative
biography, ethnography, phenomenology, grounded theory and case study, as
described by Mouton (2001:57), Fouché and Schurink (2011:312) and Creswell
(2013:11). After revising the attributes of each of these approaches, I opted for a case
study which permitted me opportunities to learn and gain a holistic picture of people’s
experiences within a specific space and time.
3.8.2 Case study
Punch (2009:119) and Fouché and Schurink (2011:320) refer to a case study as more
of a method or choice of what to do. It is an integrated system, consisting of different
components, which serves both as a process of inquiry as well as a product of enquiry
(Troskie-De Bruin, 2010:1). As noted in Section 1.12.2, a case study is vested in a
single or multiple case within a bounded system. As a result, Cohen, Manion and
Morrison (2007:253), Johnson and Christensen (2008:406) and Punch (2009:119 &
356) consequently emphasise that a holistic account of real people in real situations
are described over time to preserve the unity and integrity of the case.
This study focused on a single case that was conducted over a period of ten months
at a specific disadvantaged primary school. Parents from diverse backgrounds in the
local school community were invited to participate in the design of a PIP in support of
disadvantaged learners at the specific school.
Huberman and Miles (2002:207) and Johnson and Christensen (2008:406) claim that
multiple realities are studied within a social environment to determine complex things
happening within that system. In association with this perception, Creswell (2013:97)
points to the utilisation of comprehensive data collection procedures to obtain the
relevant information for the study. Within this social setting, Mouton (2001:149),
Huberman and Miles (2002:206), Mukherji and Albon (2010:81), Fouché and
Schurink (2011:321), as well as Creswell (2013:97) claim that in-depth and rich data
are generated that evolve into thick descriptions and a better understanding of the
research question.
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During the research, different instruments of data collection, namely individual
interviews, ALSs and observations were utilised to triangulate data. The participating
parents were engaged in formal, as well as in informal processes of data collection to
generate rich and accurate accounts of possible ESPs for the design of a PIP. As a
result, valuable and insightful information was generated which eventually evolved
into the most suitable design of a PIP for the specific learners at the specific school.
Mouton (2001:149), Huberman and Miles (2002:206) and Cohen et al. (2007:253)
maintain that the case study report is the best form for reporting as it is analytic, with
high construct validity and helps to develop a theory with the assistance of the
research subjects, in this case parents. It seeks to describe, analyse and interpret a
specific phenomenon or case being studied to represent real people in the real world
(Huberman & Miles, 2002:333; Stake, 2005:446; Chadderton & Torrance, 2011:53;
Creswell, 2013:73). Cohen et al. (2007:254) consequently notice that the situation
speaks for itself.
The parents engaged in two cycles of PAR whereby they closely reflected on ESPs
in aid of disadvantaged learners. They collectively sifted, organised and categorised
programmes in relation to the needs of learners during two layers of data analysis.
After many hours of collaboration and deliberation, the participating parents refined
the ESPs into a more manageable design of a PIP for the school to embark on with
parents. This empowering approach to the investigation was inspired through action
research.
3.8.3 Action Research
According to Wood, Morar and Mostert (2007:68), action research is hardly a new
idea. It derives from various disciplines and geographical settings with a common
interest in the way we generate knowledge (Brydon-Miller & Coghlan, 2014:226). A
major feature that sets AR apart from more traditional studies is linked to the
researcher. Brydon-Miller, Greenwood and Maguire (2003:11) and Wood et al.
(2007:68) consequently refer to the commitment of researchers to bring about
change, as well as the strong value-driven characteristics. These attributes invite the
participants in the study to take responsibility for their own thinking, attitudes and
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actions (Elliott, 1991:52; Adelman, 1997:79; Hay & Hay, 1999:93; McNiff, 2002:4-5;
Wood & Govender, 2013:178). Due to the real-life experiences in AR, Brydon-Miller
et al. (2003:11) and Wood et al. (2007:78) acknowledge the growing popularity of AR
across the world.
Wood and Govender (2013:178) define AR as a methodology that is based on a
critical, emancipatory paradigm. It is research in action, which is an active, problem-
solving, self-reflective method (McNiff, 2002:6; Bloor & Wood, 2006:9; Coghlan &
Brannick, 2010:5). To improve their work, Wood and Govender (2013:178) and Wood
et al. (2007:68) state that researchers examine, cross-examine and assess their own
practice, namely the “practice changing practise” concept of McTaggart (2012:2).
These projects, as viewed by Brydon-Miller et al. (2003:11), Beylefeld (2005:1321),
Somekh (2006:1), Whitehead and McNiff (2006:13), Coghlan and Brannick (2010:5)
and Jacobs (2014:203) test knowledge in action with the participative support of those
who share similar interest in the research problem. Moreover, Wood and Govender
(2013:178) and Wood (2014:667) emphasise that AR is an ongoing process as there
are no definitive answers to any problems.
Action research is ingrained in the humanistic pedagogy and crosscuts social,
economic, political and environmental boundaries to promote social change in local
settings. For example, Brydon-Miller and Coghlan (2014:228) advocate that AR is
conducted in organisations, communities and disciplines around the world. Within this
setting, the participants and not the researcher are regarded as the experts (Wood &
Govender, 2013:178). It means that knowledge is constructed by the people, in this
study the parents, who are directly linked to the social environment. Related to this
view, Brydon-Miller et al. (2003:14) emphasise the importance of mutual respect for
people’s knowledge and their competency to address real issues in their communities.
Collaboration is key to transformation, whether it is in the community, at school, higher
education or organisational. Consequently, AR allows the involvement of researchers,
as co-partners and builds theory from multiple perspectives (Rossouw, 2009:1;
Jacobs, 2014:204). In relation to this view, Wood (2014:668) refers to AR “as a
vigorous process of critical thought and reflection which seeks to improve the
identified education or social concern”. Ultimately, Zuber-Skerrit (2011:2) advocates
that AR is empowering and results in heightened levels of self-confidence, self-
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awareness, improvement in problem-solving ability, and develops a desire and
capacity for lifelong learning.
Due to the problem-solving nature of AR, Myers and Nielsen (1999:95) and Dick
(2010:135) encourage people to become involved in their world and seek to
understand and change it. Nonetheless, Brydon-Miller et al. (2003:25) advocate that
AR is not merely about doing things, but rather doing things well – it is restricted to
smaller spaces that is less challenging. In addition, Blum, Heinonen and White
(2019:2) recognise that AR is not always collaborative in nature.
Researchers can select from different approaches associated with AR for their study.
Dick (2010:123) and Troskie-De Bruin (2010:3) distinguish genres such as critical AR,
action learning (AL), action science and PAR that researchers use to present their
case. I reviewed the various options and eventually opted for PAR since it is a more
popular approach in educational reform, encourages the active participation of
disadvantaged communities in solving problems within their own environment and
supports my desire to change my practice to the benefit of learners with barriers to
learning and development at the specific school.
3.8.4 Participatory Action Research
Brydon-Miller et al. (2003:11) and Blum et al. (2019:2) claim that PAR evolved from
the work of different researchers, namely Antonio Gramsci, John Dewey, Kurt Lewin,
and to some degree Paulo Freire, whose common goal was to promote social change.
As an emerging methodology, many PAR researchers liaise and adopt different
approaches to research design, data collection and data analysis for their specific
project (McIntyre, 2014:2; Mathikithela & Wood, 2019:79). For example, no two PAR
projects are the same and researchers wish to expand the field of PAR that has
primarily paid tribute to the voices of the oppressed since the 1990s.
Blum et al. (2019:2) define PAR in terms of conducting participatory or collaborative
action research. In principle it is a group activity, more specifically a community-based
approach to solve problems (McTaggart, 1997:28; Ho, 2002:106; Potvin, Bisset &
Walz, 2012:2). McNiff and Whitehead (2002:42), Babbie and Mouton (2004:315) and
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Walter (n.d.:3) maintain that the process of PAR starts small and develops through a
self-reflective spiral, a spiral of cycles of planning, action, observation and reflection
until the problem is solved. This, according to Whyte (1991:40), McTaggart
(1994:318), Wadsworth (1998:7), Zuber-Skerritt (2011:74), Kearney, Wood and
Zuber-Skerritt (2013:114), Jacobs (2014:198) and Blum et al. (2019:3), is a
systematically evolving, living process tracing the relationships, experiences and
knowledge gained in the process of achieving change.
Within this political climate, Hagey (1997:4), Seale, Gobo, Gubrium and Silverman
(2004:538), Strydom (2011c:492), Blum et al. (2019:15) and Mathikithela and Wood
(2019:79) maintain that PAR is grounded in the emancipatory paradigm and thrives
on social justice as a key value to actively include previously marginalised
communities in finding solutions for their local challenges. The least powerful is placed
at the centre of research (McTaggart 1997:34). In association with Section 2.5, PAR
is rooted in power relations, regarded as the centre of transformation in the school
community and, as stated by Blum et al. (2019:2), is an exciting approach to
community development.
Numerous benefits are linked to PAR, for instance, the research is conducted in the
natural environment of the participants, who, according to Strydom (2011c:495) and
Potvin et al. (2012:2), share equally in the claim to knowledge. This community-based
approach to PAR is a powerful way to develop agency and enabling participants, in
this case parents, to transform from vulnerable victims into advocates (Mathikithela &
Wood, 2019:77). Hagey (1997:1), Babbie and Mouton (2004:318-324), Botha, Van
der Merwe, Bester and Albertyn (2007:10), Troskie-De Bruin (2010:2), Strydom
(2011c:492-494) and Blum et al. (2019:14) testify that people are empowered by a
strength-based model which is likely to improve their lives.
Moreover, Mathikithela and Wood (2019:79) regard PAR as an educative process
since it yields to the personal development of the participants. For example, people
gain knowledge and confidence; develop critical thinking, self-reflection and
increased resilience; improve their planning, communication and research skills; and
take initiative at a micro level. Blum et al. (2019:3 & 14) therefore view PAR as a
credible, creative and flexible journey of development that can overturn trends in local
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communities. Hence, it can pose a threat to those in power and is a slow process that
demands adequate funding, time and energy (Blum et al., 2019:3; Mathikithela &
Wood, 2019:79).
The intent of this investigation was to encourage the active involvement of a group of
parents from diverse backgrounds in the design of a PIP for disadvantaged learners
at a specific disadvantaged primary school. By collaboratively sharing and
exchanging their knowledge in terms of ESPs for the learners, the parents were
inspired to think critically about their vision for schooling, communicate possible
programmes, research possible ESPs, observe the learning environment and identify
an appropriate design for a PIP. This journey or PAR project was completed in two
cycles of planning, action, observation and reflection with the full cooperation of the
parents as co-partners in research. The following cycles of PAR, adopted from the
work of Kurt Lewin, a social psychologist during the 1940s, are now presented to the
reader as described by Kemmis and McTaggart (1988:12) and McNiff and Whitehead
(2002:41).
3.8.4.1 Cycle 1
Cycle 1 focused on the gathering of data with regards to ESPs that the specific school
could embark on with parents in support of learners with barriers to learning and
development.
Step 1 Situation analysis
In collaboration with the possible participants, an information session (IS) in the form
of a slideshow was scheduled to introduce the research topic to the parents. The
parents were motivated to ask questions for clarity and to actively engage with the
phenomenon, namely the design of a PIP, to gain a holistic picture of the study. In
order to stir parents’ interest in the research I also linked the investigation to what
some of the parents were attemping at the specific school. Individual parents were,
for instance, teaching, counselling, feeding and clothing certain learners. Hereafter,
all the parents present were formally invited (see Appendix D1) to participate in the
design of a suitable PIP for disadvantaged learners at the specific school and most of
them granted formal consent (Appendix D2).
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Step 2 Planning and designing the PIP
Kemmis and McTaggart (1988:12) emphasise the collaborative engagement of all the
participants in the social phenomenon, in this case the design of a PIP, so that they
can examine and improve their understanding and action in the situation. To obtain
possible ESPs for a PIP, two sets of ALSs were arranged with the support of parents
who reflected on, researched and analysed possible ESPs for learners with barriers
to learning and development. These ALSs were pre-organised over two separate
Saturdays in conjunction with the personal commitments and assistance of the
parents. Appendix F1 is an example of the schedule or agenda used during the
parents’ first formal gathering within a warm and comfortable setting. In addition, one
set of ten individual interviews were initially scheduled with the same parents to obtain
their personal beliefs concerning ESPs for disadvantaged learners, to fill possible
gaps and triangulate data. These interviews were also premeditated for after school
hours, with the mutual agreement of the parents. Five individual interviews were, for
instance, planned for two consecutive school weeks between the first and second
ALSs by means of an interview schedule (Appendix E1). For this time frame, a cosy
environment was established so that the parents could communicate freely with the
research topic.
Step 3 Implementing support to the participants in relation to the PIP
To stimulate and increase parents’ active involvement in the design of a PIP, the study
focused on their existing interest in the school. The parents were, as depicted in Table
4.2, already individually involved in school-related activities and were offered a
platform to break the silos, align their vision and collectively take ownership of their
children’s education via regular meetings and a neuroscience workshop at NMU.
Marckwardt et al. (1992:853) define neuroscience in terms of neuropsychology which
is the study of the relationships existing between the mind and the nervous system.
In other words, the participating parents were challenged to reflect critically on their
unique roles and responsibilities in education. They were encouraged to speak, listen
and exchange their thoughts on quality EFA, including ESPs for disadvantaged
learners, in formal gatherings during data collection and data analysis, described in
Section 3.9. Moreover, throughout Cycle 1, the parents were furnished with relevant
educational policies and documents which paid tribute to their desire to be included
in school programmes.
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Step 4 Observation and parents’ personal experiences
According to Kemmis and McTaggart (1988:13), observation implies documenting
that which are planned, responsive and flexible, and being open to record the
unexpected. The researcher acts as a journalist and has all the necessary tools at his
or her immediate disposal (Whitehead & McNiff, 2006:64). In relation to this view,
well-managed field notes and journal inscriptions were kept during formal and informal
meetings with the parents. From the onset of the investigation, these written
recordings captured the active engagement, interaction and power relations amongst
the parents. In addition to the utilisation of a video and/or voice recorder during formal
meetings, the reflective journals of parents also contributed largely to their individual
experiences during the design of a PIP. These inscriptions were done in a language
chosen by the parents to maintain the quality of the research and to assist with the
process of reflection.
Step 5 Reflection
Reflections are supported by discussions amongst the participants who seek to make
sense of processes, problems and issues (Kemmis & McTaggart, 1988:13). Coghlan
and Brannick (2010:10) similarly agree that the outcomes of the action, both intended
and unintended, are examined. In reflection of ESPs for the design of a PIP, the
following questions were considered:
▪ What ESPs did the parents identify?
▪ What knowledge did parents gain concerning ESPs?
▪ What additional measures can be taken to sustain the proposed ESPs? Two reflective sessions were anticipated for Cycle 1. Firstly, the parents were able to
reflect on possible ESPs and verbalise their personal experiences in this regard to
the benefit of disadvantaged learners during the face-to-face, individual interviews.
Secondly, the parents were further encouraged to reflect on ESPs for the design of a
PIP during the second ALS, towards the end of Cycle 1. They collectively examined
the proposed programmes, shared and exchanged insightful experiences to secure
and sustain a well-managed PIP for the specific school to embark. This claim to
knowledge (Appendix H1) was recorded in writing and used for scrutiny later during
data analysis.
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3.8.4.2 Cycle 2
The aim of Cycle 2 was to determine the most suitable design for a PIP at the specific
school.
Step 1 Situation analysis
The purpose of this session was for the parents to personally connect to an
educational project and to be confident in leading and managing it at the specific
school. For this reason, a relaxed setting was pre-determined for possible
presentations of ESPs, as well as discussions thereof afterwards. This exercise
encouraged and empowered parents collectively towards the management of a
realistic design of a PIP. As requested by the participating parents, I made field notes
and journal inscriptions of their presentations rather than video or voice recordings.
Step 2 Planning and designing the PIP
Two ALSs were arranged in consultation with the parents. They took initiative and
organised a comfortable space for the meetings at school during two respective
Saturdays at the school. For the first ALS, the parents shared and exchanged
thoughtful information in the management of possible ESPs in conjunction with other
parents in the school environment. They, for instance, designed and drew up a
questionnaire (Appendix I) for parents in order to understand their diverse views in
terms of ESPs for their children. The second and last ALS towards the end of Cycle
2, was reserved to define the most suitable design of a PIP. Parents were motivated
to deliberate and debate on various options regarding ESPs (see Appendices H2 and
I) and to make a final decision on the design of a PIP for the specific learners. During
data analysis, this information was retrieved and utilised to determine the most
suitable design of a PIP.
Step 3 Implementing the PIP
Towards the end of the study, the parents were inspired to commence with the PIP at
the disadvantaged primary school by implementing one of the ESPs, explained fully
in Chapter Five. Therefore, we collectively approached and attained the necessary
approval from the school principal, as well as the SGB to strengthen the project. In
mutual agreement of quality EFA, we offered disadvantaged learners opportunities to
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excel and reach their fullest potential. Linked to this perspective, McNiff (2002:18) and
Coghlan and Brannick (2010:10) advocate that a plan is implemented, and
interventions are made collaboratively.
Step 4 Observation and parents’ personal experiences
As indicated in Cycle 1, the experiences of the parents in terms of the research were
observed formally and informally through regularly kept field notes and journal writings
during ALSs and casual talks on site. To uphold the quality of the investigation, I
frequently interacted with the parents to assess and reflect on the development of the
PIP.
Step 5 Reflection
In reflection on the design of the PIP, the following questions were considered:
▪ What is the most suitable design for a PIP?
▪ Is the programme manageable for parents?
▪ What additional measures can be taken to sustain the PIP? Two reflective meetings were scheduled for Cycle 2, namely the two ALSs that served
as podiums for the parents to determine the most suitable design of a PIP in aid of
disadvantaged learners. All the data collected during the study guided these
gatherings and yielded an accurate account of events, as presented in Section 3.10.
Figure 3.5 is an illustration of the cyclical process adhered to for the study.
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Figure 3.5: Participatory Action Research Cycles
Source: Adapted from Ebbutt (1985:163)
In our pursuit to understand, explain and develop people around us, Corti, Van den
Eynden, Bishop and Woollard (2014:1) recognise research data as the foundation of
scientific knowledge, learning and innovation. Rich data was generated during cyclical
processes via the ALSs, individual interviews and observations.
1 Situation analysis: Information session
about the nature of the study
2 Planning and designing the PIP: Ten individual interviews; two ALSs
5 Reflection: Analysing the ESP
Discussing; learning
learning
Discussing; learning;
understanding
Reflecting;
understanding
CYCLE 1
Generating data for ESPs that the school
can embark on with parents
3 Implementing support to parents
via self and workshops
4 Observation and parents'
personal experiences: Field-
notes and a reflective journal
Empowering; learning
1 Situation analysis: Discussions on how
parents can connect to ESPs and what they
needed in order to manage it successfully
2 Planning and designing the PIP: Two
ALSs; questionnaire
3 Implementing the PIP: Starting the
resource centre with parents
4. Observation and parents' personal
experiences: Field-notes; reflective
journaling
Empowering; learning
5 Reflection: Analysing the
design of a PIP
Learning; understanding
Learning; understanding
Reflecting;
understanding
CYCLE 2
Selecting the most suitable design of a PIP
Designing a Parental Involvement Programme (PIP) at a disadvantaged
primary school within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole, South Africa
through PAR
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3.9 DATA COLLECTION
Data collection is the process of gathering the necessary information to answer the
research questions. As an alternative, Loseke (2013:82) uses the term data
generation to emphasise the complexity of the process. Babbie and Mouton
(2004:326), McNiff and Whitehead (2009:149) and Coghlan and Brannick (2010:75)
accordingly accept that data is produced through people and tools suited for both the
organisational setting, as well as the purpose of the research. There are, however, no
specific or fixed rules for generating data for AR – if you answer your research
questions (Beylefeld, 2005:1325; Baumfield, Hall & Wall, 2008:27). The investigation
therefore primarily opted for ALSs that were triangulated through individual interviews
and observations in the form of field notes and a reflective journal, in answer to the
research question: How can parents, as part as the school community, be integrated
at a disadvantaged primary school within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole to assist
learners?
3.9.1 Action learning set
Marquardt and Waddill (2010:7) and Haydock and Evers (2014:21) describe an action
learning set as a method of addressing complicated issues by means of relevant
questioning. Real-life problems are discussed and reflected on individually, as a team
and as an institution to improve performance (Chevalier & Buckles, 2013:13; Haydock
& Evers, 2014:23; Revans, 2017:1). In line with this view, Marquardt and Waddill
(2010:7) and Maharaj and Mason (2016:299) claim that small working groups or
teams of four to eight people can constitute an ALS and meet regularly until they
accomplish their goal. For example, Maharaj and Mason (2016:299) advocate that
participative team learning occurs with colleagues from different cultural
backgrounds. The participants actively engage with the research topic and learn by
doing and reflecting on what they have done (Damons, 2017:17). Eventually this
collaborative approach to research, according to Seale et al. (2004:542), Greeff
(2011:341) and Zuber-Skerrit (2011:25 & 28), is dynamic in bringing information to
the fore and serves as the main source of data generation.
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Seale et al. (2004:542) and Greeff (2011:341) relate the value of group activities to
learning and personal development at the professional and managerial levels. In a
similar way, ALSs are beneficial tools and offer practical solutions to people and
organisations in society. Action learning sets make you think differently and promote
the development of problem-solving ability and leadership skills within a supportive
environment (Haydock & Evers, 2014:21). Walia and Marks-Maran (2014:617) also
maintain that you can see other people’s issues and problems and learn from it.
Marquardt and Waddill (2010:1-2) consequently claim that action learning groups are
cost effective and increase the pace and quality of the individual, team and
organisational learning. It means that small groups allow more contact time and fully
engage the participants, which are not always possible in bigger groups. Related to
this dynamic, Zuber-Skerritt, (2001:2) and Revans (2017:8) therefore identify ALSs
as creative, fluid and effective strategies to research. For example, participants in
research revealed that they experienced higher levels of judgement making;
advanced levels of communication; skills of enquiry and analysis; independent
thinking and a sense of trust and protection due to ALSs (Haydock & Evers, 2014:22).
Hence, Walia and Marks-Maran (2014:614) warn that ALSs often lack enough time
for project work and value taking action above time for learning. Figure 3.6 is an
illustration of an ALS.
Figure 3.6: Action Learning Set
Source: One of the participants
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During Cycle 1 two ALSs were scheduled with the cooperation of the participating
parents. The first ALS was conducted with the group of parents more or a less a week
after the information session. This meeting was guided by means of a schedule or
agenda (Appendix F1) that was compiled after the information session, with the
approval of all the parents. Within this setting, the parents actively engaged with the
phenomenon and addressed aspects such as parental involvement and ESPs in aid
of disadvantage learners. Towards the end of Cycle 1, the parents met for the second
ALS where they collectively examined different ESPs in relation to the explicit needs
of learners with barriers to learning and development. Again, the parents debated and
exchanged their unique understanding of ESPs relevant to the needs of learners at
the specific school, and in so doing, identified possible programmes.
Cycle 2 included two ALSs that were organised and conducted with the same group
of parents as in Cycle 1. During the first ALS, the parents identified their individual
interests in the proposed ESPs and collectively engaged in ways to manage and
sustain it effectively. They, for example, formulated a questionnaire (Appendix I),
whereby they sought insight and assistance from other parents within the school
community. This information, in addition to other material, guided the second ALS and
resulted in the final selection of the most suitable design of a PIP. All these
experiences throughout the investigation empowered the parents and added richly to
their personal and institutional development. Without a doubt, collaboration, parental
involvement and ALSs are beneficial to solving problems at local schools and should
be used accordingly.
Action learning, according to Walia and Marks-Maran (2014:612), as well as Maharaj
and Mason (2016:299), was initiated by Professor Revans, a scientist and educational
innovator and has rapidly developed into a popular research approach since the
1940s. Action learning is rooted in real-life challenges and as perceived by Zuber-
Skerritt (2001:2; 2009:6) and Maharaj and Mason (2016:299), resembles cycles of
experimental learning from and through action, as well as taking action as a result of
this learning. These cycles of learning form an educational process where people
work and learn collectively through reflection and asking the right questions (Dick
1997:1), as is the case in ALSs. For example, those involved in the study learn
through sharing and exchanging their knowledge and ideas. Argyris and Schön
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(1995:12) therefore identify AL as double-loop learning, while Walia and Marks
(2014:612) refer to the group as an ALS.
Maharaj and Mason (2016:298) concur that AL stimulates deep understanding,
innovation and critical thinking. Brydon-Miller and Coghlan (2015:11) equally add that
it enhances participation, sharing and achievement of knowledge necessary for
transformation in the educational field. It means that interpersonal skills are
developed, which in turn are essential in leadership, teamwork and facilitation in
organisations (Dick, 1997:1). Brydon-Miller and Coghlan (2015:12) consequently
emphasise the need to improve teaching and learning practices through professional
development. For example, Maharaj and Mason (2016:302) point to changes to the
syllabi, timetables, workloads of teachers, as well as the curriculum and training of
teachers, learners and schools. This is a time-consuming process, but the apt use of
AL in course design will be clearly reflected in its outcomes, in the case of this study
- the PIP, as discussed later in Chapter Five (Maharaj & Mason, 2016:300). Action
learning can therefore be recognised as a lifelong process, occurring in series of
cycles as we seek to resolve challenges in educational reform. Nonetheless, Walia
and Marks-Maran (2014:613) caution that pressure within organisations, as well as
contextual factors can negatively influence the process.
There are numerous similarities in terms of AL and AR. Zuber-Skerritt (2009:6)
advocates that compared to AL, action research is simply more systematic, rigorous,
scrutinisable, verifiable and is always made public. These two concepts were officially
amalgamated and are now known as action learning and action research, ALAR.
Zuber-Skerritt (2015:7) claims that ALAR is based on the same characteristics and
principles of AL and AR respectively, which, according to Revans (2017:1), is a
popular and developmental process aimed at improving practices in organisations,
communities or educational settings. Dick (1997:1) also indicates that action and
reflection on and in that action, from a technical to a critical inquiry, is on-going and
we can add theory or principles to this understanding to take better action. It means
that ALAR includes active learning, searching, problem-solving and systematic inquiry
which enhance learning amongst the participants (Zuber-Skerritt, 2001:2). Opposed
to traditional ways of learning, Marquardt and Waddill (2010:11) identify ALAR as a
more effective tool to change the face of education in disadvantaged schools. Each
96
application of ALAR is, however, finely tuned to complement the organisation and its
aims (Zuber-Skerritt, 2011:28; Revans, 2017:5). A more detailed description of AR is
presented in Section 3.8.3.
During the investigation, the participating parents worked as a team to design a PIP
for learners with barriers to learning and development. They interacted, shared
valuable knowledge, critiqued the relevance of some ESPs and questioned each
other to determine the best PIP for learners at the school. In this way, the parents
received and simultaneously gained valuable information pertaining to the design of
a PIP. This was an on-going process whereby the parents continually shared, learnt,
planned, acted and reflected on the most appropriate design of a PIP, referred to in
Cycles 1 and 2. Action learning and action research immensely added to the quality
of the research, empowered and emancipated the parents in terms of quality
schooling for their children, and inspired them to deal adequately with challenges in
their personal lives.
3.9.2 Interviews
Interviews are forms of conversations and communication, predominantly used in
qualitative research. The use of interviews suggests social interactions between
participants and researchers with the intent of exchanging information (Greeff,
2011:342). Key (1997:3), Babbie and Mouton (2004:326), Janesick (2004:71;
2011:99) and Yin (2009:106) accordingly state that researchers are educated about
people’s social backgrounds as they not only describe people’s experiences and
beliefs, but also reflect on the descriptions. In so doing, Henning (2004:52), Fontana
and Frey (2008:118) and Coghlan and Brannick (2010:75) claim that interviews are
transformed into a powerful data generated intervention. Researchers, for instance,
have full control over the line of questioning (Baumfield et al., 2008:111; Albertyn,
2015:1).
Greeff (2011:341 & 348) and Albertyn (2015:1) differentiate between unstructured
and semi-structured interviews in qualitative research which can be utilised in
conjunction with individual, telephone, skype, focus groups, e-mails or group
interviews, that are each dominant forms of engagement. Unstructured interviews are
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conversations that often lack objective data as the participants mostly control the
information they give, while semi-structured interviews allow the researcher flexibility
and more control by means of a set of predetermined questions (Greeff, 2011:352).
In principle, Mukherji and Albon (2010:121-122) refer to semi-structured interviews as
a combination of open and closed-ended questions which produce multiple and
meticulous responses. After reviewing these approaches, semi-structured individual
interviews were considered as the best strategy to capture rich data for the design of
a PIP and to triangulate data.
Individual interviews refer to face-to-face communication amongst two people. One
person asks questions with the hope of receiving answers to questions on a specific
topic (Mukherji & Albon, 2010:118). Similarly, Greeff (2011:341) also interpret these
personal encounters as one-on-one interviews which provide a large amount of
information about each participant. Individual perspectives on sensitive issues are
explored that often produce quality information and thick descriptions of the research
topic that are seldom achieved in groups (Barbour et al., 2005:177; Greeff, 2011:341-
342; Patton, 2015:425-426). For example, Henning (2004:82), Silverman (2005:57),
Greeff (2011:359) and Albertyn (2015:3) emphasise the use of audio-visual
recordings to provide a fuller, more accurate and quality-driven data trail.
During Cycle 1, in-depth data concerning probable ESPs for disadvantaged learners
were generated via one set of twelve individual interviews with the parents. These
interviews were pre-planned (see Appendix E1) and guided by means of nine pre-
determined open-ended questions for three consecutive school weeks. During this
time frame, I had direct access to individual parents and was able to explore,
understand and interpret their distinct beliefs with regards to the design of a PIP. The
flexible nature of semi-structured interviews permitted me to illuminate concepts,
probe for delicate information and triangulate data to fill certain gaps in the
investigation.
All these interviews were conducted after school hours in a comfortable setting, as
explained in Section 3.8.4.1. Most of the interviews were conducted in Afrikaans and
a few in English to accommodate the language preference of the parents, namely
mother-tongue instruction. In the event of a Xhosa speaking parent, a translator was
98
on standby, since I was limited in Xhosa as a language. But the Xhosa speaking
parent who participated in this study responded confidently in English, which is a
second language to both of us. The whole process of interviewing was recorded via
a video camera and/or voice recorder to preserve the claim to knowledge. As
explained in Section 3.7.1, the use of audio-visual devices was previously cleared via
the NMU Research Ethics Committee (human), as well as the participating parents
who granted permission in their consent forms. Appendix D1 is an example of one of
the parent’s consent forms. Ultimately, all these interviews were transcribed into
meaningful text, referred to the respective participants for checking and stored for
future reference.
3.9.3 Observation
Observation is regarded as one of the most important methods of data collection.
Kemmis and McTaggart (1988:13), Marckwardt et al. (1992:873) and Sapsford and
Jupp (2006:57) define observation as organised inspections or mental depictions of
natural experiences. Verbal and non-verbal cues are explored, examined and
inferences are made about what people actually do in their own world (Hodgkinson &
Maree, 1998:61; Angrosino, 2008:161; Marshall & Rossman, 2010:140; Troskie-De
Bruin, 2010:10; Rossman & Rallis, 2012:168; Loseke, 2013:88). Yin (2009:109),
Jones and Somekh (2011:131) and Strydom (2011b:329) pronounce that observation
assures unwavering, first-hand data about the phenomenon which often encourages
the active involvement of participants. Researchers’ senses, namely their sight,
hearing, taste, smell and touch, need to be finely tuned (Janesick, 2004:3 & 107;
2011:23; Mukherji & Albon, 2010:105). In association with this perspective, Kemmis
and McTaggart (1988:13), Troskie-De Bruin (2010:10) and Guest, Namey and
Mitchell (2013:91-92) recommend the use of different methods of observation to
develop some form of structure for validity, namely field notes and journal inscriptions.
All these written recordings were well managed from the beginning of the research to
the end, including formal and informal processes of data collection at the research
site.
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3.9.3.1 Field notes
Field notes are forms of record keeping that replace the need for recordings or assist
it, especially during interviews (King & Horrocks, 2010:44). Strydom (2011b:335) and
Verhoeven (2011:136) also define the use of field notes as permanent, written
accounts of things that researchers see, hear, experience and think during data
collection, which according to Jones and Somekh (2011:131), need to be dated and
recorded as soon as possible to retain the accuracy of events as they occurred. In
this regard, Patton (2015:387) differentiates between two kinds of field notes, namely
descriptive and reflective field notes. Descriptive field notes are related to the accurate
documentation of factual data and the settings, actions, behaviour and conversations
that you observe, while reflective field notes build on researchers’ thoughts, ideas,
questions and concerns about observations.
This study recorded descriptive field notes of different events, activities and behaviour
throughout the individual interviews and ALSs in Cycles 1 and 2 to secure an
excessive data trail and evidence. Detailed pictures of the participant’s world, namely
their individual appearance, gestures and interaction with the research topic, including
their collective involvement in the study were recorded. In addition, I kept regular
notes of our conversations on site regarding possible ESPs for learners with barriers
to learning and development. All these descriptive field notes greatly added to the
quality of the research.
Strydom (2011b:335) acknowledges that rich, in-depth descriptions including direct
quotations of the participants and the contexts in which the observations were made,
are recorded in an unobtrusive manner. The sensitivity of the researcher is
transported, and meaning is established about the phenomenon (Jones & Somekh,
2011:133), which according to Patton (2015:387-388), enable researchers to return
to observations for scrutiny later during data analysis. In securing a holistic
understanding of the development for a PIP, the descriptive field notes were
complimented by reflective field notes which included a personal journal.
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3.9.3.2 Journal
McNiff (2002:17), Beylefeld (2005:1326), Whitehead and McNiff (2006:64), Strydom
and Delport (2011a:377) and Creswell (2013:160) describe journaling as a more
passive form of observation that involves written documentary and/or desk research,
explaining activities and experiences within a given time frame. It entails systematic
and regularly kept records of events, dates and people (McNiff, Lomax & Whitehead,
2003:53; Coghlan & Brannick, 2010:28). Strydom and Delport (2011a:377)
consequently maintain that unique descriptions of a researcher’s personal
experiences, thoughts, feelings and observations are captured, while McNiff and
Whitehead (2002:94) and Creswell (2013:160) add that research participants, in this
case parents, too can be invited to keep a reflective journal to secure rich data.
Nevertheless, it is often difficult for researchers to obtain the necessary material as
the participants firstly need to grant them permission to use it (Creswell, 2013:174).
According to McNiff et al. (2003:53), journal-keeping is a convenient way of keeping
record of painful experiences. Researchers can reflect on experiences; see how they
think about experiences and anticipate future experiences (McNiff & Whitehead,
2002:94; Patton, 2015:387). Coghlan and Brannick (2010:27) therefore associate
journaling or record-keeping with a discipline that captures important happenings
close to when they occur. Due to this analytic nature of journals, Creswell (2013:174)
regards it as a very popular approach to data collection, which helps to make better
sense of a situation.
In preparation for the study, a well-managed reflective journal was kept pertaining to
the possible participants, functional and non-functional ESPs, as well as the academic
performance of learners in general. Furthermore, verbal and non-verbal cues,
including my personal dealings with the participants were reflected on. These journal
inscriptions formed an integral part of the evidence for the study, while parents too
were invited to keep their own journals. Hence, as time passed it became clear that
parents preferred to speak their minds instead of sharing their notes. These
communications then formed part of the verbatim transcriptions of the interviews and
were preserved for later scrutiny. All the observations were summarised and are
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presented in Appendix G. Table 3.1 presents the data collection process within each
cycle of the PAR design.
Table 3.1 Data collection process within two cycles of PAR
WHO WHEN HOW WHAT
Potential
Participants
C1: Information session;
Observation
Presentation;
Computer
Parental
involvement;
learner
performance
10 Participants C1: Action learning set;
Observation
Discussions;
Video/voice recorder
See Appendix F1
12 Participants C1:Individual interviews;
Observation
Face-to-face
interviews;
Video/voice recorder
See Appendix E1
13 Participants
C1: Workshop at NMU;
Observation
Guidance/Motivation;
Voice recorder
Parental
involvement
8 Participants C1: Action learning set;
Observation
Reflection;
Fieldnotes
See Appendix H1:
ESPs
6 Participants C2: Action learning set;
Observation
Reflection;
Discussions;
Fielnotes
See Appendix I
6 Participants C2: Observation Implementing the PIP;
Fieldnotes
Resource centre
6 Participants C2: Action learning set;
Observation
Reflection;
Discussion;
Fieldnotes
See Appendix H2:
ESPs
All the above-mentioned data obtained during the two cycles of PAR was analysed
throughout the investigation.
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3.10 DATA ANALYSIS
Mukherji and Albon (2010:215) define data analysis as an innovative process of
summarising and describing your findings. A large amount of ambiguous data is
transcribed and interpreted to establish meaning, structure and order (Bezuidenhout
& Cronje, 2014:228). In so doing, Whitehead and McNiff (2006:82) maintain that
standards of judgement are identified, which have the basis in what we consider as
good. Silverman (2005:152), Schurink et al. (2011:400) and Grbich (2013:165)
accordingly recognise multiple strategies to qualitative data analysis that researchers
can select from, namely, content analysis, narrative analysis, conversation analysis
and discourse analysis. Great care is needed in the choice of a strategy for your
research (Aubrey, David, Godfrey & Thompson, 2000:192; Troskie-De Bruin, 2010:2;
Strydom, 2011c:501; Bezuidenhout & Cronje, 2014:228). Parallel to this perception, I
examined the various strategies in association with the design of a PIP, which largely
depended on the active engagement of parents and accepted content analysis as the
best approach for the study.
Content analysis refers to the examination of large masses of textual content such as
words, messages, interviews and conversations in written, visual or spoken form that
according to Struwig and Stead (2001:14), Miles and Huberman (2002:174), Henning
(2004:109), Yin (2009:129), Schurink et al. (2011:404) and Grbich (2013:165), can be
reduced into fewer themes and organised to create a new whole. Data is taken apart
and put together to tell a story (Aubrey et al., 2000:191). Within this context, Corbin
and Strauss (2008:66) and Troskie-De Bruin (2010:2) emphasise that hidden
treasures are identified, and data is transformed into findings through diagrams,
figures or tables. Content analysis is thus a disorderly process and for data to become
more manageable and meaningful, inductive participatory data analysis was applied
in this study.
Inductive participatory data analysis is embedded in the collective management and
explicit use of data gathered from fieldwork via a method called open coding. Thomas
(2003:1) and Patton (2015:597) similarly refer to inductive participatory data analysis
as an approach that recognises the participants as co-researchers who actively
support the evidence of the study. The intent is to achieve reasonable solutions to
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problems by finding concepts and ideas that make sense to all parties involved
(Stringer, 2004:97). Inductive participatory data analysis therefore suggests some
form of partnership in answering the research question, which according to Sagor
(n.d.:10), establishes an atmosphere of support, trust and collegiality. This social
awareness is understood as a process of inductive reasoning, thinking and theorising
(Lincoln & Guba, 1985:202; Schurink et al., 2011:399). In addition, McMillan and
Schumacher (2001:480), Struwig and Stead (2001:15) and Yin (2009:94) state that
categories and patterns emerge directly from data gathered in the field rather than
preconceived ideas. Inductive analysis thus typically results in multiple realities, a
more explicit investigator-respondent relationship and a better description of the
context (Toni, 2009:58). Hence, Silverman (2011:280) and Patton (2015:597) view
this form of open coding as a challenge to researchers who must assist those involved
to develop analytical thinking and a professional vision. The following process, namely
two layers of inductive participatory data analysis, adapted from Patton (2015:216 &
551), was followed during two cycles of PAR:
▪ First Layer: The participants in the study shared their views about the data
generated via twelve individual interviews, two ALSs, as well as observations
that included field notes and journal inscriptions. The data was read several
times and coded to create themes for the investigation;
▪ Second Layer: Themes are selected collaboratively.
CYCLE 1: Layer one
Towards the end of Cycle 1, the participating parents gathered, under my supervision,
to determine possible ESPs that the school could embark on with parents. They
discretely read and critically examined the programmes that parents identified during
the individual interviews (Appendix E2), ALSs (Appendix F2) and observations
(Appendix G). Thereafter, they collectively reflected on possible ESPs, addressed
and grouped similar activities to simplify and create themes for the design of a PIP.
Layer two:
The participants re-examined the groups of activities identified in Layer one and linked
these to the immediate needs of learners with barriers to learning and development
at the specific school. They mutually sifted, sorted, compared and cross-checked the
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ESPs in relation to existing intervention programmes at the school. This refinement
of the data was diligently recorded by the parents (see Appendix H1) and contributed
immensely to the selection of themes for the design of a PIP. A brief description of
Cycle 2 follows an illustration of the same two layers of inductive participatory data
analysis utilised in Cycle 1, namely:
▪ First Layer: The participants in the study shared their views about the data
generated through two ALSs and questionnaires. The data was read several
times and coded to create themes for the investigation;
▪ Second Layer: Themes are selected collaboratively.
CYCLE 2: Layer one
Like Cycle 1, the participating parents assembled near the end of Cycle 2, read and
studied their choice of ESPs (Appendix H1) in association with the responses from
other parents (see Appendix I) individually. Then they critically reflected on and
discussed the proposed ESPs in terms of its influence on disadvantaged learners and
its management at the specific school. After thoughtful deliberation and prioritising,
the participants were able to capture a holistic view of ESPs necessary for learners
at the school.
Layer two:
A holistic perspective concerning ESPs, via Appendices H1 and I, allowed the
participating parents to reflect on, group and refine the design of a PIP (see Appendix
H2) to the benefit of learners with barriers to learning and development. The following
three main themes emerged from the data, namely deficits of the academic
programme, the neglect of social wellness programmes and voids in communication
and relationships. These themes were further packaged into sub-themes, namely,
remedial support, teacher-assistants, homework-support and technical abilities; the
need for parental guidance, necessary professional assistance, upgrading of safety
measures, availability of clothing; sustainability of a nutritional programme and voids
in communication and relationships in the home, community and school environment
by means of a table (see Table 4.3 in Chapter Four). In this way, data analysis, as
advocated by Silverman (2005:152), presented itself as an on-going process that
guided the research through cyclical processes. Cycles 1 and 2 in Table 3.2, for
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example, reveals the refinement of a parental involvement programme for
disadvantaged learners at the specific school.
Table 3.2 Educational Support Programmes
EDUCATIONAL
SUPPORT
PROGRAMME
CYCLE 1: APPENDIX H1 CYCLE 2: APPENDIX
H2
ACADEMIC Homework-support
programme
Communication
Teacher-assistants (TAs) Quality learning and
teaching
Library programme Practical curriculum
Remedial classes Professional assistance
Parenting
Professionals
Woodwork, arts,
needlework, technology
Communication in Xhosa,
Afrikaans and English
CO-CURRICULAR Sport, culture,
entrepreneurship,
computer skills, electrical
skills
SOCIAL WELLNESS Gardening: soup kitchen,
feeding scheme
Communication
Second-hand clothing Well-being
Safety measures Professional assistance
Professionals: counselling,
health, workshops, talks
Parenting skills
Communication skills
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3.11 TRUSTWORTHINESS (VALIDITY)
Silverman (2005:210), McMillan and Schumacher (2010:230), Anney (2014:275-276)
and Koonin (2014:253) regard trustworthiness as a form of validity that enhances the
truthfulness and quality of a study. As noticed in Section 1.15, trustworthiness is also
underpinned by values, which, according to McNiff and Whitehead (2002:81;
2009:149; 2010:189), Henning (2004:148) and Bisschoff and Koebe (2005:157), need
to permeate the entire investigation while data is being interpreted, evaluated and
presented by making claims to knowledge. Data will turn into evidence when you can
show that it meets your nominated criteria (Whitehead & McNiff, 2006:105).
For this study, the criteria of both Lincoln and Guba (1985:236-243) and McNiff and
Whitehead (2006:103-105) were applied which included concepts such as credibility,
transferability, dependability and conformability that are alternatives to internal
validity, external validity, reliability and objectivity in quantitative research. The
following is a brief depiction of credibility, transferability, dependability and
conformability.
3.11.1 Credibility
Credibility (internal validity) is the centre of qualitative research and constitutes the
believability of the study (Williams & Morrow, 2009:579; Anney, 2014:276; Albertyn,
2015:4). To establish authenticity in research, McMillan and Schumacher (2010:230)
and Schurink et al. (2011:419) propose strategies such as prolonged and persistent
fieldwork, persistent observation, triangulation, participant verbatim language
interpretations, mechanically recorded data and member checking, which are
subsequently clarified.
Prolonged and persistent fieldwork: The fieldwork occurred over a period of ten
months. During this period, large amounts of time, energy and resources were
dedicated to the research site, as well as the participants. Cognisant effort was made
to engage the participating parents formally and informally to gain their trust and
respect in the design of a PIP.
107
Persistent observation: From the beginning of the investigation, well-kept descriptive
field notes and a reflective journal of all the experiences in the research field were
recorded. Moreover, the parents too kept their own journals and notes regarding their
journey in the design of a PIP, which were orally communicated during data analysis.
Triangulation: Three instruments, namely individual interviews, ALSs and observation
were adopted to triangulate data during the process of data collection.
Participant verbatim language interpretations: The direct quotations of the
participants, obtained during data collection, were used to interpret their
understanding of ESPs applicable for the design of a PIP.
Mechanically recorded data: A video and/or voice recorder was utilised to capture an
accurate account of events during data collection.
Member checking: The transcripts of the different interviews and ALSs were later
given to the participants to examine their accuracy.
These strategies are directly linked to the criteria described by McNiff and Whitehead
(2006:103-105) as truthfulness and authenticity, which endorsed the transferability
(external validity) of the research.
3.11.2 Transferability
Lincoln and Guba (1985:289-290), Key (1997:5-6) and Koonin (2014:259) define
transferability as the extent to which findings and analysis can be applied beyond a
specific case or situation and deliver the same results. It suggests that the same
outcome is achieved when the findings of one research study are related or
transferred to another environment or with other participants. Hence, Bischoff and
Khoebe (2005:157) warns against the generalisation of the findings as circumstances
often differ.
This study advocated on behalf of the poor or disadvantaged in the northern areas of
Port Elizabeth and presented the direct impressions of parents concerning the
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education of disadvantaged learners. By adopting a transformative paradigm, as well
as an inductive participatory approach to data analysis, the dynamic voice of the poor
was elevated. It is thus possible to transfer the findings of this research to other
poverty-stricken environments and participants since they usually experience similar
challenges. Nonetheless, the study acknowledges the uniqueness of each case and
encourages adjustments to ESPs embedded within the design of a PIP, which
increases its reliability and genuineness.
3.11.3 Dependability (reliability)
Bisschoff and Koebe (2005:157), Williams and Morrow (2009:578) and Anney
(2014:278) view dependability as the consistency of the findings to the degree where
they can be trusted, traced and duplicated by others. Research cannot be transferable
unless it is credible and it cannot be credible unless it is dependable (Babbie &
Mouton, 2001:277). Therefore, to uphold the integrity of the research, someone else
should be able to reproduce it with the same participants in the same setting. This
quality of research corresponds with values or criteria identified by McNiff and
Whitehead (2006:103-105) as comprehensibility and appropriateness.
Comprehensibility and appropriateness were established through the triangulation of
data and the use of technology during data collection. The storage of verbatim
extracts, raw material and transcripts further guaranteed an audit trail for future
reference. In appreciation of the clarity and accuracy associated with the study, the
conformability (objectivity) of the researcher was of major importance.
3.11.4 Conformability
Conformability is the degree to which the findings are the product of the research
focus and not the biases of the researcher (Babbie & Mouton, 2001:278). It implies
that researchers must refrain from any form of prejudice and base their findings on
the interpretations of the participants. According to Lincoln and Guba (1985:296-297)
and Koonin (2014:259), conformability measures how well the information gathered
support the findings and not the personal views of the researcher.
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To avoid any form of harm to the integrity of the investigation, the experiences, ideas
and understanding of the participating parents were always appreciated and
embraced during the design of a PIP. Throughout the study, I withheld my own beliefs
and remained objective to allow the voices of the participants to triumph. All the
material pertaining to the views of the parents, as mentioned above, were placed in
safekeeping.
3.12 REFLECTION
Reflection refers to a process of learning about a problem or phenomenon. It seeks
to make sense of processes, problems, issues and constraints (Kemmis & McTaggart,
1988:13). In association with this view, Dick (1997:1) proclaims that within the context
of AL and PAR, reflection is often used to review the previous action and plan the
next one. Researchers reflect on the results of evaluation, the whole action and the
research process, and identify a new problem (Hodgkinson & Maree, 1998:57). In
addition, Bloor and Wood (2006:145), Alvesson and Sköldberg (2009:9) and Creswell
(2013:501) add that researchers critically reflect on themselves and are conscious of
the cultural, political, social, linguistic and ideological origins of their own voices
compared to those who are being observed in the field. The collaborative perspectives
of the inquirer, myself, people in the setting being studied, research partners and the
audience for the study, as well as the interaction of self with others are significant for
triangulation in ALAR. Through reflection, we conceptualise and generalise what
happened, namely learning is produced in AL or research in PAR (Dick, 1997:1;
Zuber-Skerritt, 2003:338).
As indicated in Section 3.8.4.1, two formal meetings were scheduled for reflection in
Cycle 1 for the parents to realise and keep abreast of the design of a PIP. Firstly, the
individual interviews encouraged the parents to reflect on their own involvement in
the education of their children and to explore methods or ESPs to support them
effectively. Secondly, the parents collectively reflected on possible ESPs to the benefit
of disadvantaged learners and reviewed it in terms of learners’ immediate needs
during the second ALS.
110
In Cycle 2, two reflective meetings were conducted to conclude the selection of the
most suitable design for a PIP. Initially, the parents met during an ALS to reflect on
their proposed ESPs in support of disadvantaged learners (Appendix H1) and
considered strategies to manage it properly at the specific school. Thereafter, the
participating parents gathered during the second ALS to reflect on the views of other
parents in the school community and to finally select the most appropriate design of
a PIP collectively, as noted in Section 3.8.4.2.
3.13 SUMMARY
This chapter provided an account of the empirical study and contained detailed
descriptions of the theoretical framework, research paradigm and research design of
the study. The involvement of the researcher was further explained, followed by a
brief interpretation of the research site, population and sample, as well as ethical
considerations for the investigation. Detailed descriptions of data collection, data
analysis and criteria for trustworthiness were also provided, with a brief depiction on
reflections done in Cycles 1 and 2.
In the next chapter, Chapter Four, the findings of the research are presented and
discussed.
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CHAPTER FOUR
PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THE FINDINGS
4.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter Four presents the findings of the research in association with the views of
the participating parents concerning the design of a PIP at one of the disadvantaged
primary schools within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole. Due to the critical voice
of disadvantaged parents in the study participatory action research, as a genre of AR,
was utilised as the vessel to fully engage them in ESPs for disadvantaged learners.
All the relevant data pertaining to ESPs was obtained during the empirical study
(Chapter Three), whereby the parents individually and collectively identified an array
of learner requirements, within two cycles of PAR. This data was thoroughly analysed
during ALSs in each cycle and emerged into themes and sub-themes – which are
displayed in Table 4.3. This chapter further includes a brief outline and a discussion
of the biographical details linked to the research site and participants, which, may
have directed the findings of the PIP. In conclusion, an additional assessment of the
study is provided to the reader towards the end of Chapter Four.
4.2 BIOGRAPHICAL DETAILS OF THE SCHOOL AND PARTICIPANTS
Short outlines of the participating disadvantaged primary school and the participating
parents are presented in Tables 4.1 and 4.2 respectively, to describe and
contextualise the design of a PIP in support of disadvantaged learners within a South
African context. Codes are utilised parallel to the ethical requirements for the
investigation to protect the identities of both the school and the parents. The research
site, for instance, is referred to as School Z.
112
Table 4.1: Biographical details of School Z
Description of the School Section 20, Quintile 3
Academic Programme Grade R – 7
LOLT Afrikaans; English
Number of Learner enrolment 1072
Number of Learners in the English stream 519
Number of Learners in the Afrikaans stream 553
Home language of learners Afrikaans: 492
English: 230
Xhosa: 232
Number of learners with severe barriers to learning
and development
Grade R-3: None Identified
Grade 4-7: 22
Number of teachers
Males: 8
Females: 25
Home language of teachers
Afrikaans: 25
English: 4
Xhosa: 4
Teacher:Learner ratio 1:40
Intervention Support Programme/s School Nutrition
The definition of learners with barriers to leaning and development in South Africa, as
explained in Chapter One, suggests that all the learners enrolled at School Z require
some form of assistance. From Table 4.1, it is evident that many Afrikaans and Xhosa
speaking learners in the English medium stream as well as teachers, might be more
challenged than English speaking learners and teachers in terms of the LOLT. It is,
for example, often difficult for learners and teachers to interact, study and/or teach
fluently in a second or third language. More than one hundred learners, according to
Table 4.1, is unaccounted for, while the big classroom sizes and the single
intervention programme at School Z, further demonstrate the poor support to
disadvantaged learners and their teachers. This scenario is discouraging since
School Z is a Section 20, Quintile 3 establishment fully subsidised by the DoE to
manage diversity. Ogbonnaya and Awuah (2019:106) describe a Section 20, Quintile
3 School as a no-fee paying institution that are granted with extra managerial funding
to address the various needs of disadvantaged learners.
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Table 4.2 illustrates the biographical details of the participating parents in the data
collection process. Correlating codes are used to uphold confidentiality and
anonymity throughout the research and can consolidate an audit trail. During Cycle
1, individual interviews and two ALSs followed an information session (IS) that
contributed richly to the design of a PIP and are coded: IS; II-1, II-2, II-3, II-4, II-5, II-
6, II-7, II-8, II-9, II-10, II-11, II-12; A-1, A-2. For Cycle 2, two ALSs were arranged to
determine the selection of a suitable PIP at School Z which are coded A-3, A-4. This
is discussed in Chapter Five. Within the text, these codes follow the verbatim
quotations of the parent participants, and thereafter the page number that points to
the original interview scripts, namely II-1p1 denotes the first individual interview on
page 1. A core group of parents participated within both cycles of PAR, but as
explained in Section 3.6, some parents were sometimes substituted by others. The
verbatim transcripts are presented in its original format without correcting the
grammatical errors.
Table 4.2: Biographical details of the participants
Part
icip
an
t
Mari
tal
Sta
tus
Em
plo
ym
en
t
Sta
tus
Gen
der
Ho
me L
an
gu
ag
e
Rela
tio
nsh
ip t
o
Learn
er/
S
Po
sit
ion
held
at
Sch
oo
l
Hig
hest
form
of
Sch
oo
lin
g
Tra
inin
g a
nd
/or
Pas
sio
n
So
cio
-eco
no
mic
Sta
tus
IS single; married
part-time worker; housewife; volunteer: policing sector; student; volunteer: SNP; adminis-trator
M F
A E
father; mother; grand-mother; supporter; LSA
community policing; volunteers: QLTC, TA; safety & security; SBST-member; SGB-member; mediator for disadvantaged learners
high school; Matric
reading; spiritual leadership; counselling safety & crime prevention; crèche; pre-primary education; Life Skills; parental guidance; homework-support; SGB functions; ABET; community policing; computer skills; sport; networking
low; middle
II-1 married housewife F E mother volunteer: QLTC
Matric reading; spiritual
middle
114
Part
icip
an
t
Mari
tal
Sta
tus
Em
plo
ym
en
t
Sta
tus
Gen
der
Ho
me L
an
gu
ag
e
Rela
tio
nsh
ip t
o
Learn
er/
S
Po
sit
ion
held
at
Sch
oo
l
Hig
hest
form
of
Sch
oo
lin
g
Tra
inin
g a
nd
/or
Pas
sio
n
So
cio
-eco
no
mic
Sta
tus
leadership; counselling
II-2 married housewife F A mother volunteer: QLTC
high school
reading; spiritual leadership; counselling
middle
II-3 married volunteer: policing sector
F A grand-mother
volunteer: safety & security
high school
safety & crime prevention; crèche; counselling
low
II-4 married housewife F A mother SBST-member
high school
safety & crime prevention
low
II-5 single volunteer: TA
F A mother
student high school
pre-primary education; spiritual leadership; counseling; computer skills
low
II-6 Single LSA F A support agent
mediator for disadvantaged learners
high school
Counseling;Life Skills; parental guidance; homework-support
low
II-7 married part-time worker
M A father SGB-member
Matric SGB-functions; ABET; computer skills; community policing
low
II-8 single adminis-trator
F A mother SGB-member
high school
SGB-functions; sport
middle
II-9 single adminis-trator
F E mother SGB-member
Matric SGB-functions; computer skills; networking
middle
II-10 married volunteer: policing sector
F A supporter safety & security
high school
safety & crime prevention; sewing; admin; counselling; child-care
low
II-11 single volunteer: SNP
F X mother SNP-member
high school
catering; gardening
low
II-12 single volunteer: policing sector
F A supporter safety & security
Matric safety & crime prevention; counselling
low
A-1 single; married
housewive; volunteer: policing
F A E
mother; grand-mother;
volunteers: QLTC, TA;
high school; Matric
reading; spiritual
low; middle
115
Part
icip
an
t
Mari
tal
Sta
tus
Em
plo
ym
en
t
Sta
tus
Gen
der
Ho
me L
an
gu
ag
e
Rela
tio
nsh
ip t
o
Learn
er/
S
Po
sit
ion
held
at
Sch
oo
l
Hig
hest
form
of
Sch
oo
lin
g
Tra
inin
g a
nd
/or
Pas
sio
n
So
cio
-eco
no
mic
Sta
tus
sector; student;
supporter safety & security
leadership; counselling safety & crime prevention; crèche; pre-primary education; computer skills
A-2 single; married
same as A-1
F A E
same as A-1
same as A-1 same as A-1
same as A-1
same as A-1
A-3 single; married
same as A-1
F A E
same as A-1
same as A-1 same as A-1
same as A-1
same as A-1
A-4 single; married
same as A-1
F A E
same as A-1
same as A-1 same as A-1
same as A-1
same as A-1
Table 4.2 reveals a well-balanced presentation of both single and married parents
who actively participated in the research. As indicated in Section 3.5, these parents
were mainly females (F), with two male (M) participants, who originated from a multi-
cultural and multi-racial school community. Most of the parents were fluent in Xhosa
(X), although their mother tongue or home language was predominantly Afrikaans (A).
Only two of the parents adopted English (E) as their home language, but they were
comfortable in communicating in Afrikaans during specific intervals. It means that the
participating parents were able to understand each other and interacted without any
hindrances. Moreover, many parents were proficient in one or more areas of
expertise, namely spiritual leadership, safety and security, counselling, administrative
duties, computer skills, reading programmes, pre-primary education, adult basic
education, catering and needlework, which all form an integral part of an IE system.
The fact that all these parents shared a common interest in the quality of education
for learners at School Z and functioned purely on a voluntarily basis to achieve this,
was of great value to the design of a PIP. Their concern for disadvantaged learners
was clear, for example, when II-2p5 and II-12p53 mentioned that “…families are
falling apart in our community”.
116
4.3 PRESENTATION AND DISCUSSION OF THEMES AND SUB-THEMES
The main purpose of the study was to actively engage parents from a disadvantaged
primary school community in ESPs relevant to the needs of learners with barriers to
learning and development. Three main themes with sub-themes emerged during the
process of data analysis and these are presented in Table 4.3.
Table 4.3: Emerging themes and sub-themes from the empirical study
Themes Sub-themes
1. Deficits of the academic programme Remedial support
Teacher-assistants
Homework-support
Technical abilities
2. The neglect of social wellness
programmes
Need for parental guidance
Necessary professional assistance
Upgrading of safety measures
Availability of clothing bank
Sustainability of a nutritional
programme
3. Voids in communication and
relationships
The home environment
The community
The school environment
A discussion of the main themes and sub-themes, as indicated in Table 4.3, is
subsequently presented. This discussion is supported by verbatim quotations of the
participants. The study was conducted in English and most of the parents responded
in either English or Afrikaans during the data collection process. The Afrikaans data
is reported verbatim and English translations (in brackets) are provided for the reader.
Where possible, the relevant literature is cited as a control to the empirical research
117
findings. In addition, data gathered from literature was compared with data obtained
through the information session, individual interviews and action learning sets to
ensure trustworthiness. Similarities and differences were also highlighted.
4.3 THEME 1: DEFICITS OF THE ACADEMIC PROGRAMME
It was established in Section 2.3 that an academic programme resembles formal
instruction. Goldenberg and Coleman (2010:83) similarly associate the academic
programme with the content of subjects that requires knowledge and a higher order
of thinking, which, according to Davis (2012:190), is dependent on learners’
proficiency in comprehensive reading and writing. Literacy influences learners’
competence in numeracy (Gorman, 2015:14). Therefore, for learners to be
academically successful, they need to master these basic skills. As stated in Section
2.8.5, a growing number of children learn in a second or third LOLT, with big class
sizes and they struggle to transfer their home language. Additional barriers to the
academic programme include the pace of teaching, how learning is assessed, and
the quality of teachers described in Section 2.6. Ultimately, Gorman (2015: xiv)
emphasises that no major changes have been made to accommodate the
disadvantaged inside classrooms. For example, the talk-and-chalk teacher-centred
approach still prevails while merely a few seating arrangements are made for learners
in need.
This scenario jeopardises quality learning and teaching experiences and often lead
to educational gaps or underachievement (Fleisch, 2008:98; Johnson, 2009:3; Davis,
2012:95). Doddington and Hilton (2007: ix), Roffey (2011:194) and Gorman (2015:
xiv) consequently claim that a great number of people, including researchers,
teachers and parents are worried about learners at primary schools. This was also
evident amongst the participating parents in this study. Four sub-themes, namely
remedial support, teacher-assistants, homework-support and technical abilities
emerged from the investigation for this theme and are subsequently explained.
118
4.3.1 Remedial support
The participants identified that an increasing number of learners experienced
moderate to severe learning difficulties at School Z. Many learners could not read
and/or write properly in their home language and struggled to communicate in the
LOLT. As a result, the participants claimed that these learners were unable to access
the academic programme, compete academically alongside their peers and were in
urgent need of remedial support:
“Daar is baie wat rêrig struggle met lees…” (There are many who really struggle to
read...) - A-2p76
“…hy kan nie letters skryf nie.” (…he cannot formulate letters.) - A-2p77
“Kinders wat leerprobleme het, like mos nie skryf nie.” (Children who experience
learning difficulties do not like writing.) - II-5p22
“Hy vorder nie by sy skoolwerk nie…hy leer baie swaar …” (He is not progressing in
his schoolwork…he is struggling to learn…) - II-3p11
“I [learner] can’t read, I can’t build information…” - A-II-9p40
“Kinders met special needs het nodig vir aparte klasse.” (Children with special needs
require separate classrooms.) - II-5p22
“Daardie een [leerder] moet weggeneem word, uitgeneem word uit die klas uit, want
hulle sukkel en die ander kinders maak maar net fool van hulle…” (That one [learner]
must be removed from the classroom, because they are struggling, and other children
are making fun of them…) - ISp68
The implementation of special needs classes, as during Apartheid, was thus
considered a necessity for learners at School Z. The participants acknowledged that:
“Toe ek op laerskool was, het die skool remedial gehad vir die kinders wat stadig is.”
(When I attended primary school, the school offered remedial support to children who
were slow.) - II-6p28
“Daardie tyd toe noem hulle dit ‘n aanpassingsklas... ek voel hulle [leelinge met
leerprobleme] moet in ‘n spesiale klas is.” (That time we called it an adjustment class
… I feel they [leaners who experience learning difficulties] must be in a special class.)
- II-7p32-33
119
“…waar hulle spesiale klasse net vir daardie kinders het en dan dink ek dit gaan baie
wonderlik wees vir baie ouers…” (…where they have special classes for those
learners… it will be to the benefit of many parents…) - ISp68
In relation to this scenario at School Z, some of the parents further indicated that many
disadvantaged learners experienced moderate barriers to learning and development
due to a lack of individual support. It was their conviction that big class sizes often
hampered quality EFA, in which case, some parents advocated:
“…we have in our schools this large number of special need kids, which might not
even be special need kids. …” - II-9p40
“…die government het ‘n groot fout begaan om dit nou so ‘n normale skool te maak,
...[voorheen] die juffrouens het rêrig aandag geskenk aan daardie kinders [leerders
met leerprobleme] …die kinders het goed gevaar.” (…the government made a
mistake to implement an inclusive school… [previously] the teachers really gave
attention to the children [learners who experienced learning difficulty] …the children
progressed well.) - ISp68
Within an inclusive learning environment most learners, including those with severe
barriers to learning and development, require ongoing specialised, remedial support.
The participants accentuated the importance of internal and external professional
assistance, namely qualified remedial teachers, parents, therapists, psychologists,
doctors and nurses, but also acknowledged the neglect thereof at many schools.
Some of the participants reflected on learners’ academic performances at School Z
and noted:
“Hulle [leerlinge met leerprobleme] is net ‘n oorlas in daardie klas vir die ander kinders
en nou leer hulle nie…” (They [learners who experience learning difficulties] are only
a nuisance to other children in the classroom and they are not learning…) - ISp68
“Die LSEN-kind kan nie die pressure vat van ‘n normale mainstream klas nie… druip
elke jaar…oorgeplaas tot hy in matriek kom of baie van hulle word verlore in die
system in…” (The disadvantaged-child cannot handle the pressure of the mainstream
classroom…fails every year…promoted until they reach matric or many of them are
lost in the system…) - II-7p32-33
“Hy [leerling met leerprobleme] word oorgesit as gevolg van sy ouderdom. Nou hoe
gaan hy ooit weet op wat verbeter hy as dit elke keer die geval is?” (He [learner who
120
experience learning difficulties] is promoted due to his age. So how will he ever
understand his progression if this is always the case?) - II-3p13
“…by the time they reach grade 7 they’re 16/17 years old and then that plays against
them.” - II-9p40
Ultimately the participants responded uniquely to the diverse needs of learners, for
example:
“Die ma het self geloop om die kinders te kry by die skool [spesiale skool] …” (The
mother herself arranged for the placement of her children at school [special school]
…) - II-5p23
“Baie [ouers] is skaam om te sê my kind het ‘n leerprobleem. Dan sê hulle die kind
is lui…” (Many [parents] are shy to admit that their child has a learning problem. They
rather say the child is lazy…) - ISp68
The Comprehensive Webster Dictionary defines remedial as a remedy or cure
(Marckwardt et al., 1992:1065). In academic terms, remedial support would thus
suggest forms of intervention and/or additional assistance to learners with learning
disabilities. For instance, Voltz, Brazil and Ford (2001:27), refer to various types of
pull-in supports and collaborative problem-solving procedures, which is the
responsibility of the SBST and the DBST in consultation with classroom teachers and
parents of learners who experience learning difficulties in South African schools. More
specifically, as indicated in Section 2.4.2, early intervention is encouraged by means
of an ISP that monitors learners’ progress throughout their school career. This
remedial support system is strengthened by the employment of LSAs at
disadvantaged schools whose main purpose is, as explained in Section 2.6, to assist
in the diverse needs of disadvantaged learners.
Various studies have been conducted in terms of the increasing number of learners
with barrier to learning and development within the mainstream. In the Nelson
Mandela Bay Metropole, Capa (2019) reports that hundreds of learners are on waiting
lists at 13 special needs schools or are awaiting access to a newly built school in
2020. The need for remedial support is therefore a reality, which according to Briggs
(2005:32), Redding (n.d.:8), Goldenberg and Coleman (2010:31), Roffey (2011:140-
121
141) and Gorman (2015:13-14) must be dealt with locally. In line with this perspective
two of the parent participants stressed that:
“School Z is one of the schools that have a lot of qualified special needs teachers that
does not make use of their qualification.” - II-9p40
“We need as a school to implement something internally… want…graad agt drop ek
[leerder] en graad tien dros ek.” (…because…in grade eight I [learner] withdraw and
in grade ten he/she leave.) - II-7p32-33
4.3.2 Teacher-assistants
The participants identified the significant role of teacher-assistants within large class
sizes. Teacher-assistance was generally perceived as a necessary solution in aid of
all learners, as well as teachers at School Z. The participating parents noticed that
most of the learners required at least a little more time and/or individual attention in
order to meet the academic requirements. They, for instance, mirrored teacher-
assistance as profound to learners with mild barriers to learning and development:
“Daar is kinders wat meer aandag nodig het.” (There are children in need of more
attention.) - II-3p13
“Om die klas te hanteer is teacher-assistants ‘n groot voordeel. Dit sal ook baie help
met dissipline in haar klas.” (To manage the classroom, teacher-assistants is a huge
advantage. It will also help with discipline in her classroom.) - A-1p60
The lack of teacher-assistants at School Z, however, often resulted in scenarios
whereby:
“…die onderwyser hierso nie reg verduidelik nie en hulle [leerders] verstaan nou nie
reg nie.” (…the teachers here do not explain adequately and they [learners] do not
understand properly…) - II-2p6
“…Die juffrou kan eenvoudig net nie by elkeen elke dag uitkom nie.” (…It is impossible
for the teacher to attend daily to the needs of everyone…) - A-1p60
“…die juffrou het…40 kinders in haar klas.” (…the teacher has…40 children in her
classroom.) - II-5p22
122
According to a parent participant:
“… nou dink daardie kind die juffrou worry nie oor my werk nie…want sy gaan dit
maar nie merk nie.” (…now the child thinks the teacher is not worried about her/his
work…because she is not going to mark it anyway.) - II-3p13
It is against this background that the participants recommended the involvement of
parents as teacher-assistants in classrooms and encouraged their training and/or
mentorship in correlation with an inclusive learning environment.
“Kry ouers om te help kyk doen die kinders wat hulle suppose is om te doen...” (Gain
parents’ support to oversee that children are doing what they are supposed to…) - II-
3p13
“Die ouer kan altyd ook leer haarself met die wat sy kry by die onderwyser self. ‘n
Ouer kan opgelei word en terselfdertyd kan die kind ook opleiding kry.” (The parent
can also learn from what she gains from the teacher. A parent and child can be trained
simultaneously.) - II-8p34
“Jy kry mos daardie extra klasse…soos lees lesse.” (There are those extra
classes…like reading classes.) - II-12p54
“…Nie net vir die lees program nie…vir wiskunde en alles.” (…Not only for the reading
programme…for mathematics and everything…) - II-2p7
The plight of the parents was to:
“…spoon-feed them [learners who experience learning difficulties] … they need an
extra push…This can make or break a child.” - II-9p40
In terms of literature, teacher-assistants is a term used to describe a wide range of
stakeholder involvement in school life. The Department of Education (DoE,
2000c:31), UNESCO (2004:146), Epstein (2009:14) and Murawski (2010:62) regard
teacher-assistants as additional people, volunteers, an extra pair of hands and/or co-
teachers, who work in conjunction with the school to meet the diverse needs of
learners with barriers to learning and development. Teams of parents, community
members and experts, for example, assist in the classroom, school library, field trips,
sport fields and playgrounds to provide immediate support to learners (Van Wyk &
Lemmer, 2009:70-79; Sidley, 2010). In line with this perspective, parents, as
explained in Section 2.6, form a central part of teacher-assistants and are essential
to the design of a PIP in this research.
123
Van Wyk and Lemmer (2009:70) state that the existence of volunteers at schools
shows that parents care about their children’s education and are prepared to assist
them in reaching their goals. At public schools, for instance, Briggs (2005:32) and
Redding (n.d.:8) maintain that teacher-assistants allows for smaller classrooms and
more individual support to learners. Gillies (2007:1) and Gorman (2015:2) similarly
claim that disadvantaged learners prefer to work in small groups or pairs. It is the best
way to convey clear and consistent academic support and peer-tutoring, practice
listening skills and learn reading in the mother-tongue (Goldenberg & Coleman,
2010:31; Roffey, 2011:138-141). Gorman (2015:13-14) consequently emphasises
that writing disorders, such as handwriting and spelling, can be addressed more
appropriately through teacher-assistants.
Teacher-assistants is a valuable form of intervention from the onset of a child’s school
career. Middlewood (2003:89) therefore associates the quality of teacher-assistants
to professional mentorship, which, according to Section 2.3, points to teachers as
experts in the field. Section 2.8.7, Engelbrecht and Green (2007:86), and La Rocque
et al. (2011:115) yet warn that teachers may resist working with parents due to their
individual challenges. This lack of partnership at many disadvantaged primary
schools often result in the early burn-out of teachers, as well as the early drop-out of
an increasing number of youngsters (Johnson, 2009:5; Rockwell et al., 2010:299;
Williams, 2012:118).
4.3.3 Homework-support
In most cases, the participants acknowledged that homework-support was largely the
responsibility of parents at home. They reminisced on their past experiences or
routines concerning homework-support that strengthened and enriched their
individual learning. These memories mostly involved scheduled time frames for
homemork whereby mothers and grandmothers literally sat down to see that it was
done properly:
“…wanneer ons kom van die skool af dan sê my mammie doen jou huiswerk sodat jy
kan practise…Dan raak dit soos general knowledge vir jou…jy verstaan.” (…when we
come from school my mother always says, do your homework and practise…Then it
becomes like general knowledge to you…you understand.) - II-6p27
124
“Sy [ouma] het gesorg dat ek my tuiswerk doen. Sy’t gesorg dat ek sit, voor ek gaan
speel doen ek dit.” (She [grandmother] supervised my homework. Sy made me sit
down to do it before I went to play.) - II-10p45
This commitment and partnership in education has changed rapidly within many
households as the participants acknowledged numerous challenges associated with
homework-support. It was, for example, observed that many parents, especially
mothers and grandmothers, were regularly forced to work, illiterate and/or
irresponsive to the needs of their children. The participating parents reasoned that:
“As al die ouers net daardie klein bietjie kan doen…moenie net sê: here do your
homework nie…Sit saam met jou kind, werk saam met jou kind…” (If all the parents
could just agree to do those little things…do not only say, do your homework…Sit
down with your child, work with your child…) - ISp68
“As jy [ouer] nie die ding ken nie, verwys hulle [leerders] na iemand toe wie hulle kan
help.” (If you [parent] do not understand the work, refer them [learners] to someone
who can assist them.) - II-10p46
“…as die kind uit die skool uit kom kyk hy [ouer] TV…heel aand en weekends…
daardie ma gaan nooit vir daardie kind vra waar is jou huiswerk nie.” (…when the
child comes from school, he [the parent] is watching TV…whole day, as well as
weekends…that mother will never ask the child, where is your homework.) - A-2p76
On the other hand, one of the parent participants claimed:
“When I come home, he is already gone…He is not serious because he must wait for
me if he doesn’t understand something…then go to play.” - II-11p50
Moreover, parents of learners who experience learning difficulties emphasised that:
“In baie gevalle weet ons as ouers ons kinders kry tuiswerk…Sillabusse verskil breed
van toe ons op skool was… die ouer weet nie hoe om die kind te assist nie.” (We as
parents often know that our children have homework…Syllabi have changed greatly
since we went to school…the parent does not understand how to assist the child.) -
II-7p29 & 30
“…Ek probeer, maar daar gaan niks aan nie.” (…I try, but it is all in vain…) - II-4p14
“…in any way possible…I can learn, I want to learn…” - A-2p73
125
Due to this scenario in many households, the participants were discouraged as an
increasing number of learners at School Z were usually ill-motivated, forgetful and
ignorant towards their homework. Even though they applauded teachers for their
scholastic support of learners, they recommended some form of intervention to assist
parents in general:
“…ek [ouer] voel ek doen dit [help leerders], want daar is baie kinders wat nie wil
admit nie...[ek] maak hulle verstaan dat daar nie so ding is van: ek kan nie…” (…I
[parent] feel obligated to do it [support learners], because many children do not want
to admit…[I] make them believe that they can do it…) - A-2p76
In line with this view, one of the participating parents admitted:
“Ek het nog iets wat ek moet doen [by Skool Z] … a homework-support programme…”
(I still have something to do [at School Z] …) - II-6p27
Research reveals that the term homework was recorded in 1905 by an Italian
pedagogue, Roberto Nevillis, as punishment for his learners (Ramos, 2018:1). In
association with this idea, Marckwardt et al. (1992:604) explain homework as school
activities that are assigned by teachers and completed by learners at home.
Therefore, homework-support requires the active involvement of parents away from
the school. As indicated in Sections 1.2, 2.1, 2.2.1, 2.3, as well as Rose, Meyer and
Hitchcock (2005:136) and Motala and Luxomo (2014:82), parents are responsible for
homework-support and must fully engage as guides and supporters of their children.
Homework-support is instrumental in the sense that it focuses on the individual needs
of learners. Learners are, for instance, able to review and examine concepts for their
own clarity and understanding. According to Kurtus (2012:7) and Redding (n.d.:15),
homework-support allows learners with barriers to learning and development to
compete alongside their peers, reinforces schoolwork, encourages a deeper sense of
knowledge and leads to improved test scores. New knowledge is created, and
learners are motivated to do their best (Doddington & Hilton, 2007:67).
The counterpart of supporting their children’s homework is what Locke, Campbell and
Kavanagh (2012:249) identify as over-parenting. They caution that over-parenting
can result in a lack of skills development and discourage and/or deprive learners of
taking responsibility for their homework. Linked to this study, Ndebele (2015:72) adds
126
that homework-support is very poor or non-existent in many low-income households.
These scenarios, including the role of the school, infringe on proper guidance to
learners, which, according to Theron (2015:1), often lead to frustration and higher
rates of depression amongst parents and learners. Parental supervision and
homework routines therefore need to be instituted and nurtured from a very young
age. Wilby (2013:30) encourages early intervention and maintains that it is difficult to
imagine children playing endlessly until they attend formal schooling.
4.3.4 Technical abilities
According to the participants, most of the learners at School Z experienced learning
through their technical rather than abstract abilities. These learners, namely learners
with barriers to learning and development, physically expressed themselves through
creative crafts like drawings, play, design and the fixing of different appliances. This
touch-and-feel learning style encouraged a more dynamic approach to teaching and
learning, which the participants viewed in association with a technical learning
programme or curriculum:
“…as hy iets kan doen met sy hande. ... hy doen dit so mooi…” (…if he could do
something with his hands…he does it so well…) - II-3p12-13
“Like in the Intermediate Phase…houtwerk…art and crafts. We used to do
needlework…knitting or sowing…Boys used to do woodwork and technology…we
used to paint …make things out of clay...” - II-9p40
“…die vorige regering, hulle het vakke soos houtwerk gehad...huishoudkunde…tik...
kuns… ook computers.” (…the previous government, they implemented subjects like
woodwork…cooking…typing…arts…also computers.) - II-7p33
Numerous advantages of a technical or practical curriculum at School Z were
emphasised and related to the learning environment at special schools:
“Hulle leer om byvoorbeeld te plant…” (For example, they learn about gardening…) -
II-4p16
“Hulle vorder beter…want hulle doen projects en hulle maak praktiese goed...Dan kry
hulle punte vir dit.” (They progress better…because they are doing projects and are
making practical goods…Then they get marks for it.) - II-5p22 & 23
127
“…daardie mannetjie sit en fone regmaak…technology. Dit gaan hulle help… dan
gaan hulle ook lekker voel om ook skooltoe te kom.” (…that young guy is fixing
phones…technology. This will help them…then they will also feel good about coming
to school) - II-10p48
“These children [learners who experience learning difficulties] will now look forward
to doing things with their hands, not feeling intimidated, pressurised in any way.” - II-
9p40
Against this background, some participants recommended different activities and
tools of assessment to accommodate disadvantaged learners successfully in the
mainstream:
“Soos miskien daardie som…juffrou sê die is dit…en so word dit gedoen. Ander
kinders kan jy net met blokkies laat werk… Of… gee vir hulle ‘n boek dat hulle
inkleur…” (For example, that sum…teacher explains…shows how it is done. Other
children can be given blocks to work with…Or…give them a book to colour…) - II-
2p6-7
“Om toetse te skryf sodat dit wat hulle nie akademies kan doen nie, hulle hulself
prakties so kan verbeter. Nou gee die juffrou ‘n les oor karre dan kan hulle ‘n kar bou
sodat hulle ook kan punte kry.” (To substitute an academic test for a practical test, so
that they can progress. The teacher presents a lesson about cars and then [learners
who experience learning difficulties] they can build it for marks.) - II-3p13
Some of the participants, however, were concerned about the material and human
resources available to facilitate a technical learning programme at School Z. In terms
of material resources, one of the participants stated:
“Vir onse skool [Skool Z] gaan dit moeilik wees vir die resources...” (For our school
[School Z] it is going to be difficult in terms of resources…) - II-7p33
Equally, other participants observed that teachers, as the primary human resources
for an inclusive learning environment, were often able to explain concepts but lacked
the necessary technical skills to support learners sufficiently:
“…baie onderwysers verduidelik sodat hulle [leerders] prakties verstaan. Maar nou
net, om prakties te wees [onderwysers]?” (…many teachers explain so that they
[children] understand the practical implication. But now, for [teachers] to be practical?)
- II-2p6-7
128
“Somehow moet hulle [onderwysers] die kinders kan help met die hand…hulle [the
school] moet mense kry wie rêrig die kinders wil leer…” (Somehow they [teachers]
must be able to support children practically…they [the school] must invest in people
[teachers] who actually want to educate the children…) - II-10p48
The Collins English Dictionary (2014:2 & 1501) links the words technical and ability
to someone’s general level of intelligence or skills to perform a practical activity or
process. Examples of practical activities include playing, swimming, catering,
woodwork and computer skills, which predict different types of support to learners in
association with an IE system in South Africa. A democratic, child-centred education
system requires very specific kinds of learning experiences that offer richness and
celebrate the uniqueness of senses, visions and appreciation for the human mind
(Doddington & Hilton, 2007:67). Briggs (2005:44), Rose et al. (2005:18) and Baldock
(2010:62) consequently advocate the pertinence of visible practical equipment and
learning material in the classroom to assist and secure first-hand learning experiences
for all.
It is crucial to alter learning and teaching processes to accommodate learners with
technical abilities in mainstream schools. It is the school’s responsibility to make the
necessary amendments to the curriculum and provide multiple strategies or styles of
teaching and learning (Briggs, 2005:43). Teachers can, for instance, use technology
or play as means to engage learners actively in their education, and, as mentioned in
Sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, gain the support of the SGB and SBST to assist them
adequately. Raymond (2004:67) furthermore acknowledges that the different forms
of assessment assigned to teachers, learners, peers and parents, work in favour of
disadvantaged learners. The acceptance and amalgamation of technical abilities in
the classroom are vested in values such as mutual respect and are largely dependent
on partnership with different stakeholders in education. School principals must assist
and find creative ways to support learners who learn differently (Drago-Severson,
2004:60).
4.4 THEME 2: THE NEGLECT OF SOCIAL WELLNESS PROGRAMMES
Social wellness is a term used to describe people’s overall state of mind, body and
soul within a setting. The Collins English Dictionary (2014:1382 & 1656) associates
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social wellness with a healthy, happy and enjoyable lifestyle amongst a group of
people in society. In a similar way, this research draws on the social well-being of
learners at one of the disadvantaged primary schools with the active support of their
parents. Numerous ESPs relating to the social wellness of children are mentioned in
Section 2.6, namely: nutrition, health, water and sanitation, safety, social welfare
services, psychosocial, material, curriculum and co-curriculum programmes. In terms
of health, Motala and Luxomo (2014:83) testify that many children in disadvantaged
areas are still challenged by the escalating HIV/AIDS pandemic. The number of
orphans and vulnerable children in South Africa is growing rapidly as many poor
children, aged eleven and younger, often enter sexual relationships to fend for
themselves (Van Dyk, 2005:146). Moyles (2005:42-43) consequently states that it is
difficult to assess and pinpoint the exact needs of young children. This scenario was
familiar to most of the participating parents who lived under similar conditions. They,
for instance, raised their fears for the social well-being of learners, which evolved as
sub-themes for the study, namely: the need for parental guidance, necessary
professional assistance, upgrading of safety measures, availability of a clothing bank
and the sustainability of a nutritional programme that are described below.
4.4.1 Need for parental guidance
Parental guidance was perceived as pivotal to the holistic development of all learners.
The participants claimed that parents at School Z rarely understood the school
programme and were disconnected from their children’s education. They urged
School Z to educate, train and empower their parents via workshops and to involve
them actively in school life. The participating parents stated:
“Hulle [ouers] leer die kinders om mooi te wees ondermekaar…selfrespek en
discipline.” (They [parents] teach the children to care about each other…self-respect
and discipline.) - II-8p34
“…then that parent will have to go back to the child and ask, do you have homework?”
- II-1p2
It means that:
“…Die skool moet uitreik na ouers.” (The school must reach out to parents.) - II-5p22
“Parents need to become more involved, more active in the school as a whole.” - II-
9p38
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In support of a unified vision for parental programmes at School Z, the participants
further articulated the need for:
“… ‘n gesamentlike ding [program] vir ons skool om ons te like verbeter en like ‘n
positiewe image te hê in ons community.” (…a common thing [programme] to improve
the school and to encourage a positive image in our community.) - II-6p27
“… ‘n suggestion box… Kyk wat van die suggestions wat van die ouers af inkom, kan
die skool positief beinvloed…” (…a suggestion box…See which of the suggestions
from the parents can positively influence the school…) - II-7p30
“…extra classes [training] for parents.” - II-11p51
“We need to take our parents through workshops…want ek [ouer] verstaan nie, die
kind verstaan nie…” (…because I [parent] do not understand, the child does not
understand…) - II-7p29
While others explained their status at School Z as follow:
“Ek is altyd buite [op die perseel] …Ek worry nie oor dit [mense] nie, want ons moet
die kinders help om grootmense te word, goeie grootmense.” (I am always outside
[on the premises] …I do not worry about it [people], because we must help the children
to become adults, good ones.) - A-2p80
“Ek geniet my maar tussen die kinders [in die klaskamer] as die grootmense my nie
like nie…” (I am enjoying myself amongst the children [in the classroom] if the grown-
ups disapprove of me…) - A-2p75
There was thus great awareness and interest amongst the participating parents
concerning the establishment of a parental programme at School Z. Huge emphasis
was placed on support and guidance to parents of learners who experience severe
barriers to learning and development. Parents, for example, needed to be directed
and advised in association with procedures for the placement of learners at special
schools. The participants viewed parent-coaching and networking as an integral part
of school reform and were eager to support each other:
“Ek kan ouers sê waarheen om te gaan.” (I can direct parents where to go.) - II-4p16
“I am a loving person and a helpful person… I only have a …year old…, but there are
10 children in my house.” - A-2p78
Related to this perception, a participant observed that:
“…die ouers aanvaar te maklik die kind het ‘n problem [leer probleem] …” (…the
parents accept too easily that the child has a problem [learning disability] …) - A-2p77
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While another stressed:
“…Identify parents [of learners who experience learning difficulties] en empower
ander ook… die idee wat ek het, wat ek al vir die SGB gegee het, maar nie gevat was
aan nie…” (…and empower others too…I shared my idea with the SGB, but was it
declined…) - II-7p32
This lack of unity and parental guidance negatively affected parental involvement at
School Z:
“Nou kom hulle [ouers] maar nie na skoolfunksies toe nie.” (So now they [parents]
avoid school functions.) - II-8p34
The Webster Comprehensive Dictionary defines guidance as an act or process of
leading (Marckwardt et al., 1992:561). In educational reform, it is thus the
responsibility of the school, internally, as well as the DoE, externally, to guide parents
towards an IE system which encourages the holistic development of all learners. Cox-
Peterson (2011:116) equally associates parenting with the social, cognitive,
emotional and physical well-being of children at home. In this way, inclusion
celebrates the child’s need for belonging and acceptance (Voltz et al., 2001:24), a
fundamental step of Maslow’s Self-actualization Model mentioned in Section 1.8.5.
Due to Bantu education and discrepancies during Apartheid, Swart and Phasha
(2011:238) announce that millions of non-whites were uneducated and unfamiliar with
school routines, structures and expectations. Those who managed to attend school
were taught in traditional classrooms and lacked enough knowledge of IE (Stivers,
Francis-Cropper & Straus, 2008:10). The Department of Education (DoE, 2000c:37;
2014b:39) accordingly encourages schools to guide, educate and empower parents
towards diversity amongst learners that can enrich their children’s education. For
example, Dodd and Konzal (2002:15), state that in cases of learners with severe
barriers to learning and development, parents often feared for the teasing and
stigmatisation of their children. It is therefore important for schools to address the
concerns of parents who often lack social support and positive parenting role models
(Stivers et al., 2008:17; Pavlakis, 2015:5).
In supporting disadvantaged learners successfully, Fiske and Ladd (2005:58)
encourage schools to empower parents in taking ownership of the inclusive learning
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environment. Schools and teachers ought to serve as resource centres to parents
and guide them towards respecting cultural differences and beliefs in the rearing of
their children (Stivers et al., 2008:10; Cox-Peterson, 2011:116). For example,
Pavlakis (2015:12) points to a group of parents who contacted their children’s school
for guidance in support of their education. Schools can provide parents with helpful
suggestions and strategies in terms of disadvantaged learners, the academic and co-
curricular programme, as well as relevant parenting tips via newsletters or pamphlets.
These brochures, according to Stivers et al. (2008:10), can also include parenting
themes such as health and hygiene guidelines that encourage parents to spend more
time playing, reading or cuddling their children.
4.4.2 Necessary professional assistance
The participants noticed the necessity of professional intervention at School Z as most
of the learners experienced severe internal, as well as external barriers to learning
and development. They claimed that teachers were unable to address multiple
aspects on their own and mandated the services of professionals:
“Dit sal goed wees as daardie mense (professionele), al is dit nie elke dag nie, maar
een keer ‘n week hier is…” (It will be good if those people [professionals] can visit the
school at least once a week…) - II-10p49
“Get social workers in because sometimes the problem is not with the child, maybe
the parents or something else…” - II-1p3
“…getting therapy [psychologist]…” - II-9p38
“Die skool betrek sulke onderwysers [remedial] om net met kinders wat leerprobleme
het, te werk.” (The school involves those teachers [remedial teachers] to work only
with learners who experience learning difficulties.) - II-5p22
The contribution of teachers, parents and the community were cherished in the
education of disadvantaged learners and the participants emphasised:
“The parents could come in…network here and assist this person [professional]...” -
II-9p40
“Workshops vir teachers…teachers struggle met baie issues op die skool… Educate,
empower jou employees, empower jou ouers.” (Workshops for teachers…teachers
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struggle with many issues at school…Educate, empower your employees, empower
your parents.) - II-7p31
“Wat so die hartseerste is, is ons tekort aan onderwysers. Nou kom die mense [ouers]
in en ons maak gebruik van hulle.” (What is so sad, is our teacher-shortages. So, the
people [parents] come to school and we [the school] utilise them.) - II-12p6
“Om die klas te hanteer is teacher-assistants ‘n groot voordeel…Ons het dit [‘n TA
projek] gehad, maar toe was dit nooit goedgekeur nie.” (Teacher-assistants is of great
value in managing the classroom…We had it [a TA-project], but it was never
approved.) - ISp60-61
“I’m sure we have parents as motivational speakers who can help…students and
teachers.” - II-9p40
“Daar is mense in die community…Sommige mense het die vaardigheid…” (There
are people in the community…Some people do have the necessary skills…) - II-
10p48
Intervention from both internal and external resources, namely experts at the school
and within the larger school community were essential to the participating parents
who realised the significance of collaboration at School Z. The participants, for
instance, pointed to the random professional assistance of nurses from the local clinic,
as well as the learner-referrals of the LSAs to social workers who visited the school
on a weekly basis. As noted in Section 2.6 and Table 4.2, LSAs serve as mediators
and advocates for disadvantaged learners who liaise with the relevant professionals.
The participants also examined their own competence and formal training that aligned
with the work of the LSAs, but expressed their confusion as follows:
“Ek het nogal gedink die dametjie [LSA] wat ons nou gebruik help met die LSEN…Sy
doen dit mos met die supervisor. Hulle werk met Park Drive [DBST].” (I really thought
that the lady [LSA] we [the school] are using, assist with LSEN…Sy works in
conjunction with the supervisor. They work with Park Drive [DBST].) - ISp62
“Ek sien social workers hier, maar ek weet ook nie.” (I see social workers here, but I
do not know.) - ISp57
“…hoeveel ouers weet daar is ‘n social worker?” (…how many parents know there is
a social worker?) - II-5p25
“Ek was eendag hier toe vra ek: Wie is u? ... dis welfare, hulle soek die meisies [LSAs]
want hulle moet verslag gee.” (One day I was here and asked: Who are you? …it was
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the welfare; they were looking for the girls [LSAs] to collect their official reports.) - II-
10p49
This scenario at School Z, according to some participants, disadvantaged many
parents who struggled emotionally and financially to provide for the professional
needs of their children:
“Aan die begin het ek hom na juffrou X gevat en toe het [sy] mos gesê om hom
sielkundige toe te stuur is ‘n ellelang lys.” (In the beginning I took him to teacher X
and [she] said that taking him to a psychologist is a very long process.) - II-3p12
“…ek sukkel nog om hom by ‘n special school te kan kry en dit vat bietjie baie lank…”
(…I am still struggling to enroll him in a special school, and it is taking very long…) -
ISp66
In their distress parents often confided in and encouraged one another positively:
“…vat die kind self, Dora [hospitaal] toe…Die dokters [sielkundiges] vul sommer die
vorms in vir die skool, daar is niks betalings nie.” (…take the child to Dora [hospital]
yourself…The doctors [psychologists] immediately complete the forms for the school,
there is no cost involved.) - II-10p47
In addition, some of the participants commented as following with regards to School
Z:
“Ek sal sê, sit pressure op die skool om daardie kind te help.” (I would say, put
pressure on the school to support that child.) - II-6p28
“…[raise] Extra funds …” - II-9p40
A professional refers to a person who is qualified, competent or skilled to perform a
specific activity (Hornby, 2011:1170). In terms of educational support services,
Engelbrecht (2004:20-21) reflects on the distinct role of a psychologist, who,
according to Marckwardt et al. (1992:1019), is someone who studies the human mind
in association with consciousness, behaviour patterns and problems of adjustment to
the environment. The expertise of psychologists was predominantly assigned to
advantaged school communities during Apartheid, but currently this applies to all
public schools.
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Engelbrecht (2004:23 & 27) recognises the crucial role of psychologists in the
assessment, implementation and evaluation of preventative programmes which
encourage collaboration across psychological, educational, social work and medical
boundaries, within transdisciplinary professional teams. It implies that psychologists
act as agents and consultants of learners with barriers to learning and development
and work with special schools, social workers, doctors and nurses to promote a
holistic mental health package for them. Johnson and Green (2007:164) consequently
link psychologists to SBSTs and DBSTs who work in partnership with others, including
a range of professionals described in Sections 2.4.2 and 2.4.3. Much authority has
thus been granted to psychologists in South Africa to lead and provide for the diverse
needs of disadvantaged learners. Hence, as explained in Section 2.4.2, professional
assistance from the DoE is only accessible after the SBST have exhausted all their
resources.
Gorman (2015:26) emphasises that teachers are daily challenged by learners who
are anxious, seem withdrawn or act out in class. To secure immediate assistance to
disadvantaged learners, different countries have consequently adopted different
approaches to the school curriculum and often refer to teachers and parents as
professionals. For instance, Waterman and Walker (2001:19) mention a 15 week
SPARK programme intended to increase learner performance, social-emotional
growth and non-violent responses, while Galassi and Akos (2007:vii) and Winslade
and Williams (2012:31) refer to an outcome based, comprehensive school counselling
programme that targets academic, personal, social and career development for all
learners. The high demand for parental involvement and the recent employment of
LSAs, for example, increase opportunities for disadvantaged learners to obtain the
necessary professional assistance. Within this context, Johnson and Green
(2007:164) encourage educational support psychologists to rethink their roles and
recreate their professional identities at schools.
4.4.3 Upgrading of safety measures
Due to gang-related activities in the surrounding school community, the safety of their
children was priority to the participating parents. They classified School Z as a danger
zone and pledged allegiance to protect learners and teachers against a hostile
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environment via networking with the local community policing forum, as well as school
management. According to the participants they are trained and equipped in different
areas of expertise which authorise their presence at School Z:
“Die area is gevaarlik om…jy weet nie enige tyd wat gebeur nie...” (The area is
dangerous…you do not know what could happen at any time…) - II-8p34
“Ons [polisie sektore] hoofdoel is om crime uit die skool uit te vat…te verhoed dat die
kinders hulle skollie-maniere…uithaal en om seker te maak die onderwysers is
veilig… Ons [polisie sektore] het ‘n program… Daar is verskillende mense, soos die
polisie help… Hulle provide dit… gereeld vergaderings…” (Our [policing sectors] main
goal is to safeguard the school against crime…to prevent children behaving as
criminals…and to ensure the safety of teachers…We [policing sectors] have a
programme…There are different people such as the police who support us…They
provide it…regular meetings…) - II-10p44
“Soos die program wat ons nou gehad het…Hoe om die kinders te help…te
leer…probleme aan te spreek…oor parenting, oor…ons het baie dinge...baie
sertifikate…” (Like the programme that we had…How to assist the children…to
learn…discuss problems [counselling]…on parenting, on…we have a busy
schedule…many certificates…) - ISp68
“Ons het opleiding van hoe kinders ander kinders intimideer. Hoe om met hulle te
werk en hoe om die tekens te lees…” (We had training on how children intimidate
others. How to handle them and how to interpret the signs…) - A-1p59
“Ons was vir training…Ons moet altyd ‘n tweede opinie het met die kinders…saam…
daardie kind se saak hanteer...Kry altyd die hoof se toestemming...” (We went for
training…In terms of children, we must always have a second
opinion…collectively…handle the case…Always gain the permission of the
principal…) - II-12p52
“Ek waag my lewe baie keer…somtyds dink mense ek is waaghalsig, maar…” (Many
times, I risk my life…sometimes people think I’m reckless, but…) - A-2p74
Within this setting, the participants witnessed numerous harmful incidents, including
gang-related cases, at School Z such as:
“Children are smoking in the toilet, the dagga…they’re fighting…Some of the
gangsters outside…come to fetch them [learner-friends]. They [gangsters] fight with
the grade 7s.” - II-11p50
“Primary school children chasing each other with guns.” - II-9p39
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“…se been is op 3 plekke gebreek… [en ‘n ander] kind in graad 1, iemand het die
kind van die stoep afgestoot…Die oog is blou en toegeswel…” (…leg is broken in 3
places…[and another] child in grade 1, someone pushed the child off the stoep…The
eye is blue and completely swollen…) - ISp57
Hence, the participants referred to several institutional and management challenges
that disturbed their efficiency:
“Die skool werk nie altyd lekker saam nie...een keer ‘n week moet ons die skool
[leerders] skud… dit het platgeval… Ons gaan altyd na die hoof toe [met gevalle]
…dan sê die hoof altyd: nee, hy soek nie…” (The school does not always
cooperate…ones a week we are supposed to search [learners] bags…it is
neglected…We go to the principal [with cases]…then the principal always says, no
he is not looking…) - II-10p44 & 45
“Alles gaan nie eintlik soos jy eintlik verwag nie…Toesig hou in die klasse is ‘n
uitdaging… Somtyds vra Mnr X om toesig te hou by die kontrak werkers. Dan is daar
niemand by die hek nie…” (Everything does not always go according to
plan…supervision in the classroom is a challenge…Sometimes Mr X is asked to
supervise the contract workers. Then there is nobody at the gate…) - II-12p52
And claimed in terms of learners:
“Die prefekte het ‘n issue met my…vir juffrou X gesê ek slaan julle pimple en pers…”
(The prefects have an issue with me…told teacher X that I beat them harshly…) - II-
3p9
“Die kind ondervind peer pressure…bank...doen die…doen daardie, die kind het nie
homework nie…” (The child experiences peer pressure…bunking off…do this…do
that, the child has no homework…) - ISp55
“As ek ‘n kind kry wat uitgesit is, sê ek haal ‘n boek uit en leer. Jy gaan lees hier buite.
Klank al wil jy nie leer nie.” (When I find a child, who has been put outside, I say take
out a book and study. You are going to read here. Practice your sounds even if you
do not want to study.) - A-1p59
According to the participants, huge pressure was placed on them and their leader to
deviate from their anticipated safety and prevention project at School Z, and to
perform additional chores. They identified power-related struggles and discrepancies
amongst school leadership and held tight to the mandate of Christianity that
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celebrates attributes such as love, peace, kindness, patience and self-control. Hence,
the participating parents also understood their greater responsibility towards the
safety of the whole school and acted upon it:
“Die Here het my sterk kom maak…dit [kriminele oortedings] vir my gegee en ek
lewe...” (God has made me strong…given me this [crime fighting] and I am alive…) -
A-2p72
“Soos baie keer as ek sien… die hoof met die gunne… [skollies] in die parkie [oorkant
Skool Z] …Dan is dit my reg…om die van [polisiewa] …lugeenheid te bel…” (For
example, many times when I see…the principal with guns…[criminals] in the park
[opposite School Z] …Then it is my right…to inform the van [police vehicle] …to call
for assistance…) - A-2p74
Eventually the lack of collaboration and commitment paralysed the upgrading of
safety measures at School Z, as stated by a participant:
“Ons weet nie wie is die mense by die skool wie die safety hanteer nie… Alles wat
ons doen, moet ons op skrif sit…[vir] hulle [die hoof en skool sekretaresse] …” (We
do not know who the people are at school who are responsible for safety…Everything
we do, must be in writing…[for] them [the principal and school secretary] …) - II-10p44
& 45
Safety and security measurements are critical to child development as children learn
more and risk more when they feel safe. Dexter et al. (2011:72) accordingly points to
Maslow’s Self-actualization Model that classifies safety and security as the foundation
of child development. This fundamental stage, mentioned in Section 2.6, is lacking in
the homes of many disadvantaged learners in modern society. Children seldom
experience safety and security in family life and are denied the necessary support
structures to guide them adequately towards social engagement and independence
(Swart & Pettipher, 2011:35). As a result, many children are likely to be influenced by
their peers, as well as society. For example, in the northern areas of Port Elizabeth,
Buso (2019:4) and Koen (2019:5) report on two different cases involving school
children who smoked drugs with criminals and a young man accused of a hit-style
murder, attempted murders and misdemeanors. In order to promote a safe learning
environment, Lincoln (2002:8) emphasises the power of mutual respect, compromise,
negotiation and problem-solving in a civilized way.
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Doddington and Hilton (2007:1) acknowledge that people or in this case learners, are
driven by their own beliefs which often contradict that of the school and/or their peers.
For the protection of all, it is important for schools to create or administer an integrated
climate and ethos where all feel safe and secure. As advocated by SASA in Section
2.6, schools must develop safety and security policies according to their individual
needs. Voltz et al. (2001:2) equally encourage the facilitation of a social-emotional
climate in the classroom where learners feel psychologically accepted by teachers
and peers, and teachers in turn, are appreciated and acknowledged.
In terms of schooling, Bisschoff and Koebe (2005:161) pronounce that parents often
choose to enroll their children at schools with good safety measures in place, namely,
proper fencing and qualified security services. Schools should implement support
places of safety for learners who have no homes to which they may return to after
school (Ladbrook, 2009:62). Pottas (2005:29) though states that many school
environments need upgrading, are unsafe and fail to adapt physically to the needs of
learners with physical and/or sensory disabilities.
4.4.4 Availability of clothing bank
Many of the participants observed the poor nurturing of children first-hand through
their dress code, uniform or clothing. They were simultaneously amazed and
disturbed about the quality of clothing worn by many young learners and recognised
this as a trend or common phenomenon in the Foundation and Intermediate Phase:
“…dit kom nou al ‘n geruime tyd aan, wat jy kan sien die kind se hempie is nie gewas
nie.” (…it is a regular occurrence …you can see that the child’s shirt is unwashed.) -
A-1p58
“…nou is die klere nie lekker nie...dis vuil…” (…the clothes are not appropriate…they
are dirty…) - ISp55
“Daar is nie klere nie en…” (There are no clothes and…) - II-2p
The lack of available clothing, according to the participating parents, resulted in
embarrassing and humiliating moments for learners at School Z. Peers were, for
instance, ruthless and often teased and evoked the vulnerable, while teachers and
parents also contributed to their anxieties.
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“…dan sê die tjommies…kyk hoe lyk jy…” (…then the friends say…see how you
look…) - ISp55
“…die ander dag… stuur Mnr X haar af en onmiddellik let ek haar naels op...
oorskulp…. Sy is 15 jaar oud…Haar hemp se kraag is nie…net vuil nie…dit was nie
die vorige week gewas nie.” (…the other day…Mr X sent her down and immediately
I noticed her nails…earlobe…She is 15 years old…The color of her shirt is not…only
dirty…it was not washed the previous week.) - A-1p58
“Ons [ouers] het by hom huis gekom en sy ma het uit soos ‘n kers gelê. Maar sy moet
skooltoe kom, want Mnr X wil haar sien.” (We [parents] arrived at his home and his
mother was passed out. But she must go to school, because Mr X wants to see her.)
- A-1p56
Many defenceless children experienced high levels of agony and the participants
observed that learners:
“Dan draai die kind om.” (The child then turns back.) - ISp55
“‘n Kind wat elke oggend hier is. Dis nog nie agtuur nie, dan sit hy al voor die klas.”
(A child who is here every morning. It is not yet eight o’ clock, but he sits in front of
the classroom.) - II-3p11
Some participants noticed that many children wanted to attend school but were
restrained. The effects of bullying were evident in learners’ inconsistent school
attendance, as well as in their learning outcomes. For this reason, most of the
participants blamed the parents for their poor involvement and uncaring demeanour
in the appearance of their children:
“Dit is so moeilik want nou hoe kry jy daardie ouer na die tafel toe?” (It is so difficult
because how do you actively involve that parent?) - A-1p58
While another declared that:
“…ek [LSA] is baie skaam om vir die hoof te gaan vra: Meneer wil meneer net nie
announce dat die kinders hulle ou klere skooltoe bring nie…” (…I [LSA] am very shy
to ask the principal, Sir don’t you want to announce that the children must bring old
clothing to school…) - II-6p27
However, some participants noticed individual attempts to support a clothing bank for
the needy:
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“Gister het X vir hom twee skoolhempies gebring…” (Yesterday X gave him two
school shirts…) - II-3p11
“Hulle [kerkorganisasie] wil sorg vir die kinders, die minder bevoorregte…klere
uitdeel... Ek wil hê dit moet moontlik raak.” (They [church organisation] want to care
for the children, the less fortunate…hand out clothing…I want to make it possible.) -
II-6p27
The availability of clothing is a huge challenge in disadvantaged communities. Donald
et al. (2010:152) advocate that the after-effects of Apartheid are still visible in the
economic realities of daily life and would take years to overcome. The poorest of the
poor remain greatly dependent on government grants such as old age pension and
child grants to provide for the basic needs of their children (Bhorat, 2004:53).
Timaeus, Simelane and Letsoalo (2013:379) furthermore add that many parents have
tried to infiltrate the market as entrepreneurs and sell products such as fruit and
vegetables in their communities. Against this background, clothing and school uniform
were often considered as secondary to the immediate need for food and shelter.
According to Fiske and Ladd (2005:66), as well as Timaeus et al. (2013:365), the
South African government has intervened financially on behalf of the poor by
releasing grants for uniforms, which was greatly contested and eventually re-directed.
For example, the Department of Education (DoE, 2014b:22) acknowledges that the
physical appearance and personal care of learners are locally addressed via SBSTs,
described in Section 2.4.2, in partnership with teachers and parents. Many children,
namely orphans and those living in violent communities, lack the necessary support
(Donald et al., 2010:96). In reference to Section 2.6 and Epstein (2019:73), parent
volunteers play a vital role in making clothing available to learners on short notice.
4.4.5 Sustainability of a nutritional programme
All the participants were not fully convinced about the effectiveness of the nutritional
programme at School Z. They had witnessed numerous cases of malnutrition and
hunger amongst learners and were concerned about their health. As described by
one of the participants:
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“…eendag toe sit ek [ouer] hier…die outjie is hardgebak…luister nie…toeslaan… die
kind het nog nooit gisteraand geëet nie…ook nie vanoggend…Die kind is honger
skooltoe.” (…one day I [parent] sat here…the boy is hard-headed…does not
listen…shutdown…the child never ate last night…or this morning…The child went to
school hungry.) - II-7p32
The participants associated this scenario with child-headed households, the high rate
of unemployment and additional pressure placed on single parents to provide for the
basic needs of their children:
“…ek werk skofte…die area wat ons in is, is armoedige areas...daar is nie baie mense
wat werk nie.” (…I work shifts…the area that we live in, is a poverty-stricken
area…many people are unemployed.) - II-8p34
“Baie van die single vrouens depend op daardie grant. Baie van die manne vat nou
weer advantage van sulke omstandighede…” (Many of the single women depend on
that grant. Then again, many of the men are taking advantage of these situations…)
- II-7p32
It was also noticed that parents were often reluctant to volunteer at School Z due to
their own shortcomings. The following scenarios demonstrate parents’ personal
commitment to their children:
“Baie ouers wil nie verniet kom werk nie. Hulle sê die geld is te min en Skool X betaal
meer.” (Many parents do not want to work voluntarily [at School Z]. They say the
money is too little and that School X pays more.) - A-1p62
“… ek gee nie om om verniet te werk nie……Toe sê sy [‘n ander ouer] daardie R30
is oraait, ek koop twee brode.” (…I do not mind working voluntarily…So she [another
parent] said that R30 is alright, I can buy two loaves of bread.) - II-5p20 & 24
Another stated that:
“…maar dan is daar ouers né wat liewers ‘n jobbie gaan doen vir ‘n sent, want hulle
weet hulle kry niks hier nie...daar is darem iets [kos] vir vanaand…” (…but there are
parents who would rather work for money, because they know that they are getting
nothing here…there is at least something [food] for the night…) - II-2p7
In line with this perception, one of the participants also identified deficits in the
nutritional programme of School Z:
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“I’m sorry I will never support that beach walk [fundraiser] or I will support and pay it,
but I will not let Y go…Reason being: I’m paying…to eat feeding scheme food...I never
knew this…Many of these children do not get…To eat feeding scheme food…it’s
daylight robbery.” - II-9p41
Against this background, some of the participating parents revealed personal
experiences of how hunger and malnutrition negatively influenced learners and how
they, as volunteers, nurtured and encouraged them to be resilient:
“Sy is in graad 2 en haar naels is so lank…vuil…kieme…[dan] raak jy siek, [want] jy
eet met daardie hande.” (She is in grade 2 and her nails are so
long…dirty…germs…you become ill [because] you eat with those hands.) - ISp58
“Die laaste kind wat skool gelos het, ek het nog met daardie kind onderhandel. Dan
vat ek hom eenkant toe…” (The last child who left school, I negotiated with that child.
Then I spoke to him in private…) - A-1p56
However, the participants emphasised the cruelty of learners amongst each other.
The following was articulated by a parent:
“…julle bly in ‘n shack sê sy [leerder], ons het ‘n groot huis. Elke dag eet ons lekker.”
(…she [learner] says, you live in a shack, we live in a big house. We eat nicely every
day.) - II-3p11
Poverty is a reality in society and needs to be addressed promptly. Donald et al.
(2010:157) maintain that it is often difficult for poor parents to keep their children
healthy and fed. This situation results in several barriers to learning and development,
and even death amongst children, as indicated in Section 2.6. Poverty in households
also suggests that, in association with Maslow’s Self-actualisation Model, the
physiological needs of many children are not adequately met. Millions of children go
to bed hungry at night and lack a nutritional diet (Donald et al., 2010:95; Timaeus et
al., 2013:274). Spaul (2013:436) similarly adds that 75% of schools in South Africa
are rated as the poorest, which predicts that 75% of learners in the country are
disadvantaged and need a more sustainable nutritional programme to boost their
wellness.
The DoE implemented a National School Nutrition Plan, referred to in Section 2.6, to
support a balanced diet for all learners in disadvantaged schools. Yet, Fleisch
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(2008:37) highlights several challenges related to school feeding schemes that
include high cost, unsustainable benefits and administrative complexities. In the spirit
of partnership, described in Section 2.6, it is thus important for parents and the
community to support schools serving disadvantaged families to the best of their
abilities (Fiske & Ladd, 2005:82).
4.5 THEME 3: VOIDS IN COMMUNICATION AND RELATIONSHIPS
Communication and relationships, as perceived in Section 2.8.5, are one of the major
challenges to parental involvement. But, due to its massive influence on partnership
and school improvement it was critical to re-examine the concept in the establishment
of a better, healthier and safer learning environment for teachers, learners and
parents. The participants, for instance, observed huge voids in communication and
relationships amongst the different stakeholders in education – which was a common
phenomenon throughout the investigation.
As explained in Section 2.8.5, communication refers to a two-way, reciprocal
relationship based on understanding. Marckwardt et al. (1992:265, 1064) similarly
define communication as a means of interaction, conversation or an exchange of
ideas that resemble the connectedness affiliated to human relationships. Language,
voice and communication make us human and support our identity (Evans & Savage,
2018:4). Gilbert (2004:4) and Gorman (2015:13) correspondingly add that
communication involves receptive and expressive language skills that require
attentive listening to spoken and/or non-verbal messages. Just as words, Roffey
(2011:137) and Davis (2012:115) advocate that pictures, gestures, drawings and
signing are fundamental forms of communication.
In a learning environment it is thus very important for teachers, parents and learners
to respect each other and to work collectively towards a common goal. Sound
relationships largely depend on the quality of communication, which, according to
Gilbert (2004:4), is a skill linked to effective leadership. This skill amongst the main
leaders in education - parents and teachers - was a great concern amongst the
participants and emerged in the following sub-themes, namely, voids in
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communication and relationships in the home, community and school environments
evolved during the study.
4.5.1 Voids in communication and relationships in the home environment
Most of the participants referred to unfavourable and unsupportive home
environments where learners were often deprived of a loving, secure and stable
relationship with their parents. Many children were raising themselves and roaming
the streets, while parents were working, sitting around, watching television, socialising
and/or sleeping. Furthermore, they claimed that an increasing number of households
were associated with serious forms of crime, violence, abuse and neglect, which
added to the poor quality of communication amongst parents and their children. The
participants stated that:
“There is no structure at home…, no one to watch the children.” - II-11p50
“Van die kinders word seksueel gemolesteer.” (The children are sexually molested.)
- II-7p29
“Baie kinders se ouers is dronk en gee nie om vir hulle kinders nie. Ander ouers het
ander manne en die kinders word afgeskeep.” (Many parents are drunk and do not
care about their children. Other parents have boyfriends and their children are
neglected.) - II-2p7
“Hulle [ouers] is lief om kinders te verskree…” (They [parents] like to shout at their
children…) - II-10p46
“…Om eerlik waar te sȇ, ek sien nie dat daar ‘n verhouding met ‘n ma en ‘n kind is
nie.” (…To be honest, I do not see any relationship between mother and child.) - II-
12p53
According to literature, the establishment of communication and relationships begin
at home at a very early age. Children rapidly learn their first language by listening and
copying their parents and siblings (Evans & Savage, 2018:29). Parents, as indicated
in Sections 2.7 and 3.2.1, are the role models for their children, who often imitate how
the parents present themselves vocally in public. Similarly, Lincoln (2002:34),
Doddington and Hilton (2007:6) and Redding (n.d.:5) add that the foundation to future
relationships and behaviour patterns depend on the quality of relationships, namely a
stimulating language-rich environment instilled during early childhood. Still as
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indicated above and in Section 3.5, the child-centred tradition is frequently neglected
and replaced by dysfunctional interrelationships. In line with this opinion, Roffey
(2011:137) points to children who are socially bound to the television and resort to
unfavourable, isolated, one-way channels of communication in the home
environment.
4.5.2 Voids in communication and relationships in the community
The participants referred to poor interrelationships between different families, parents
and children within their community. Apparently, adults and children were violating
the love, care, tranquillity, trust and respectfulness associated with community life.
The participants, for instance, referred to a robust and insensitive language usage
which divided community members and contributed to a decline in moral values. They
maintained that:
“Hulle [ouers] wil ook nie vir mekaar daar is nie, want jy kan nie vir daardie person sê
sy’s verkeerd nie. Sy kan nie aanvaar sy is verkeerd nie.” (They [parents] also do not
want to support each other, because she does not want to be reprimanded. She
cannot accept that she is wrong.) - II-10p44
“Die kinders het speletjies…somtyds is dit so buite perke maar jy kan nie praat nie,
want dan raak die ouers kwaad.” (The children are playing games…often disturbing
games, but it is difficult to intervene because the parents are upset.) - A-2p77
“Hy [‘n leerder] skel ‘n ander meisiekind…so lelik. Hy sê jou ma se die-se-daai
[vloektaal]…jy gaan sien ek gaan jou in jou die-se-daai trap as ek jou nou kry.” (He [a
learner] shouted at a girl…so ugly. He swore…and cursed at her.) - II-10p46
A community is described by Marckwardt et al. (1992:265), as a group of people who
reside in one location and are subjected to similar laws and interests. In the South
African context, a community usually includes people from diverse cultural groups
that according to Davis (2012:3), represent different historical, geographical, religious,
racial, linguistic, ethnic or social traditions. Cultural diversity encourages multi-
lingualism, competence in the different official languages and mutual respect for all
languages in the country, or in this case the community (DoE, 1996b:12). Davis
(2012:123) claims that respectful and honourable attitudes amongst people are strong
foundations for collaboration. Within the community, Holliday et al. (2004:26)
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advocate that a middle culture or group behaviour of dealing is established to boost
sound relationships. Hence, Cushener, McClelland and Safford (2000:104) caution
that communication differences, including non-verbal communication customs, are
one of the most challenging issues to overcome. People often ignore the richness and
sensitivity associated with multicultural relationships and continuously misread one
another (Doddington & Hilton, 2007:74; Armstrong, Armstrong & Spandagou,
2010:48; Davis, 2012:63). Lincoln (2002: viii), Vogel (2008:17) and Roffey (2011:144-
145) proclaim that often children learn rules of communication and relationship-
building from their peer group, which according to Section 3.2.1, can be a positive or
negative influence. It is against this background that Doddington and Hilton (2007:56)
encourage others, such as the community and schools, to be more supportive and
understanding towards children.
4.5.3 Voids in communication and relationships in the school environment
Public schools are professional institutions bound by legislation and certain work
ethics to build strong and effective relationships with stakeholders in education. Many
of the participants envisaged the school as a place of hope, where teachers, parents
and learners work collaboratively towards a common goal with a vision to promote
quality EFA. Several relationships concerning the school can be identified, namely
management-parent, teacher-learner, learner-teacher, teacher-parent, parent-
teacher and learner-learner.
4.5.3.1 Management-parent relationship
Huge emphasis was placed on school management as leaders and directors in
accommodating an ethos and climate for diversity and/or inclusive education. This
ideal was, according to the participants, basically non-existent at School Z due to
huge gaps in communication. They observed that:
“Nothing of the dream-school is in place. No ideal environment, no vision, no
cooperation.” - II-9p39 & 40
“…Hulle [skoolbestuur] verwag altyd ek [ouer] moet iets sê, maar my sê is mos
verniet.” (They [school management] always expect me [parent] to talk to them, but
what I say does not matter.) - II-4p14
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“Mnr X [bestuur] roep nie die onderwysers in nie en gesels…wag dat die ouer loop
nou roep hy die onderwyser in en dan het hy ‘n ander weergawe van vroeër met die
ouer.” (Mr X [management] does not invite the teachers and interact…he waits until
the parents leave, then he calls the teacher and gives a different impression of what
transpired earlier with the parent.) - A-1p62
“Once jou management toeslaan en hulle is nie open vir suggestions nie, byvoorbeeld
van ouers af om die skool beter te laat funksioneer…” (Once your management
withdraws and, for example, ignores the suggestions of parents concerning school
improvement…”) - II-7p30
It was further emphasised that:
“… [School Z] need strong leadership.” - II-9p38
“Nothing happens at the office…nothing in line…they [management] are just saying
you can’t do this and that and that, but nothing is being done.” - II-1p1
Against this milieu, one of the parent participants pronounced the following about
Black leadership at schools in general:
“…ek kyk baie op na Africans...Hulle het altyd ‘n manier hoe om kinders te
discipline…in hulle kultuur…die meeste kleurlinge, jong kinders, hulle kan gou
agterbaks raak en gou rebels raak.” (…I admire Africans [Blacks]…They always have
a way to discipline children…in their culture…most of the Coloured children, they are
inclined to be deceitful and rebellious.) - II-6p34-35
The professional conduct of school management visibly disturbed the participating
parents who timeously re-called better days during Apartheid. They, for instance,
mentioned how parents used to respect and honour school principals who randomly
visited their homes. At present, the participants indicated that they were alienated and
ill-informed about school developments:
“Op die oomblik met baie skole word die kommunikasie-lyn toegemaak en dis hoekom
ouers voel hulle is nie deel van die skool nie.” (The channels of communication are
currently blocked at many schools and that is why parents feel excluded from the
school.) - II-7p31
“Daar is ‘n groot lack tussen die ouers en die skool. Daar word nie beter gehandel
met wanneer dit kom by informasie oor enigiets wat gaan gebeur nie.” (There is a
huge lack between parents and the school. There is no real interaction regarding
information sharing about any future events.) - A-1p60
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“Daar moet beter verhoudinge en samewerking wees.” (There must be better
relationships and cooperation.) - II-12p52
One of the major concerns amongst the participants was the education of their
children. They claimed that a lack of communication and relationships with the school
negatively influenced their children and harmed those with existing barriers to learning
and development. To some extent, the participants felt betrayed as they witnessed
the continuous failure and unresponsiveness of their children towards school and
homework. They, nonetheless, were committed to their children and expressed their
willingness to support learners at School Z to the best of their ability:
“Omdat dit in ons harte lê om die kinders van die area te wil help.” (Because we love
to support the children in our area.) - A-1p63
“Ek los reeds alles by die huis omdat ek regtig waar, ek wil die kinders help...ek gee
baie om vir die kinders.” (I cancel all my activities at home because I really want to
come and help the children…I care very much about the children.) - II-2p5
“Ek is dan hier, ek help dan die kinders…die skool.” (I am here, I am helping the
children…the school.) - II-5p23
“Ek is hier vir self-awareness, self-development vir die kinders self en bridging social
injustices [Life Skills program].” (I am here for self-awareness, self-development for
the children, as well as bridging social injustices [Life Skills programme].) - II-6p26
“Ek doen dit omdat ek wil sien die kinders gaan vorentoe.” (I am doing it because I
want to see the children excel.) - A-2p76
“Jy moet ‘n active parent wees in jou kind se lewe, in ‘n next kind se lewe en ook in
die skool.” (You must be an active parent in the life of your child, the next child, as
well as the school.) - A-1p60
4.5.3.2 Teacher-learner relationship
The participants observed that many teachers were over-worked and exhausted yet
tried to be supportive towards the learners. They also raised concerns about a few
teachers who demonstrated poor communication techniques and barely cared about
creating more nurturing relationships with learners. Hence, the participating parents
applauded the respectfulness and thoughtfulness of many teachers in their approach
to learners at school, while they were saddened by those who resisted it. For example:
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“Oor die algemeen is ek baie tevrede met die manier waarop die onderwysers die
kinders handle.” (In general, I am satisfied with the way teachers are handling the
children.) - II-3p9
“The teachers know how to talk to them [learners]… they [teachers] are kind.” - II-
11p50
“Ek ondervind die juffrouens hier is baie involve met hulle kinders se lewens.” (My
experience is that teachers are very involved in the lives of their children.) - II-6p26
“…daar is onderwysers wat ook nie die kind verstaan nie…om daardie liefde te het…”
(There are also teachers who do not understand the child…no love…) - II-2p8
4.5.3.3 Learner-teacher relationship
The learner-teacher relationship was described in various ways, namely non-existent,
reserved, overwhelming and/or aggressive. Within this learning environment, the
participants emphasised their disappointment in many learners who responded poorly
to teachers. Learners, in general, were perceived as crude, apathetic and/or
disrespectful. It was also acknowledged that learners, especially those in higher
grades, were regularly unruly and disregarded the authority of the teachers. The
following are two distinct scenarios linked to learners at School Z:
“…die kinders is bang om te vra. As hulle nie verstaan nie…” (…the children are afraid
to ask. If they do not understand…) - ISp64
“…kinders wat lief is om te bank…want die kinders hou nie van ‘n onderwyser en wil
nie in daardie klas ingaan nie.” (…children who like bunking off…because children
dislike a teacher and refuse to go into that classroom.) - A-1p59
Or:
“…kinders is baie onbeskof met die onderwysers.” (…children are rude towards
teachers.) - II-3p9
“…kinders wat nooit luister nie…die groottes, hulle het nie respek nie.” (…children
who never listen…the older ones have no respect.) - II-5p18
“Om eerlik waar te sê…lyk dit nie asof die kinders enige verhouding wil hê met die
onderwysers.” (To be honest…it appears that children do not want a relationship with
the teachers.) - II-12p52
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4.5.3.4 Teacher-parent relationship
According to the participants, a teacher-parent relationship was basically non-
existent. They claimed that teachers barely knew the learners’ parents and were
mostly contacted in times of need. For example, parents were invited to school to
discuss their children’s poor academic achievement and poor behaviour. Even though
some teachers tried to interact with parents on a more personal basis via verbal
methods, written notes or social media, the participants observed:
“…al doen die onderwyser ook daardie ekstra moeite om daardie boodskap te stuur
is daar nog steeds ouers wat daardie boodskap ignoreer…” (…even though the
teacher makes extra effort to send a message, there are still parents who ignore it.) -
ISp67
“…we have this parent-teacher conference…all the parents come at the same time
so the teacher can’t speak to the parent, so she’s speaking to them in groups.” - II-
1p2
In addition, one of the participants commented in terms of learners with severe
learning difficulties:
“Die snaakste van alles is hulle [onderwysers] wil my totaal nie sien nie, want ek is
ook gereeld…ek kom skool toe.” (Ironically, the teachers do not want to see me at all,
because I often come to the school.) - ISp66
And another:
It [education] is like a roof held by two pillars [teachers and parents] …if you are going
to remove it, this whole thing is going to collapse and that is the situation you are in
here.” - II-9p39
4.5.3.5 Parent-teacher relationship
The participants emphasised the desire of some parents to interact with their
children’s teachers. These parents, according to the participants, communicated their
support to teachers in various ways, namely:
“…hulle kom uit hulle eie uit kom kyk…kom hoor by die juffrou….” (…they come on
their own…come to hear from the teacher.) - ISp66
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“…die ouers kom by die skool aan en sê: die kind het weer so getik juffrou…”
(…parents come to school and inform the teacher that the child is using drugs…) - A-
2p77
“Sy pa het nog vir juffrou X ’n boekie gegee waarin sy moet teken elke dag as hy op
skool is.” (His father gave teacher X a book to sign on a daily basis to monitor his
school attendance.) - II-10p43
While another admitted:
“…ek [ouer] voel eintlik skaam vir myself…ons raak mekaar so gewoond dan het ons
nie meer respek vir mekaar nie...[dit] verloor sy waarde.” (I [parent] am ashamed of
myself…we get so used to each other and then there is no more respect… [it] loses
its value.) - A-1p63
4.5.3.6 Learner-learner relationship
In general, it was noticed that children loved to play in groups, while a few isolated
themselves. The participants also observed a lot of friction amongst learners related
to peer pressure and bullying. Many learners, for instance, were malicious and
harmful towards each other, while only a few conducted themselves in a respectful
manner. The following is some of the incidents identified at School Z:
“Baie keer dan kry die kinders name...” (Children are often victims of name-calling…)
- II-4p15
“Dis nie net binne-in die klas nie, maar ook op die skoolvelde buite wat hulle vir die
kind terg.” (It is not only inside the classroom, but also outside on the playgrounds
where they tease the child.) - A-1p56
“The kids at school are being forced to do things they don’t wanna do….” - II-1p3
“‘n Kind word miskien reg opgevoed by die huis en dan kom hy by die skool…Jou
vriende, jy voel jy gaan nou uit voel as ek ook nou nie dit doen nie.” (A child is often
raised properly at home, but then he comes to school…Your friends, you feel like an
outcast if you do not follow their lead.) - A-1p55
“Hulle [kinders] is maklik om in te val by verkeerde vriende…by verkeerde dinge.”
(They [children] are easily attracted to bad company…to bad things.) - II-8p35
“…die kinders is betrokke met gangs…nou is hulle rou…want niemand kan hulle niks
doen nie.” (…the children are involved with gangs…they are rude…because no one
can do anything to them.) - II-7p32
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Due to this hostile environment amongst peers, the participants feared that learners
would eventually leave school.
“…daardie kind is by daardie hek uit en het nooit weer terug gekom nie.” (…that child
went out the gate and never returned.) - A-1p57
“…he [learner] really wants to get out of that school…The school is not helping…the
children, nothing…” - II-9p39
According to the participants, this scenario existed due to a breakdown in
communication and relationships amongst the most important stakeholders in
education, namely teachers and parents. In fact, regular incidents of conflict were
recognised in the form of feuds, rivalry and power struggles that disturbed the learning
atmosphere at School Z:
“Die een [ouer] sê dit en die een sê dat, maar niemand kom by die skool die regte
ding uitvind…dan maak hulle hulle eie opsommings.” (One of them [parent] says this
and the other that, but nobody comes to school to find out the truth…then they make
their own assumptions.) - A-1p60
“You are the teacher and you play a bigger role perhaps. Jy spandeer meer tyd met
daardie kind as ek [ouer].” (You [teacher] spend more time with the child than I do as
parent.) - A-1p56
“…besluite wat jy neem, kan maak dat vriende…mense…onderwysers, is
kwaad…ouers ondermekaar…” (…choices you make, can result in
friends…people…teachers, being upset…parents amongst each other…) - II-8p37
“…parents pulling me, teachers pulling me… grievances amongst one another...little
groepies (groups)…all staff, including the office.” - II-9p39 & 41
“…het ons [ouers] die vermetelheid om voor die klas rou te wil wees met die
onderwysers?” (…do we [parents] have the audacity to be rude to the teachers in
front of the learners?) - A-1p61
Added, one of the participants referred to a physical attack, namely:
“…die geval van Mev. Z [ouer] wat juffrou Z kom slaan het...” (…the incident where
Mrs. Z hit teacher Z…) - A-2p61
Gilbert (2004:6) defines conflict as a personal, behavioural and/or structural
disagreement amongst two or more people, which according to Lincoln (2002: viii), is
a result of poor communication. Miscommunication or misrepresentations can cause
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a disconnection from the beginning (Cox-Petersen, 2011:116). In line with this
perspective, Lincoln (2002: viii) and Gilbert (2004:26) proclaim that serious conflict
was previously a common phenomenon amongst adults but is currently escalating
amongst children.
According to Roffey (2011:84) and Gorman (2015:26), learners often experience
severe disorders that manifest externally in the form of aggression, disruption and
opposition. For this reason, children, especially those living in poverty, require clear
and consistent boundaries (Roffey, 2011:140-141; Davis, 2012:119; Gorman,
2015:115). Gilbert (2004:109), Roffey (2011:66) and Gorman (2015:110) therefore
encourage teamwork amongst stakeholders and propose an array of conflict
resolution methods linked to faith-building, a win-win approach, supportiveness and
realistic education expectations. Similarly, Stofile and Green (2007:58) encourage
collaboration and consulting skills as tools to promote sound communication and
relationships in South African schools. Lincoln (2002:80 & 101) though identifies a
huge gap in effective communication and mediation programmes within many schools
and warns that people with authority and greater manoeuvring skills might influence
the outcomes of negotiations or conflict resolution alternatives.
Roffey (2011:194) advocates that school management as visionary leaders of a
school ethos or school climate, must guard against any form of bias. Although their
core function involves the promotion of academic achievement, Doddington and
Hilton (2007:86) remind school leaders that the child-centred approach to education
is rooted in values such as human dignity (Ubuntu) and social justice that require a
more personal relationship with all stakeholders. Educational leaders must accept the
diversity, including cultural differences amongst teachers, parents and learners, and
strive to communicate in a language which is understood by everyone (Lincoln, 2002:
viii; Swart & Pettipher, 2011:37; Davis 2012:63; Evans & Savage, 2018:29).
4.6 SUMMARY
This chapter contained a description of the biographical details of the participating
school and the participants that have largely influenced the approach to this research.
For example, the quality of this investigation was inspired and vested within PAR,
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described in Section 3.8.4, by means of ALSs, individual interviews and observations,
including journal and field note inscriptions. Due to the insightful responses of parents
during the information session, prior to the actual research, this data was reserved
and added richly to the authenticity of the design of a PIP. To interpret and illustrate
the desires of parents for their children’s schooling, the data was further analysed
through a two-layered process of inductive participatory data analysis, adapted from
the work of Patton (2015:216 & 551). For the duration of data analysis, the participants
actively engaged with the raw material, shared their individual thoughts amd
collaborated in terms of the design of a PIP for disadvantaged learners – which
eventually evolved into the three themes, as well as sub-themes, displayed in Table
4.3.
The first two research sub-questions investigated how parents were supporting their
children’s education at School Z, as well as their roles and responsibilities in relation
to educational support. Theme 1 addressed these research questions adequately and
disclosed the poor management of the curriculum by School Z in terms of remedial
support, teacher-assistants, homework-support and technical abilities. School Z, for
instance, lacked to effectively involve their parents in the school programmes, hardly
recognised the resourcefulness of parents in terms of educational support and had
no functional SBST-structure in place to promote quality educational opportunities for
disadvantaged learners.
Many of the participating parents emphasised learners’ need for practical subjects
and were obviously unaware that these activities were ingrained in the formal
curriculum, namely, the drawing of different shapes in Mathematics or the building of
an electrical circuit in Natural Science. As most of the parents lacked the necessary
understanding of the curriculum and were poorly engaged as co-partners in
education, they were often unable to support their children adequately. In addition,
the participants expressed their fears for an increasing number of learners who were
often demotivated and rebellious due to limited educational support opportunities.
These parents therefore made a conscious decision to support the learners at School
Z, in correlation with legislation and Section 2.6, but, due to internal resistance they
remained excluded and witnessed the continuous failure of disadvantaged learners.
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Mapaling and Plaatjes (2019:5) accordingly emphasise that new lenses for learning
to occur in communities or partnership is necessary to improve learner outcomes.
Theme 2, namely, the neglect of social wellness programmes, focused on the need
for parental guidance, necessary professional assistance, upgrading of safety
measures, availability of a clothing bank and the sustainability of a nutritional
programme at School Z. These programmes included the basic needs of learners,
were within the reach of most parents and primarily answered the third research sub-
question in terms of ESPs that School Z could embark on with parents to increase
learner performance. Parents in the school community were, for instance, aware of
some social challenges within poor households and often supported children by
feeding, clothing or counselling them.
The outcome of Theme 2 especially startled the participating parents who daily
observed the effects of poverty on the faces of many disadvantaged primary learners.
Most of the learners were, for example, dirty, poorly dressed, malnourished, fidgety,
challenged in terms of health, concentration in the classroom and truancy. In general,
it was predicted that many vulnerable learners simply attended school because of the
feeding scheme, but in retrospect, these learners were often victimised and targeted
by bullies at School Z. This unhealthy and unsafe learning environment encouraged
the participating parents to be more active in the lives of disadvantaged learners and
this commitment formed the gateway to the fourth research sub-question, namely,
how can ESPs assist with the design of the PIP.
As one of the major challenges to parental involvement and as a huge concern to the
participants, the third theme, namely voids in communication and relationship,
simultaneously addressed all the research sub-questions. For example, the findings
revealed major deficiencies in the communication and relationships amongst parents,
teachers and learners at School Z – which influenced the quality of learning and
teaching experiences. The participating parents were very unhappy about this status
quo that added to the existing backlog of many disadvantaged learners, encouraged
power struggles, conflict and division amongst the main members in education –
which were inconsistent with a community-based approach to education. It was,
nonetheless, the heartfelt desire of the particing parents to work in cooperation with
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School Z and to pursue better learning outcomes for disadvantaged children. Linked
to Section 1.2, Singh et al. (2004:301) relate the poor academic performance of
disadvantaged learners to the absence of cooperation between schools and homes.
A more detailed version of the design of a PIP at School Z is elucidated in Chapter
Five.
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CHAPTER FIVE
GUIDELINES FOR THE PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME
5.1 INTRODUCTION
Chapter Five captures the design of a PIP for learners at the specific disadvantaged
primary school through themes and sub-themes. This design, as evident in Table 4.3,
included different ESPs which the parents deemed necessary to divide into short-
term, medium-term and long-term goals according to the explicit needs of learners,
as well as the management of the specific programme. Figure 5.1 demonstrates an
integration of these goals as guidelines for parental involvement programmes at
disadvantaged primary schools in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole, the Eastern
Cape and South Africa at large. These goals are discussed in the next paragraph.
Figure 5.1: The Integration of Short-term, Medium-term and Long-term Goals
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5.2 GOALS
5.2.1 Short-term goals
The short-term goals were directly linked to the active engagement of parents and
local community members in projects in the school community. These residents were
action researchers in their own field and responsive to the immediate needs of
learners with barriers to learning and development. The participants, for example,
identified ESPs in Themes 1, 2 and 3 which they were involved with and committed
to a resource centre for parents, a reading intervention programme, a safety and
security programme, as well as a social wellness programme. The following Figure
5.2 explains the participants’ collective desires for learners at School Z.
Figure 5.2: Short-term Goals
5.2.1.1 A resource centre
As determined in Chapter Four, many parents were unaware or ill-informed about
school life and a resource centre was perceived as a critical programme to embark
on at School Z. It appeared that some participants already rendered these services
unofficially to parents in the local school community and developed a good
relationship with them. To build on this relationship, the need for written consent and
permission from the SGB was encouraged amongst the participants. For instance,
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they recognised the valuable role of the SGB in the establishment and running of a
successful resource centre at School Z and depended strongly on their support.
The initial plan with the resource centre was for parents to share information
concerning school events and exchange second-hand clothing, but a more structured
programme evolved. Two participants volunteered to manage the resource centre via
an advertising screen pertaining to the whole school development plan. The
successful implementation of a resource centre thus implied the continuous training,
empowerment and mentorship of these participants by schooling staff or external
experts, as well as adequate funding to sustain it. In addition, the recruitment and
involvement of more parents from the local school community was essential to
promote partnership in education and to build stronger school-home-community
relationships.
In terms of sound communication and relationships, Mayes, Curti and Montero
(2007:33) view language as a critical tool in developing, processing and changing the
culture of schooling. Papalia (1986:217) and Bauer and Brazer (2012:45) similarly
add that children need cultural interaction as it builds a sense of community necessary
for the attainment of multiple goals. This community is about relationships that exist
amongst people from diverse cultural backgrounds, in this case parents. Clarke
(2007:9) and MacNeil and Martin (2015:1) therefore link this model to a learning
community which is successfully managed at various private schools.
The facilitation of learning communities, as perceived by Mapaling and Plaatjes
(2019:5), is an act of kindness that encourages communal beliefs, responsibility,
values and attitudes. It implies that experts or professionals must share power with,
rather than over parents. By empowering stakeholders in education, opportunities are
created for better understanding, communication and relationships (Gilbert,
2004:109), which according to Vieno, Perkins, Smith and Santinello (2005:328)
promote greater happiness, coping mechanisms, intrinsic motivation, self-esteem,
interest in academic activities, and adherence to democratic norms and values. In
reference to the resource centre, for example, Clarke (2007:9) points to regular
reminders about goals, celebrating special achievements, recognising and rewarding
individual triumphs, as well as important personal events.
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Collaboration and responsiveness to the needs of the school community are
essential. Muijs and Reynolds (2011:91) encourage schools to actively engage family
members in building a learning community because what is communicated in homes
unswervingly influences and guides young children’s education. A culturally relevant
and responsive school, however, requires a paradigm shift and a commitment to
shared leadership and power to promote strong communication and relationships
amongst stakeholders (Falk, 2009:112; MacNeil & Martin, 2015:1).
5.2.1.2 Reading intervention programme
A reading intervention programme, as means of remedial education, was
recommended to the school principal, who in turn, communicated and gained the
approval of the SGB to implement it at School Z. This programme was later linked to
the services of an NGO with a similar vision for learners with barriers to learning and
development. The NGO, for instance, formally communicated their role in the training,
empowerment and mentorship of teachers and parents via writing, and by invitation
from the SGB included interested parents in the reading intervention programme. The
reading intervention programme ultimately focussed on literacy as a whole and
included the following elements:
▪ Phonic awareness and the teaching thereof;
▪ Decoding and word studies;
▪ Language development;
▪ Comprehension strategies;
▪ Meaningful writing;
▪ Fluency in reading.
Three participants initially enrolled for the training of the reading intervention
programme. They attended workshops and each received a reading kit, presented in
Figure 5.3, for learners aged 9 to 13 years old towards the completion of their training.
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Figure 5.3: Reading kit
Source: A participating parent
The reading intervention programme was explained to the staff and soon
implemented with the full backing of School Z. According to the participants, the
programme encouraged daily one-on-one sessions of 20 minutes with each reader
during school hours and was an ongoing, voluntary initiative supervised by the NGO.
As part of the programme classroom teachers formally identified and referred learners
with reading deficits to the parent volunteers on a weekly basis. This personal
information was gathered and stored by the volunteers for future evaluation of the
reading intervention programme. For example, it was anticipated that the parent
volunteers, classroom teachers of the specific learners and the representative of the
NGO meet at some stage to assess learners’ individual progress and possible
modifications to meet their needs.
One of the main challenges associated with the success of the reading intervention
programme was undoubtedly a safe and comfortable workspace for learning and
teaching. In order to start the programme School Z thus allocated a space to the two
parent volunteers which they divided for their different reading sessions with the
readers. Furthermore, each volunteer purposively decorated their own areas with
educational charts and posters to create a warm and welcoming environment for
readers from grades 4 to 7, namely, Intermediate and Senior Phase learners.
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After several weeks the volunteers observed a remarkable improvement in learners’
behaviour and attitude towards them. The readers, for instance, were more interactive
and shared personal information with them which often resulted in additional
counselling sessions after school. In reference to Maslow’s self-realisation hierarchy,
the learners were likely to gain more confidence and take more risks in their reading,
as well as their schoolwork due to a mutual trust relationship with the two parent
volunteers. Towards the end of each school term the parent volunteers initiated a
teambuilding event and invited me, as an integral part of the reading intervention
programme, to celebrate in the growth and achievements of the readers. Needless to
mention, was the joy on the faces of all the learners who each left with a gift from the
volunteers.
Over time, the implementation of the reading intervention programme gradually grew
into a well-accepted and recognised school programme amongst teachers, parents
and learners. More teachers and an additional parent participant indicated their
personal interest in a workshop via the NGO and the number of readers in the
programme increased rapidly. In embracing the unity amongst stakeholders at School
Z the participants, in cooperation with the school principal, thus arranged another
workshop/training session with the NGO which lead to six additional reading kits in
support of learners with barriers to learning and development.
Ultimately the reading intervention programme encouraged teachers and parent
volunteers to empower and mentor each other to the benefit of learners in need. On
the other hand, the SGB also allocated a third room to readers in the Foundation
Phase, grades 1-3, which was soon decorated with the collaborative support of the
parent volunteers. This kind of buzz, responsiveness and unity created a positive
climate for growth and transformation at School Z.
In South African schools, Nel and Nel (2016:93) hugely blame the academic failure of
learners on poor language abilities that result in weak reading, spelling and writing
skills. Many Afrikaans and Xhosa-speaking learners were, as indicated in Table 4.3,
enrolled in the English-medium stream and struggled to access the curriculum
sufficiently. This scenario often existed at disadvantaged schools due to external
and/or internal barriers to learning and development. For example, Donald et al.
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(2010:328 & 331) recognise poor teaching, regular changing of schools and teachers,
and learners missing out on periods, as external indicators for deficits in the LOLT,
which add to the challenges experienced by learners with specific language and
reading difficulties. It implies that some learners were prone to suffer a double
disadvantage. In association with this view, Nel and Nel (2016:102) emphasise the
significance of literacy in the learning programme at schools, as well as in society,
where the learners are active agents. Within this context, the reading intervention
programme are seemingly a great asset to prepare primary school learners better for
future endeavours.
5.2.1.3 Safety-and-security programme
The safety- and-security programme was viewed as fundamental to a healthy learning
and teaching environment. According to the policing sectors, they were fully trained
and equipped by the local police forum to manage a successful safety and security
programme. These parents were daily, in direct contact with the local police station,
networked with different experts in different governmental departments, knew
protocol, attended regular meetings, training and workshops held via the police forum
and were respected leaders in their community. The leader of the policing sectors at
School Z was, for example, annually selected as the chairperson of the community
policing sector, appeared in public with the police forum and regularly created
opportunities for children to maximise their potential via extra-mural activities. In
addition, other members were initiating a soup kitchen and home-schooling.
The policing sectors were extremely committed to the safety and security, as well as
the quality of education to their children. They planned to protect both teachers and
learners as they were aware of an increase in gangsterism, drug dealings and
violence amongst youngsters in the local school environment. In line with this
perception, School Z unofficially adopted the policing sectors who daily patrol the
school premises, guard the entrances and accompany learners to and from school –
at their own risk. These parents’ selfless desire and commitment to serve their school
community voluntarily was remarkable, since others barely had any interest in school
life and refused to work for free or little money, as described in Section 4.5.5.
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In their quest to promote a safe and healthy learning environment at School Z the
parents often risked their own health to defuse clashes amongst learners and
challenged the effectiveness of the existing disciplinary committee. For example, they
regularly noticed the poor leadership skills amongst most of the prefects who
neglected and/or ignorance their duties. This scenario, according to the parents, was
very awkward as they often had to intervene and were criticised by the formal
disciplinary programme. Nonetheless, the policing sectors remained loyal to School
Z and reported serious cases of gangsterism and violence.
To be more effective at School Z the policing sectors wished to be formally employed
and integrated in the whole school system. They wanted to share their knowledge
and resources concerning safety and security measurements with the disciplinary
committee and anticipated a common vision for the safety of all stakeholders at
School Z. As the experts of their children and community the policing sectors, for
example, longed for more contact time with the learners during school assemblies to
empower them adequately in terms of aspects of law and safety. Moreover, as
legitimate members of School Z the policing sectors foreseen a better working
relationship with parents who were often unkind and offensive towards them.
According to the policing sectors teachers daily struggle to cope with the
disrespectfulness and violent demeanor of some learners and/or parents inside, as
well as outside the classroom. To safeguard all stakeholders at School Z, the
implementation of a legally binding safety-and-security programme was emphasised
to inform, alert, guide and stabilise the hostile learning environment. This programme
was severely challenged at School Z due to internal power struggles and rivalries
amongst teachers and parents.
Due to high levels of poverty, pressure, crime and violence manifested at School Z
and surrounding communities, thoughts of death and loss were very tangible amongst
learners. Somehow School Z had to deal with this life-threatening milieu that
dejectedly influenced the whole school system. In line with this understanding, Bruce
(2010:77) urges schools that aspire real inclusion to listen to the voices of their
children and to be proactive in securing safe and healthy atmospheres for them.
Equally, Thompson (2004: vii) encourages crisis intervention and crisis management
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strategies at schools to lift the morale and promote safety and security. It was also
necessary for School Z to plan and implement an effective safety-and-security
programme to prevent or reduce the possibility of accidents or tragedies.
5.2.1.4 Social wellness programme
A social wellness programme in this research is primarily linked to the employment
agreement between a non-profitable organisation (NPO) and the LSA assigned to
School Z. The service of the LSA was the result of the CSTL programme, referred to
in Section 2.6. This programme was initiated by the South African Development
Community who liaised with the DoE in 2008 for its official implementation. According
to Cindi (2018), the requirements for an LSA include good management,
communication, organisational, literacy and numeracy skills, flexibility and creativity,
as well as a love for children. Their focus is directed at learners in need of support as
a result of social, health, behavioural and/or poverty-related barriers – which is
endorsed via SIAS (DoE 2014b). Some duties of the LSA, as indicated by Cindi
(2018), involves the management and arrangement of campaigns; equippping and
empowering learners in Life Skills; record keeping; networking with professionals and
connecting schools to local learner support services as well as the provision of
homework-support. Services like face-to-face counselling, nutrition, clothing and
academic support were closely monitored and evaluated by experts in order to
minimise and/or remove barriers to learning and development.
The holistic approach to the social wellness of learners encouraged School Z to
officially include the LSA in the whole school development programme. This role was
initially assigned to the coordinator of the SBST, namely, a fulltime classroom teacher
with numerous responsibilities. But, with the active involvement of the LSA School Z
was more likely to promote better learning outcomes amongst learners with barriers
to learning and develoment. This ideal, according to the LSA, was difficult to maintain
due to a lack of communication and cooperation in the learning environment. For
example, the LSA scaled down some projects and focused on a Life Skills programme
called Soul Buddies – which is slowly progressing at School Z.
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Many learners at School Z, as explained in Section 4.5.2, were vulnerable in their
education and required more professional assistance to improve their scholastic
outcomes. The active role of the LSA as mediator for disadvantaged learners was
likely to transform the quality of education for many disadvantaged learners at School
Z. In line with this perspective, Van Dyk (2005:146) advocates the influence of life-
threatening diseases like HIV/AIDS on disadvantaged learners and encourages the
expertise of parents from the local community, who are better able to connect, counsel
and assist learners. There is a huge need for consistency in developing a social
wellness approach to IE (Galassi & Akos, 2007:306). Numerous cases of neglect are
indicated at School Z, as described in Sections 4.5.4 and 4.5.5, which according to
Thompson (2004: vii), is ultimately the responsibility of school counsellors, teachers
and administrators.
5.2.2 Medium-term goals
The medium-term goals, defined in Figure 5.4, included ESPs identified in Themes 2
and 3, namely the establishment of a homework-support programme, a nutritional
programme, as well as a clothing bank. These programmes suited the profile of the
LSA at School Z and anticipated the active involvement of the school principal as
manager of the whole school system.
Figure 5.4: Medium-term Goals
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5.2.2.1 Homework-support programme
The LSA was keen to commence with a homework-support programme for the
Intermediate, as well as the Senior Phase learners. To accomplish this goal, she
liaised with teachers for the identification of possible learners, addressed these
learners and formally invited their parents to school to explain the details of the
programme to them. Three school days were initially anticipated for the home-support
programme whereby the LSA arranged one-hour sessions with learners directly after
school.
As the interest amongst the learners grew in terms of the homework-support
programme the LSA decided to recruit and train parents from the local community
accordingly. This was a very slow and challenging process as many parents were
unavailable and/or ignorant. After two weeks of implementation and working in
isolation, the LSA had to postpone the homework-support programme. In order to
sustain the homework-support programme it was important for the LSA to liaise with
the other parent volunteers at School Z and to work collaboratively towards quality
EFA.
5.2.2.2 Nutritional programme
In cognisance of the growing poverty in the school community, the LSA took the
initiative to supplement the existing feeding scheme with the assistance of the
teacher-coordinator and parents involved in the school nutrition programme. They
collaboratively discussed the needs of learners, explored possible projects and
eventually decided to embark on a gardening, second meal-a-day and food parcel
project.
▪ Gardening project
For the gardening project the LSA worked closely with the teacher-coordinator and
the principal to acquire the necessary funding for tools and material. The idea was to
start a vegetable garden that would eventually supply the school feeding scheme with
products such as fresh herbs, carrots, spinach, tomatoes and cabbage. This healthy
diet for learners at School Z encouraged the LSA to involve and recruit parents from
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the local community as gardeners. She, for instance, gained the voluntarily support
of two parents who nurtured the garden for a while before they left.
▪ Second meal-a-day project
A second meal-a-day project was of huge benefit to learners who often had nothing
to eat at home. As the feeding scheme mainly focused on cooked meals, the LSA
recommended a sandwich for each learner after school, and therefore sponsorship
was necessary. The LSA wished to apply and establish relationships with various
local bakeries and larger businesses to sustain the project at School Z. Furthermore,
she intended to recruit, train and empower interested parents from the school
community in managing the second meal-a-day project.
▪ Food parcel project
According to the LSA, the food parcel project intended to cater for needy families at
School Z. Like the above-mentioned projects, she planned to actively engage parents
from the local school community in the food parcel project. The strategy was to ask
for monthly donations from the learners, as well as local businesses in the form of tin
cans and non-perishable products. These would be collected, packaged and stored
by the parents until it was time for delivery. According to the LSA, the deliveries
depended largely on the number of families involved, as well as the number of items
collected.
5.2.2.3 Clothing bank
In her observation of learners at School Z the LSA recognised the need for a clothing
bank. The ideal was to form partnerships with classroom teachers, learners, parents
and local businesses to gain adequate assistance for the programme. It was
perceived that the classroom teachers could identify learners in need of clothing items
and encourage other learners to donate items to the clothing bank. In addition, the
LSA wished to distribute boxes to local businesses and in so doing, motivate the
community to contribute actively towards the needs of learners. The parents allocated
to the project would then collect, sort and manage all these items on a weekly basis
in consultation with the LSA.
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All these programmes, under the leadership of the LSA, could eventually add richly
to the quality of education for disadvantaged learners, but are still pending. In relation
to this view, researchers like Lemmer and Van Wyk (2004:272) point to various
successful programmes that were initiated and managed by mother-groups.
In terms of a homework-support programme, the research of Bisschoff and Koebe
(2005:159) reveal that learners in township schools are regularly provided with a lot
of homework. This is further evident in the study of Van Wyk (2001b:121-122), where
many primary school teachers recognised their huge dependency on parental support
at home. The teachers, though, also claimed that they never taught or knew how to
actively involve parents in their children’s schooling at each grade level – which
created gaps in quality EFA. For instance, Lemmer (n.d.:103) emphasises the need
to inform and equip parents aptly in supporting their children’s learning at home via
literacy programmes.
As indicated in Section 4.5.5, many learners struggle to access the curriculum due to
malnutrition and starvation. Many disadvantaged school communities have therefore
attempted additional nutritional programmes to promote a healthy diet for learners
under their care. Epstein (2019:69 & 75) and Plaatjies (2019) similarly refer to school
and community gardens to feed and encourage interaction amongst learners and
parents, as well as food competitions that teach learners healthy ways of living.
Moreover, Bisschoff and Koebe (2005:159) advocate that food projects in township
schools are a creative way of keeping learners in school. It is, however, crucial that
schools use strategies that are appealing to their own situation.
A clothing bank or shop is a huge advantage to learners from poor homes. According
to Bisschoff and Koebe (2005:160), it is the responsibility of caring schools to cater
for needy children. They also refer to a township project where learners voluntarily
gave their old uniform to the less fortunate. Epstein (2019:69) and Ncokazi (2019)
similarly describe clothing projects at schools whereby parents exchanged different
clothing items and the community donated school uniforms to the disadvantaged. The
dress code of learners at some disadvantaged schools, as proved in Section 4.5.4,
was a huge indicator for bullying and absenteeism.
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5.2.3 Long-term goals
As illustrated in Figure 5.5, the participants identified four ESPs respectively from
Themes 1, 2 and 3. These programmes, namely communication and relationships,
teacher-assistants, technical abilities and parental guidance were largely dependent
on the successful implementation of the short and medium term goals as it seized the
holistic experience of an integrated IE system.
Figure 5.5: Long-term Goals
5.2.3.1 Communication-and-relationship programme
A communication-and-relationship programme is core to the holistic, integrated IE
system in South Africa. Schools need to host and involve all types of families in their
programmes such as learners, mothers, fathers and grandparents (Lemmer & Van
Wyk, 2004:269; Bischoff & Koebe, 2005:160). This human approach to schooling
requires a paradigm shift and encourages shared responsibility, leadership and
collaboration at traditionally managed schools. Singh and Lokotsch (2005:280) and
Grant and Singh (2009:290) equally associate school reform with transformational
leadership which is deeply rooted in knowledge of the current system, change,
experience and the ability to lead. It takes a high level of skills to build a school
community that works well for everyone (Sergiovanni, 2007:1). For example, the
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participants claimed that effective communication and relationships could be
established via the integrated school database which contained detailed information
of all the learners.
The Department of Education (DoE 2014b:149) links effective communication and
relationships to the reviewing of school cultures, policies and practices that address
the needs of learners, teachers and parents. Numerous approaches and channels of
communication are advised in Chapter Six to reach most of the parents in the local
school community. Unless school leadership is responsive and influences
stakeholders according to new ways of management, it is unlikely that they could
have a positive impact on the outcomes of learners (Robertson & Timperley, 2011:6).
Too many excuses are made despite the successes associated with transformation
at neighbouring schools.
Ultimately, MacNeil and Martin (2015:1 & 2) emphasise that building community is a
long process that requires school leaders to place human needs above organisational
needs. Only schools that cultivate this collaborative, equal platform have the capacity
to be resilient (Gorman, 2015:110). Van Wyk (2001b:120) found little or no evidence
of a school-family-community partnership approach in South African schools to
improve education.
5.2.3.2 Teacher-assistants programme
The prospect of a teacher-assistants programme at School Z was very appealing to
the parents. They emphasised the value of TAs within big classrooms and
encouraged the recruitment and training of parents in the Foundation, Intermediate
and Senior Phases. It was also their understanding that mentorship by teachers, as
professionals in the different phases was an ideal, cost effective way of empowering
parents.
The plan was for TAs to mirror their mentors, attend workshops, learn in-practice, be
consistent and visible in the classroom to gain the necessary knowledge,
understanding, confidence and competency to manage well. This was, according to
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the parents, a process that included relationship building and therefore peer tutoring
amongst the parents themselves was fundamental.
Cindi (2018) acknowledges TAs competencies in numeracy and literacy and claims
that no formal qualification is required for their support to learners inside the
classroom. Teacher-assistants work in collaboration with the classroom teacher and
assist learners with reading, writing and Mathematics. Yet, Van Wyk (2001b:123) and
Lemmer and Van Wyk (2004:271) observe that many teachers refused the services
of volunteers or untrained parents as they barely had ample time for their own work.
In numerous cases, the support of TAs was thus restricted to activities outside of the
classroom.
5.2.3.3 Technical abilities
It was conveyed that many learners were often unresponsive at School Z due to a
lack of stimulation. The participants desired to support the technical skills and
potential of learners through sport, music, art, sewing, woodwork and catering
projects with the active support of parents from the local school community.
According to Lemmer and Van Wyk (2004:272) and Bisschoff and Koebe (2005:159),
parents were often used and compensated by former Model C schools for the
coaching of sport, cultural events and catering. Epstein (2019:75) similarly adds to
this list, parental involvement in art classes whereby recycled materials were used to
trigger learners’ creativity. In reflection of the generous subsidy to historically
disadvantaged schools, referred to in Sections 1.2 and 2.2.1, it was within their power
to compete with other schools and to create opportunities whereby disadvantaged
learners can explore their technical abilities. For example, Malala (2019) accentuates
the talent of the Springbok rugby captain, Siyamthanda Kolisi, who originates from
one of the poorest communities in the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole in South Africa.
5.2.3.4 Parental guidance
Two of the main features associated with parental guidance at School Z, involved
poor parenting skills and knowledge of the curriculum. These aspects formed an
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integral part of the resource centre and simultaneously supported the LSA in her role
as a mentor to parents in the school community, noted in Section 5.2.1, as well as in
Table 4.2.
It is important to guide parents towards a school system that is morally underpinned
by a set of values, discussed in Section 2.5 and in so doing, create an atmosphere
conducive to learning and teaching. In association with this view, Lemmer (n.d.:101)
refers to an array of programmes, namely guidance in terms of rule setting, discipline,
emotional support and reducing potential conflict amongst learners that schools could
embark on to promote positive parenting. Lemmer (n.d.:102) also encourages annual
orientation programmes to keep parents informed of school policies and practices.
Epstein (2019:72) similarly adds the significance of a parental portal which grants
parents direct access to their children’s academic progress online. A community
school provides parents with a variety of programmes to equip and empower them
adequately for their role in society (Davis, 2012:132). In numerous cases, the active
involvement of fathers in school programmes is inspired in honour of their
authoritative role in the family. Against this background, Lemmer (n.d.:103) is
convinced that schools can facilitate good relationships with other institutions and
simultaneously create a web of support to the benefit of the child.
5.3 MOTIVATION FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF A PIP AT SCHOOL Z
Compared to other countries, Hunter and May (2002:3) emphasise the huge dropout
rate amongst learners in South African schools. Reasons for early drop out are linked
to poor scholastic performance and motivation, poor interest in school life, conflict
with school authorities and teenage pregnancy. In addition, Hunter and May (2002:3)
refer to youngsters who prematurely make the transition into adulthood through child
labour, which is a common phenomenon amongst underprivileged, single parent and
poorly educated families. Against this context, the PIP aimed to create opportunities
for the disadvantaged to develop fully as independent citizens.
As catalysts, it is the responsibility of parents and teachers to provide learners with
appropriate ESPs and to ensure resilience in disadvantaged school communities.
Mapaling and Plaatjes (2019:5) likewise emphasise the importance of a caring and
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nurturing environment for learners. Caring is the cornerstone of socially mediated
learning because learning relates to interactive relationships and the co-construction
of knowledge (Muijs & Reynolds, 2011:71). Nieuwenhuis et al. (2007:162) therefore
argue against the enrolment of children with severe disabilities in big classrooms.
These learners need smaller classrooms, special tutoring programmes, extra health
services, psychological services, counselling, social work and cultural enrichment
(Papalia, 1986:217), which are inspired through the PIP.
According to Falk (2009:112), MacNeil and Martin (2015:1) and Ndebele (2015:72-
73), greater commitment, equality and justice amongst stakeholders at disadvantaged
schools are necessary. Parents and teachers need to work collectively towards a
common goal. During this research the participants, for example, recognised the need
for annual celebrations in honour of parents and community leaders for their role and
investment in the lives of learners at School Z. In this manner, awareness in the local
and larger communities can be established and more opportunities granted to those
who want to improve their personal development.
One of the biggest challenges associated with the PIP was the need for sponsorship
or a stipend to sustain the programme as it was insensitive to expect the poor to work
on a full-time basis without any compensation. The future success of the PIP at
School Z largely depends on transformational leadership and a financial boost. As
indicated in Figures 5.6 to 5.9 the resource centre is unstable and impractical; the
reading intervention programme requires material and technology; the safety-and-
security programme needs accommodation and equipment and the social wellness
programme requires a suitable working environment.
Figure 5.6: The Resource Centre
Source: A participating parent
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Figure 5.7: The Reading Intervention Programme
Source: A participating parent
Figure 5.8: The Safety-and-Security Programme
Source: Louw (2018b:2) Source: Claasen (2018)
Figure 5.9: The Social Wellness Programme
Source: A participating parent
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5.3 SUMMARY
Chapter Five presented guidelines for a PIP through short, medium and long-term
goals at disadvantaged primary schools in South Africa. A brief motivation for these
ESPs was provided that implies collaboration, pro-activeness and sponsorship to
manage it effectively. The next chapter presents the summary, conclusion and
recommendations for the study.
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CHAPTER SIX
CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND SUMMARY
6.1 INTRODUCTION
This chapter provides the concluding remarks and recommendations for parental
involvement programmes at disadvantaged primary schools in South Africa, based
on the evidence provided in Chapter Four. An interpretation of Bronfenbrenner’s
Ecological Model is offered to demonstrate the significance of collaboration amongst
the main stakeholders in education, namely, teachers, parents and learners. This
model provides a useful structure for understanding how the various levels of
influence and interactions shape learners’ experience in an inclusive learning
environment. In this research, for instance, evidence revealed huge gaps in
communication and relationships amongst teachers and parents at School Z – which
discouraged the ideal of a fully functional school. Figure 6.1 illustrates what many
participants perceived as failing schools in the South African context.
Figure 6.1: Failing Schools
Source: Wilkinson (2010)
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6.2 THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model was adopted for the investigation as it is nested
within four systems, namely the micro-, meso-, exo- and macrosystem surrounded by
the chronosystem, which virtually resembles an IE system in South Africa. Success
to inclusive education is rooted in the collective engagement of parents, teachers,
learners, the Department of Education and the larger community, who are each
uniquely responsible for the holistic development of all learners. The interrelatedness
and connectedness between these systems hugely influence the quality of education
provided to many disadvantaged primary school learners and guide them towards
self-realisation. These educational systems are now viewed in conjunction with
Bronfenbrenner’s Ecological Model.
6.2.1 Microsystem
The microsystem, identified in Section 3.2.1, represents the child’s family, his or her
peers and school with whom close bonds and relationships are established from a
very early age. In other words, family, peers, and schools are children’s first encounter
with society, and they are strongly influenced by them. Children often model the
behaviour of their parents, friends and teachers as tokens of their loyalty, love and
appreciation towards them. It is also within this system that children naturally develop
a strong sense of belonging and security that encourage them towards a successful
school career and future endeavours. A brief account of learners’ relationships with
their parents, school and peers is presented.
The role of parents, as indicated in Section 2.7, is very profound in child development.
Parents are their children’s first teacher and directly responsible for their formal and
informal education. The research findings show huge gaps and inconsistencies about
parents’ overall involvement in their children’s rearing. Many young children were
regularly abandoned, abused, unsupervised and managed child-headed households
due to some parents’ unique working conditions or lifestyles. Added to these
unfavourable conditions the participants recognised high levels of illiteracy, language
deficiencies in the LOLT, unemployment, drug- and alcohol misuse, as well as the
abuse of foster-care grants within many households. This scenario in the surrounding
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school community negatively influenced most learners who lacked the necessary
care, guidance and security affiliated to the home environment.
The school, as part of the microsystem, has an equally important role to play in the
holistic development of disadvantaged learners. As mentioned in Section 2.6, the
school is the secondary caregiver of children and responsible for the establishment
of a caring and supportive, inclusive learning environment. In terms of school
systems, mentioned in Sections 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, SGBs, SBSTs and school
management teams are encouraged to work collectively in minimising and/or
removing barriers to learning and development. These structures and relationships
were, however, ineffective, and non-functional at School Z, while most teachers also
failed to support disadvantaged learners properly. In relation to this view,
Nieuwenhuis et al. (2007:162) affirm teachers’ incapacity to manage diversity within
over-crowded classrooms. This poor connection, communication and relationship
between School Z and the learners are evident in the outcome of the study.
Peers form an integral part of a child’s world, because children love playing in groups,
whether at home or at school. The research presented evidence that many learners
at School Z were robust, insensitive, ill-disciplined, and regularly cruel towards one
another. They daily bullied, fought, cursed, and demeaned each other, while only a
few children managed to escape. Several cases involving some learners’
engagement in criminal activities, gangsterism, and drug- and alcohol abuse were
exposed and reported at School Z, which were intimidating and harmful to their peers.
Most of the problems experienced by families in the school community were closely
linked to poverty, the breakdown of families and the effects of the HIV/AIDS pandemic
in society. It is my conviction that many families were traumatised and suffered severe
cases of depression, to the extent that some gave up, others withdrew, and a few had
the tenacity to pursue a better life for their children. This kind of parenting,
nonetheless, violated the basic rights of children to be safe, healthy, and educated,
as echoed via the Constitution of South Africa (RSA, 1996:6). In the same way, I
believe that different stakeholders at School Z also experienced moments of trauma
and panic as they were not fully prepared for an IE system or diversity and failed to
admit or address it appropriately, as noted in Chapter Four. The consequences of the
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attitudes of both parents and the school were reflected in the children’s behaviour
which was mostly destructive and harmful towards others, as well as themselves. An
increasing number of learners cared less about their schoolwork and often resorted
to truancy as a form of retaliation and/or survival.
6.2.2 Mesosystem
The mesosystem points to the inner relations of people in the microsystem, through
their connection with the child. For children to achieve their highest potential and to
be academically successful, it is essential to be in an environment where their
parents, school and peers regularly interact, and share a common vision and
principles. The physical presence of parents at various school functions, teachers’
personal interests and collaboration with parents, as well as the moral support of
peers inside and outside the classroom, add richly to the quality of teaching and
learning experiences. Ultimately, the interconnectedness and synergy amongst all
stakeholders creates greater opportunities for disadvantaged learners to attain good
success. It implicates unity, cooperation and teamwork, and a sense of family, as
critical facets in education. Nonetheless, the reverse is also possible and had
manifested at School Z as inward rivalry, hostility and power struggles between
parents and teachers, at the expense of learners with learning difficulties who
remained unattended and harshly criticised by their peers. As a way of escape, the
findings revealed that learners often acted out, isolated themselves, failed to complete
tasks and/or lost interest in school at a very young age.
6.2.3 Exosystem
As mentioned in Section 3.2.3, the exosystem involves other systems such as the
workplace of parents, internal and external support structures of schools, as well as
family dynamics linked to peers, which directly and indirectly influence the child. In
other words, the exosystem exposes children to a wider social environment which
changes from time to time.
According to the findings, the workplaces of parents in the school community are very
demanding and often deprive parents of quality time spent with their children. These
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parents are severely challenged in terms of supporting their children’s education and
can seldom attend any of the teacher-parent conferences, school functions and/or
fundraising events. Consequently, learners bear the costs and regularly attend school
without the necessary homework, stationery, uniform and/or lunch.
Internal and external systems, namely SGBs, SBSTs, local community-based
organisations and the DBST all play a fundamental role in the provision of support to
disadvantaged learners. Their collective intervention in minimising and/or removing
barriers to learning and development, grant many learners access to the curriculum
and encourage them towards better learning outcomes. But as proclaimed in Chapter
Four, several learners were unaccounted for, repetitively failing their grades and
neither the SGB nor SBST were functional. Moreover, the DBST also lacked in their
responsibility to adequately monitor and support the diverse needs of School Z,
teachers and learners.
Within an inclusive learning environment, the support of peers at home or at school
are instrumental to learners with diverse barriers to learning and development.
Children often look up to their peers and, especially in the event of the disadvantaged,
rely strongly on their backing. In this study it was noticed that some children naturally
wanted to assist their friends in the classroom but were reprimanded by teachers. At
the same time, the findings also reveal that those helping their peers were often not
the most reliable source due to their own shortcommings. This view is supported by
the following remark from one of the participating parents:
“…daardie kind hou hom net so slim…” (…that child is only pretending to be
clever…) - II-5p21
6.2.4 Macrosystem
The macrosystem, explained in Section 3.2.4, comprises inter alia of the cultural,
educational, social, political and economic policies put in place by the government.
These policies are enshrined in the Constitution (RSA, 1996), SASA (DoE, 1996b)
and White Paper 6 (DoE, 2001b) and have a major influence on parents, schools and
learners. The national government, for example, enforces laws about housing, health
and employment which regularly fail to reach a great number of people in the
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historically disadvantaged communities. In most cases, families are living in large
numbers in one-bedroomed homes. Others migrate with their children and are often
homeless in their pursuit to provide for their children. The service delivery at local
clinics is also lacking and frequently forces the sick to queue for hours, regardless of
their prognosis. This exploitation of the poor, illiterate and unemployed who largely
depend on government grants for the basic needs of their families, is often publicly
contested in the streets via the burning of tyres by parents, as well as children.
Then too the major shift to an inclusive curriculum, as explained by SASA (DoE
1996b), and White Paper 6 (DoE 2001b), has resulted in numerous institutional
changes, namely, the implementation of SGBs, SBSTs and DBSTs, to accommodate
learners with barriers to learning and development in the mainstream. In support of
the diverse needs of learners at public schools, alliances with NGOs, NPOs and other
stakeholders were further encouraged. These changes to the education system were,
however, not yet fully grasped or exercuted by stakeholders at School Z, and
consequently threatened the quality of education to many disadvantaged learners.
The wide scope of the macrosystem has exposed children to a large range of different
cultures, religions, ideologies, values, and attitudes, which demand their response. It
is my understanding that the macrosystem encourage children to act as unique
agents of their own destiny – via decision-making processes – which ultimately alters
and influence all the other systems. This development in terms of a more advantaged
learners at School Z, is described as follow:
“Die kind bank…doen die…doen daardie, die kind het nie homework nie.” (The child
is bunking…doing this…doing that, the child does not have homework.) - A-1p55
Children do not develop in isolation; they gradually take ownership and are active
agents in the quality of work they produce at school. This shift happens over different
time frames, which Bronfenbrenner refers to as the chronosystem and can affect
children either positively or negatively. In association with this view, Jadezweni (2019)
adds that the tools to overcome barriers are located within the child as they have
regular opportunities to excel and achieve good success. The Ecological Model of
Bronfenbrenner perfectly illustrates the importance of collaboration, cooperation,
unity and a shared vision amongst adults, which helps to shape children’s character
and identity. I anticipate that a caring, supportive and nurturing teaching and learning
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environment is critical to the education of disadvantaged learners. A calculated
decision was therefore made to engage parents from a disadvantaged primary school
in cyclical processes of data collection to determine their unique aspirations for
learners via a PIP. Figure 6.2 illustrates this transformational leadership which is
engrained in the human pedagogy of Ubuntu, equality and social justice.
Figure 6.2: Collaborative Leadership
Source: Lieff (2015)
6.3 CASE STUDY
For this investigation a case study, as explained in Section 3.8.2, was chosen due to
its holistic interpretation of people in their natural environment, within a set time and
space. As a teacher-researcher, I wanted to improve my practice in support of an
increasing number of learners with barriers to learning and development and realised
that the best way to achieve this goal was through involving their parents. A single
case study proved to be effective in the design of a suitable PIP for the disadvantaged
and the participating parents were able to respond well to the following secondary
research questions.
6.3.1 Research question 1
How are parents currently supporting their children’s education at one of the
disadvantaged primary schools?
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From the responses of the participants it was firstly very clear that many parents
wanted to support their children’s schoolwork, but due to personal challenges were
unable to fulfil this role adequately. Factors such as illiteracy, language deficiencies,
long working hours and poor understanding of the curriculum severely hampered
parents, especially Xhosa-speakers, in their assistance to learners. Most parents
therefore refrained from school life and arranged private lessons for their children with
friends, family members and/or classmates. This form of intervention was, however,
rarely successful since poor families could not afford these services and others too
were not fully on par with the curriculum. Against this background, the participants
observed the resilience of some Xhosa- and Afrikaans-speaking parents who
volunteered in the NSNP, attended school functions, as well as parent-teacher
conferences in support of their children.
Secondly, it was perceived that mostly Afrikaans- and English-speaking parents were
availing themselves for services at School Z – which often lasted for a little while due
to internal power struggles and challenges described in Sections 2.8.6 and 2.8.7. It
was, however, rewarding to experience first-hand how some of the parents were
adamant to assist disadvantaged learners at School Z. For example, some parents
neglected their own duties at home and others literally resigned from permanent jobs
in order to support their children in the best possible way.
Thirdly, numerous occasions were highlighted where parents, across racial barriers,
visited the school by either their own doing or on request from the school. In both
cases – good or bad – the caring and supportive nature of parents towards their
children are renounced. According to the participants, parents daily occupied the
principal’s office, as well as the administrative block in aid of their children. These
cases mostly involved learners with barriers to learning and development who were
either victims to bullying or bullies themselves. Linked to this scenario at School Z,
the participants recognised that parents often completed their children’s schoolwork
for them, and/or, went to the DoE for more intensive assistance.
Lastly, some parents simply ignored and were unresponsive to the education of their
children. They seldom attended school- or classroom events and believed that
teachers were exclusively responsible for schoolwork and homework. These parents,
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according to the participants, blamed teachers for their children’s poor academic
performance and regularly attacked the school for the behavioural problems of their
children.
6.3.2 Research question 2
What are the roles and responsibilities of parents in relation to educational support?
Many parents did not completely understand the magnitude of power given to them
in terms of educational support at home and/or at school. They focused more on the
school environment and acknowledged their diverse roles and responsibilities in the
SBST, QTLC, security and school governance or SGBs – which were often
manipulated by school principals and teachers. Added to this scenario, it was also
evident that the voices of parents of learners at School Z were hardly ever heard.
Ironically, most of the participating parents desired intervention for the learners at
School Z but failed to see how their experiences, knowledge and skills, presented in
Table 4.2, could be adopted as educational support at home or at school. The
participants had experience and/or certificates in reading, spiritual guidance,
counselling, safety and crime prevention, early childhood development, pre-primary
education and computer literacy, which formed an integral part of the school
curriculum. Moreover, other parents in the school community were also very skilled
and could collectively add to home-school educational support programmes for
disadvantaged learners. Hence, no formal request was made to the SGB and the
roles and responsibilities of parents in terms of educational support remain
problematic.
6.3.3 Research question 3
What educational support programmes (ESPs) can the disadvantaged primary school
embark on with parents to increase learner performance?
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I belief that most parents of learners at School Z understood the diverse needs of their
children and to some extend were able to support their holistic development, at home
and/or at school. The participants mentioned that many parents in the school
community are entrepreneurs and church leaders who can assist with learner
discipline and teachings in various programmes, namely, baking, painting and sewing
at School Z. It is also noted above and in Appendix H1, that some parents wished to
volunteer as teacher-assistants in classrooms, while others preferred to support
homework-, counselling-, welfare-, sport and language programmes, regardless of
their imperfections. It is my opinion that most parents in the school community can be
adequately mentored and empowered in support of learners at School Z. But it was
ultimately the responsibility of School Z to identify possible intervention programmes
and to encourage parental involvement, which, according to Section 2.7, increases
learner performance.
6.3.4 Research question 4
How can educational support programmes assist with the design of the parental
involvement programme?
Educational support programmes include a range of activities, as listed in Section 2.6.
In line with these nine community-based programmes, namely, nutritional support,
health promotion, infrastructure for water and sanitation, safety programmes, social
welfare services, psycho-social support, material support, curriculum support and co-
curricular support, School Z can prioritise the immediate needs of disadvantaged
learners and recruit their parents accordingly. This refined list of short-term goals or
ESPs can then serve as a parental involvement programme, as was done in Chapter
Five. I strongly believe that all disadvantaged primary schools can use these
community-based programmes as a guide to establish their own PIP, alongside
parents.
All these secondary research questions were successfully responded to and
simultaneously answered the primary research question, namely, How can parents,
as part as the school community, be integrated at a disadvantaged primary school
within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole to assist learners? It is obvious from the
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responses of the participants that most parents had high aspirations for their children
and wanted to support learners’ education. Many parents simply did not know how
and needed some form of guidance from School Z, especially in cases of learners
with barriers to learning and development. I perceive the poor communication and
relationships, as established in Section 4.5, as a sign of ignorance to the educational
needs of disadvantaged learners and their parents. Notwithstanding, the high levels
of frustration, anger, and despair amongst many parents as they struggled with
intervention for their children. In association with educational policies (DoE, 1996b;
2001b; 2005a; 2014b) it was extremely important for School Z, in conjunction with the
SGB, to implement functional educational support programmes which included
parents as co-partners in education. The involvement of parents in SGBs and SBSTs,
as explained in Sections 1.2, 2.4.1 and 2.4.2, provide parents direct access to school
committees and programmes. It is therefore within the power of parents to share their
combined interest, knowledge and skills with disadvantaged learners – despite strong
opposition. It is, however, critical that parents acquaint themselves with educational
policy and keep abreast of the changes in education.
6.4 PROBLEMS EXPERIENCED DURING THE RESEARCH
For the duration of this investigation I was incredibly challenged in terms of time,
funding, and the attitude of different stakeholders at School Z.
On numerous occasions during the study I struggled to manage my time well due to
additional demands of my workplace, family life and community commitments. I often
neglected the one for the other and, in so doing, ended up re-scheduling sessions
with the participating parents. On the other hand, some participants were substituted
while others regularly re-scheduled their meetings with me because of personal
commitments.
My traveling expenses during the process of data collection escalated tremendously
as the participants often re-scheduled our meetings on short notice and/or moved the
session to another venue. To accommodate all the participants in the study, for
example, their travelling expenses to and from School Z and NMU during the
individual interviews, action learning sets and workshops, I provided the necessary
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funding in order to secure a successful outcome. In addition, I viewed it essential to
cater for the participants during our gatherings as a token of my appreciation for their
assistance in the study, as well as to spark a spirit of humanity and unity.
The attitude of the school principal, who formally and publically granted permission
for the research, was very confusing as I regularly had to explain and defend my role
as a researcher on and off site. Individual teachers, as well as parents, were very
suspicious about my relationship with the participants at School Z – as they grew
more confident – and accused me falsely of intimidation. Due to my commitment as
researcher I was often victimised and threatened.
6.5 SIGNIFICANCE OF THE STUDY
This study is of great value to learners, parents, teachers, and schools and includes
the following possibilities:
6.5.1 Learners
The active involvement of parents at disadvantaged primary schools anticipate
improved behaviour and confidence amongst learners to complete their school career
and set goals for the future developments. Youngsters, for instance, are hugely
influenced by their parents and merely want to impress them by doing good, for
example, attending school, doing their school/homework, studying for tests,
participating in school activities, and getting along with their others. Parental
involvement at primary schools can therefore increasingly support disadvantaged
learners to be more self-disciplined, develop critical-, creative- and social skills,
achieve better grades and test scores, as well as develop more independently
towards self-actualisation. Moreover, learners with barriers to learning and
development will be granted with more opportunities to access the curriculum and
learn alongside their peers.
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6.5.2 Parents
This study foresees that parents, in general, can learn more about the curriculum, the
work of teachers and show greater awareness of what their children are learning. The
intention is for parents to become acquainted with the learning environment so that
they are better able or confident to support their children at home and/or at school. I
believe that by empowering and training parents at school level, they become more
aware of their own potential and are better positioned for leadership structures – at
school and/or the greater community. This experience will set disadvantaged parents
apart from others as they can also improve their professional qualification, apply for
other work, and/ or start their own practices – which was done by a few parents in this
research.
6.5.3 Teachers
The interaction between teachers and parents as co-partners in educational support
programmes can emensely change the mindset of teachers concerning parents.
Teachers are often too pessimistic about parents and with this research, I wanted to
put policy in practice for teachers to realise the resourcefulness of parents at school,
and as TAs in their classrooms. It is envisaged that teachers will earn greater respect,
nurture better working relationships and teach more effectively with the active
involvement of parents.
6.5.4 Schools
Parental involvement at disadvantaged primary schools can be emmensely helpful in
the smooth running of the school. Especially in cases of learners with barriers to
learning and development, disciplinary problems or teacher-absenteeisms, parents
are great assets in the effective functioning of the school. Parental involvement in
school programmes also encourages schools to become more caring and supportive
towards diversity in education. In addition, schools can uplift the quality of education
for disadvantaged learners, produce better results, attract more families and gain
increasing support from the wider school community. As a result, schools have the
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capacity to develop sound communication and relationships amongst all stakeholders
in education. This research, via Figure 6.3, symbolises a footprint for future school-
home-community partnership within South African schools.
Figure 6.3: A footprint for future school-home-community partnership
Source: Soulhope (n.d.)
Transformation in education, IE, encourages all teachers, parents, and learners to
stand together and take a giant leap into untapped avenues to ensure the future
development of disasvantaged learners in South Africa. These learners are in
desperate need of support and largely depend on their parents, teachers, and school
communities for assistance. It is inevitable that mistakes will be made during this
journey, but greater rewards await those schools that overcome their barriers and
seek to promote quality EFA. A step of faith is ultimately necessary for change in
disadvantaged primary schools – which embodies transformational leaders, problem-
solvers, and life-long learners. There is no fixed recipe in managing diversity, but as
stakeholders in education, parents and teachers are equally responsible for the future
success of disadvantaged learners, and society at large. In acknowledgement of the
limitations of this case study with ten participants and one specific school in the
Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole, I suggest the following.
6.6 POSSIBLE TOPICS FOR FUTURE RESEARCH
It is extremely important for disadvantaged primary schools in South Africa to
implement functional parental involvement programmes to advance an inclusive
learning environment. I staunchly believe that the success to an IE system is vested
in future research in the continuous professional training of teachers and parents in
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association with IE; the establishment of centres for learning communities; and the
development of community-based PIPs.
6.7 RECOMMENDATIONS FOR DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY SCHOOLS
In consideration of the challenges experienced in this qualitative singular case study,
I now recommend some key factors in support of effective home-school-community
partnership for disadvantaged primary schools in South Africa.
It is foremost essential for school governance or SGBs to consult their respective
members, namely, parents, teachers and non-teaching staff regarding a common
vision, school ethos and culture that celebrates diversity. Many parents and learners
often originated from different backgrounds and it is important for schools to
acknowledge and accept their uniqueness. Due to this social learning environment
schools are also motivated to build sound communication and relationships with
stakeholders via effective means of engagement, namely, newsletters, flyers, phone
calls, ClassDojos, Facebook and some freely available applications relevant to their
needs.
Conflict within any relationship or institution is unavoidable and it is pivotal for schools
to be pro-active concerning effective mediation programmes or conflict resolution
programmes for stakeholders. For instance, one of the recommendations made by a
participant involved a suggestion box for parents where they can voice their concerns
regarding school life. In addition, the establishment of a resource centre for parents
is proposed so that parents, especially the working-class, are better able to keep track
of the trends in education.
To maintain a high level of education to disadvantaged learners I view it as necessary
to lower teacher-learner ratios and to employ permanent TAs in classes such as
Afrikaans, English, and Mathematics – which are the foundation of teaching and
learning. The training of collaborative teams or learning communities in conjunction
with specialists in management structures at schools are also encouraged to enhance
transformational leadership. Hence, for disadvantaged primary schools to remain
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relevant and effective they ought to be consistent in their learning and set reasonable
goals for themselves.
6.8 SUMMARY
The implementation of an inclusive education system within South African schools
has changed the status of parents in the education of their children. Opposed to
Apartheid, parents are now seen as major stakeholders in school governance and are
encouraged to promote quality educational opportunities for all learners (DoE,
1996b:11; 2000c:29; 2001b:29; 2008:23; 2009:17; 2014b:27; n.d.:6). In meeting the
diverse needs of learners, it is thus essential for parents to liaise and collaborate with
internal and external structures within the school community. This community-based
intervention hugely supports the work of teachers and is envisaged as a convenient
and cost-effective way to maintain the quality of education for disadvantaged learners.
Furthermore, Stofile and Green (2007:63) link parental involvement to the positive
learning outcomes of children and motivate their active participation in school life.
The goal of this investigation was to actively engage parents in the design of a suitable
PIP for learners at one of the disadvantaged primary school in the Nelson Mandela
Bay Metropole. A single case study was conducted with 10 parents by means of
purposive sampling. These parents represented diversity within the school community
and actively engaged in a qualitative study that comprised of two cycles of PAR. Data
was generated via action learning sets, individual interviews and observations to
triangulate and fill in possible gaps. Throughout the design of a PIP, data was sorted,
sifted and categorised through a process of inductive participatory data analysis, as
explained by Patton (2015:216 & 551).
Three main themes with sub-themes emerged from the research, namely, (1) deficits
of the academic programme, (2) the neglect of social wellness programmes and (3)
voids in communication and relationships. All these themes and sub-themes
successfully answered the research questions. I conclude this study with a quote of
Nelson Mandela, namely:
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APPENDIX A: ETHICAL CLEARANCE FROM NMU
• PO Box 77000 • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Port Elizabeth • 6031 • South Africa • www.nmmu.ac.za
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
Tel. +27 (0)41 504 4568 Fax. +27 (0)41 504 1986
29 May 2017 Ms P Williams / Prof JL Geldenhuys Education Faculty NMMU Dear Ms Williams
Designing a parental support programme at disadvantaged primary schools within the Nelson
Mandela Bay Metropole
Your above-entitled application for ethics approval was approved by the Faculty Research, Technology
and Innovation Committee of Education (ERTIC) on 4 April 2017.
We take pleasure in informing you that the application was approved by the Committee.
The ethics clearance reference number is H17-EDU-ERE-004.
We wish you well with the project. Please inform your co-investigators of the outcome and convey our
best wishes.
Yours sincerely
Ms J Hay
Secretary: ERTIC
243
APPENDIX B1: REQUEST TO THE DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATION
TO CONDUCT RESEARCH
• PO Box 77000 • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Port Elizabeth • 6031 • South Africa • www.nmmu.ac.za
Tel. 041 5832551
Cell 0835686668
3 June 2016
Mrs. J. Grobler
The Acting District Director
Department of Education
Private Bag X3915
6056
Dear Mrs. Grobler
REQUEST FOR PERMISSION TO CONDUCT RESEARCH AT A PRIMARY SCHOOL
My name is Pearl Williams, and I am a registered PhD (in Education) student at the Nelson Mandela Metropolitan
University in Port Elizabeth. The research I wish to conduct for this doctoral dissertation involves “The
implementation of parental support teams at a disadvantage primary school within the Nelson Mandela
Metropolitan.” This project will be conducted under the supervision of Professor J.L. Geldenhuys (NMMU).
I am hereby seeking your consent to interview members of the School Governing Body (SGB), the Institutional-
level support team (SBST), the quality learning and teaching campaign (QLTC) as well as some additional
teachers at one of the primary schools to gain their support in the implementation of a parental support model in
order to increase learner morale and quality education for all. The school that is envisaged for the inquiry is School
X where I am currently appointed in a permanent post level 1 position.
Upon completion of the study, I undertake to provide the Department of Education with a bound copy of the full
research report. If you require any further information, please do not hesitate to contact me on 0835686668,
0866416259 (fax) or [email protected]. Thank you for your time and consideration in this matter.
Yours sincerely,
Pearl Williams
______________
Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
244
APPENDIX B2: CONSENT FROM THE DEPARTMENT OF
EDUCATION
245
APPENDIX C1: REQUEST TO THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL TO
CONDUCT RESEARCH
• PO Box 77000 • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Port Elizabeth • 6031 • South Africa • www.nmmu.ac.za
Cell 0835686668 [email protected]
7 March 2017
Dear Sir
PERMISSION TO CONDUCT A RESEARCH PROJECT AT YOUR SCHOOL: DESIGNING
A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME AT DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY
SCHOOLS WITHIN THE NELSON MANDELA BAY METROPOLE
My name is Pearl Williams, and I am a PhD student at the Nelson Mandela University (NMU).
I am conducting research on a Parental Involvement Programme (PIP) for learners who are
at-risk in their education under the supervision of Professor J.L. Geldenhuys. The Department
of Education has given approval to approach your school, School X, for my research. I invite
you to consider taking part in this research. This study will meet the requirements of the
Research Ethics Committee (Human) of the NMU.
The research aims to:
▪ Identify the needs of learners who are at-risk in their education;
▪ Identify the roles and responsibilities of parents in relation to educational support;
▪ Identify educational support programmes that disadvantaged primary schools can
embark on to increase learner performance.
The following are possible benefits for the school and learners:
▪ A safe, caring and healthy learning environment will be established;
▪ The morale of teachers will be lifted;
▪ Parental involvement in school life will improve;
▪ Learners at-risk will receive individual assistance;
▪ More learners will be motivated to do their schoolwork;
▪ The discipline and pass rate will improve.
246
To conduct this study, I need the support of parents in the school governing body (SGB) and
the institutional-level support team (SBST) as well as other parent volunteers. Parents will be
invited to actively engage in the design of a PIP at the school by means of individual and
group interviews or discussions. All these discussions will be recorded to secure the accurate
account of events and individual journals kept capturing personal experiences which will
greatly add to sustain the programme. Workshops will further be arranged with the wider
community to empower participants adequately regarding a PIP, and towards the end of the
inquiry they will also be asked to implement the programme at the school.
Permission will be sought from the parents prior to their participation in the research and only
those who consent will participate. The completion of the process will take approximately
three months and will be done by August 2017 or later.
All information collected will be treated in strictest confidence and neither the school nor the
participants will be identifiable in any reports that are written. Participants may withdraw from
the study at any time without penalty. The study poses no risks to the parents, the learners
or the school, but rather aims to support all stakeholders.
Once I have received your consent to approach parents to participate in the study, I will
▪ arrange for informed consent to be obtained from parents;
▪ arrange a time with your school for data collection to take place;
▪ obtain informed consent from participants.
Attached for your information are copies of the Parent Information and Consent Form as well
as approval from the Department of Education. A summary report of the findings will be made
available to the participants and the school. If you would like any further information or are
unclear about anything, please feel free to contact me via e-mail: [email protected]
or telephonically at 0835686668.
If you would like your school to participate in this research, please complete and return the
attached form.
Thank you very much for your cooperation in this matter.
Yours in Education
Pearl Williams (Researcher) Professor J.L. Geldenhuys (Supervisor)
…………………………….. ………………………………
247
APPENDIX C2: CONSENT FROM THE SCHOOL PRINCIPAL
Cell 0835686668 [email protected]
7 March 2017
DESIGNING A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME AT DISADVANTAGED
PRIMARY SCHOOLS WITHIN THE NELSON MANDELA BAY METROPOLE
I …………………………………, principal of School X, give consent to
……………………………………. to approach parents in the school governing body (SGB),
institutional-level support team (SBST) as well as parent volunteers at the school to
participate in “Designing a parental involvement programme at a disadvantaged primary
school within the Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole.”
I have read the Project Information Statement explaining the purpose of the research project
and understand that:
• The role of the school is voluntary;
• Parents in the SGB, SBST and other volunteers at the school will be invited to
participate and that permission will be sought from them;
• Only parents who consent will participate in the project;
• All information obtained will be treated in strictest confidence;
• The parents’ names will not be used or identifiable in any written reports about the
study;
• The school will not be identifiable in any written reports about the study;
• Participants may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty;
• The study poses no risks to the parents, the learners or the school;
• A report of the findings will be made available to the school.
I may seek further information on the project from Pearl Williams on 0835686668.
__________________________ ___________________________
Principal Signature
__________________________
Date
• PO Box 77000 • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Port Elizabeth • 6031 • South Africa • www.nmmu.ac.za
248
APPENDIX D1: INVITATION TO PARENTS TO PARTICIPATE IN THE
STUDY
• • PO Box 77000 • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Port Elizabeth • 6031 • South Africa • www.nmmu.ac.za
Cell 0835686668
7 March 2017
Dear Parent
DESIGNING A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME AT DISADVANTAGED
PRIMARY SCHOOLS WITHIN THE NELSON MANDELA BAY METROPOLE
My name is Pearl Williams and I am currently studying towards a PhD degree at the
Nelson Mandela University. As part of the requirements of the degree, I am required
to complete a research dissertation. My study aims to engage parents in the design
of a Parental Involvement Programme (PIP) at one of the disadvantaged primary
schools in aid of learners who are at-risk in their education.
This investigation will commence in June 2017 and be done during September 2017
or later at School X. Though, for the study to be a success, I need the support of
parents in the school governing body (SGB), the institutional-level support team
(SBST) as well as parent volunteers to participate in the study at the school. Active
parental involvement and participation in the design of the PIP will be encouraged for
the duration of the study which will add richly to quality education for all, especially
learners who are at-risk at the school.
Firstly, as participants you will have the opportunity to voice your thoughts on possible
educational support programmes for learners who are at-risk in their education.
Furthermore, you will be empowered to implement and sustain a PIP at your child’s
school which will be beneficial to all stakeholders.
249
Secondly, learners who are at-risk in their education will benefit largely from the
investigation since the PIP is directed at addressing their diverse needs. For example,
learners will develop better self-esteem, be more motivated, self-disciplined, achieve
better grades, attendance and make healthier career choices.
Thirdly, the school will be a more caring, safe and healthy learning environment which
caters for diversity. Better working-relationships, partnerships as well as community
support will develop to increase learner performance.
Lastly, the investigation can be of great significance to the community since the
learners reside in this area. Self-reliant, responsible and competent learners will
positively influence their community and help to uplift it. Therefore, this investigation
can be a life-changing experience to all stakeholders in the school community.
The study poses no risks to you, the learners or the school and under no
circumstances will any identity be revealed in any discussion, description or scientific
publications. Confidentiality and anonymity will be maintained throughout the inquiry
and codes used for your protection.
Your participation is completely voluntary, and you have the right to withdraw yourself
from the research at any stage. As a participant, no pressure will be placed on you
and neither is there any cost involved in your participation.
If requested, a summary of the findings will be made available to you. For further
information and clarity about anything, please feel free to contact me via e-mail:
[email protected] or 0835686668.
Your cooperation and participation are valued and appreciated.
Kind regards
Pearl Williams (Researcher)
…………………………….
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APPENDIX D2: CONSENT FROM PARENTS
Cell 0835686668
7 March 2017
DESIGNING A PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMME AT DISADVANTAGED
PRIMARY SCHOOLS WITHIN THE NELSON MANDELA BAY METROPOLE
I ………………………………………………………………, give consent to participate in
“Designing a parental involvement programme at disadvantaged primary schools within the
Nelson Mandela Bay Metropole.”
I have read the Project Information Statement explaining the purpose of the research project
and understand that:
• My role in the study is voluntary;
• Parents in the SGB, SBST and other volunteers at the school will be invited to
participate in the inquiry;
• Only parents who consent will participate in the project;
• All information obtained will be treated in strictest confidence;
• The parents’ names will not be used or identifiable in any written reports about the
study;
• The school will not be identifiable in any written reports about the study;
• I may withdraw from the study at any time without penalty;
• The study poses no risks to me, the learners or the school;
• A report of the findings will be made available to me.
I may seek further information on the project from Pearl Williams on 0835686668.
__________________________ ___________________________
Parent Signature
__________________________
Date
• PO Box 77000 • Nelson Mandela Metropolitan University
• Port Elizabeth • 6031 • South Africa • www.nmmu.ac.za
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APPENDIX E1: INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW SCHEDULE
In your view describe the ideal school environment.
Volgens jou mening beskryf die ideale skoolomgewing.
How do you currently experience school life?
Hoe ondervind jy huidiglik skoollewe?
What is your role and responsibility regarding the education of learners?
Wat is u rol en verantwoordelikheid ten opsigte van leerders se opvoeding?
Do you have any challenges in fulfilling your duty? Please explain.
Het u enige uitdagings om u plig uit te voer? Verduidelik asseblief.
Many learners are at-risk in their education. In your opinion, what do these learners
need in order to be successful?
Baie leerling word bedreig in hul opvoeding. In u mening, wat benodig hierdie
leerlinge om suksesvol te wees?
Is there anything that disturbs learners’ learning experience that could harm their
holistic development? Please motivate.
Is daar enigiets wat hierdie leerlinge se leer ondervinding strem en hulle
holistiese ontwikkeling benadeel? Motiveer.
According to the SIAS document, parents need to be involved in the SBST. Please
explain your role in supporting learners at-risk as you understand it.
Volgens die SIAS document moet ouers betrokke wees by die SBST.
Verduidelik asseblief u rol ten opsigte van leerders wie bedreig word in hul
opvoeding soos u dit verstaan.
Describe ways to make teaching and learning more accessible to learners who are
at-risk in their education.
Beskryf maniere om die leer-en onderrig proses meer bereikbaar te maak vir
leerlinge wie se opvoeding bedreig word.
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Is there anything that you would like to add regarding possible educational support
programmes for learners who are at-risk in their education?
Is daar enigiets wat u graag wil byvoeg i.v.m. moontlike opvoedkundige
programme vir leerders wie se opvoeding bedreig word?
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APPENDIX E2: TRANSCRIBED INDIVIDUAL INTERVIEW
Volgens jou mening beskryf die ideale skoolomgewing.
Ek sê daar moet altyd ‘n goeie opvoeding wees. Vir my is dit net dit hang af van die
kind af. Hoe jou optrede teenoor daardie onderwyser is en daardie sekuriteit. Daar
moet goeie verhoudinge wees tussen almal: ouers, onderwysers en kinders.
Hoe ondervind jy huidiglik skoollewe?
Om eerlik waar te sê soos ek sê lyk dit nie asof die kinders enige verhouding wil hê
met die onderwysers. Hulle luister nie eers na ons nie. Om eerlik waar te sê die ouers
is te baie. Ons word partymaal geroep vir. Kyk maar daardie dag met daardie outjies
buite. Ons was gesê om die hekke toe te maak en al die kinders moet agter uitgaan.
Toe kom skel die ouers ons van die lelikste uit. Ons sê ons beskerm die kinders. Hulle
sien die jongens maar doen niks. Hulle dink ons is die sektors van die area. Hulle
weet nie ons is die sektors van die skool nie. Daar is groot kommunikasie probleme.
Ons leier moet vergadering hou met die ouers en sê wat is ons se doel by die skool,
nie die area nie. Daar moet beter verhoudinge en samewerking wees.
1. Wat is u rol en verantwoordelikheid ten opsigte van leerders se
opvoeding?
Ek is ‘n sektor ek kyk na die veiligheid van die skool. Ons was vir training. Ons
moet altyd ‘n tweede opinie het met die kinders. Altyd iemand saam met jou
het en dan moet daardie een saam met jou daardie kind se saak hanteer. Hou
die kind agter. Kry altyd die hoof se toestemming. Jy kan nie oor hom gaan
nie. Vra kan jy dit of dat doen.
2. Het u enige uitdagings om u plig na te kom? Verduidelik asseblief.
Alles gaan nie eintlik soos jy eintlik verwag nie. Partykeer dink jy goed gaan so
uitwerk dan is dit nou nie so nie.Toesig hou in die klasse is ‘n uitdaging. As ons
nou in die middae by die hekke moet wees kan dit ‘n problem wees. Somtyds
vra die Mnr X, ons leier, om toesig te hou by die kontrak werkers, om te watch
daar. Dan is daar niemand by die hek nie. Dan is dit nou ‘n op en af vir hom.
Dan moet hy weer daar gaan sit want eintlik is hy ook mos oor die kontrak
mense hier by die skool. Die veiligheid van hulle. Van ons moet daar einlik
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rêrig altyd een is daar by die hek want hy is ook een wat baie besig is. Die
meeste van die kinders luister vir my ek kan nou nie praat van die ander sektors
nie. Hulle weet ek weet hoe om met hulle te praat. Hulle weet hoe om met my
te praat.
3. Baie leerling word bedreig in hul opvoeding. In u mening, wat benodig
hierdie leerlinge om suksesvol te wees?
Dit hang eintlik van ‘n ouer af by die huis. Om eerlik waar te sê ‘n ouer moet
altyd kyk in daardie kind se boeke is die kind se werk gedoen. Jy moet altyd
toesig hou oor die kind. Is daardie aandag gee aan die kind. Die kind moet
eintlik daardie soort liefde kry dat die kind daardie aanmoediging het en dan
lus het om sy skoolwerk te doen. En al daardie tipe dinge. Dit gaan ook nie
eintlik oor die omstandighede van die ouer nie. Jy moet altyd vir jou ouer wys
wat jy van jou lewe kan maak.
4. Is daar enigiets wat hierdie leerlinge se leer ondervinding strem en hulle
holistiese ontwikkeling benadeel? Motiveer.
Om eerlik waar te sê ek sien nie dat daar ‘n verhouding met ‘n ma en ‘n kind
is nie. Die meeste gevalle is wat ek al hier leer ken het. Om eerlik waar te sê
as ek hulle geselskap hoor. Partymaal staan ek so dan lyk dit hulle vat nie
notice nie. Dan leen ek my ore altyd uit en dan hoor ek hulle gesels wat doen
hulle. Hulle gee nie die kinders daardie spesiale aandag nie, veral nie
weekends. Nou luister ek Maandae hoe hulle hulle geniet het. Somtyds vrae
ek vir myself waar was die kinders. Om eerlik waar te sê ek het al baie kinders
hier opgelet. Party kinders is baie onnet. Hulle skoolkleertjies is nie skoon nie.
Die ouers doen niks omtrent dit nie. Dit het te doen met die omgewing waar
hulle grootword. Daar is n moral val in die familie.
5. Volgens die SIAS document moet ouers betrokke wees by die SBST.
Verduidelik asseblief u rol ten opsigte van leerders wie bedreig word in
hul opvoeding soos u dit verstaan.
Ek weet nou nie. Ek ken daardie kinders wat met hulle hande werk.
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6. Beskryf maniere om die leer-en onderrig proses meer bereikbaar te maak
vir leerlinge wie se opvoeding bedreig word.
Jy kry mos mense wat die kinders help, professional soos social workers. Maar
om eerlik waar te sê dit is hoe ‘n kind eintlik met daardie een, die social worker
wat hom help werk. As jy vir daardie een sê jy het ’n problem, dan sal daardie
een wat jou wil help nie weet waarteen help jy daardie kind nie. Maar dit hang
af as jy wil praat oor dit. Jy kry mos daardie extra-klasse. Is daar nie sulke goed
hier nie? Vir kinders wat stadig is en nie hulle werk ken nie. Soos lees-lesse.
By daardie ander skool doen hulle dit. Die ouers kan gebruik word om te help.
7. Is daar enigiets wat u graag wil byvoeg i.v.m. moontlike opvoedkundige
programme vir leerders wie se opvoeding bedreig word?
Ek kan nie nou dink nie.
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APPENDIX F1: ACTION LEARNING SET SCHEDULE
1. An inclusive education system (school environment).
2. The roles and responsibilities of parents in the education of their children.
3. Learners with special educational needs/at-risk (absenteeism; support
structures).
4. Educational support programmes (intervention).
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APPENDIX F2: TRANSCRIBED ACTION LEARNING SET
1. Inclusive education (school environment)
Wat ek self ondervind het met kinders wat hier skoolloop is die ouers is nie streng
genoeg met die kinders nie. Hulle wil net die kinders slaan. Ek weet, want ek het
dit altyd gedoen. As die kind sê hy gaan nie skooltoe nie dan wys ek hulle hoe
maak ek. Ek vind nooit uit wat is die rede wat daardie kind nie wil skooltoe gaan
nie. Met die gevolg is, nou wat ek nou hier is toe vra ek vir hulle: Wat was destyds
die probleem? Toe sê hulle: Noudat ma hier is. Toe vra ek: Wat maak ek dan? Ek
is mos nie julle ouma by die skool nie. Hier is ek ‘n sektor. Ek is nie vir julle hier
nie. Toe sê ek: Julle toets my by die huis. Ek sê as ‘n ouer nie streng is nie dan
kom sê die kind by die huis: Juffrou doen dit, juffrou doen dat. Daardie ouers kom
vind nie uit exactly wat hier gebeur nie. Dinsdag het daardie geval met my ook
gebeur. ‘n Kind wat liederlik met my gepraat het. Toe wil sy pa kom om my te kom
approach en op daardie oomblik toe is ek by die boonste hek. Ek weet toe nie. Dis
maar net hoe ‘n kind, by die skool kry hy die opvoeding en by die huis kry hy daardie
opvoeding. Die ouers dink dis die onderwysers van die skool dan doen hulle net
die teenoorgestelde ding. Die ouers volg nie op die werk wat ‘n onderwyser in
daardie kind sit nie. Daar is ‘n lack of…Daar is nie rêrig iets daarin wat die juffrou
se werk ligter maak nie.
Dis samewerking. Die kind ondervind peer-pressure, want ‘n kind word miskien reg
opgevoed by die huis en dan kom hy by die skool…Jou vriende, jy voel jy gaan
nou uit voel as ek ook nou nie dit doen nie. Dan vind jy uit die kind kom by die huis
en dan kan die ouer nie verstaan nie. Die kind is dan nie so by die huis nie. Die
kind bank, die kind doen die, die kind doen daardie, die kind het nie homework nie.
Dan is dit peer-pressure. Ek dink daardie is groot.
In die 5 jaar dat ek hier is, kan ek sê dis peer-pressure. Is regtigwaar ‘n probleem.
Ek ondervind dit. Destyds as ‘n kind ‘n problem het, gaan die onderwyser na die
huis toe of na die welfare. Dan gaan hulle na die huis toe en vind uit wat is die
probleem. In die begin het die vorige hoof ons baie toegelaat om na die kind se
huis toe te gaan. Ons kom by die huis en die kind is aangetrek vir skool, maar dan
is die ouer in ‘n toestand. Die ouer is gepop, die ouer is dronk, die ouer is op
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buttons. Hulle is net nie bekommerd oor die kinders nie. Nou baie kinders voel hulle
wil skooltoe kom, maar nou is die klere nie lekker nie. Dis vuil en nou kom hulle
halfpad en dan sê die tjommies: Kyk hoe lyk jy. Dan draai die kind om. Nou kom
ons by daardie kind se huis en dan vind ons uit die ouer is in ‘n toestand. Die ouer
het nie ‘n saak aan met die kind wat by die huis is nie. Hulle worry nie. Hulle support
nie die kinders. Nou kry hulle die druk by die skool, want die kind wil graag by die
skool wees. Dis nie net binne-in die klas nie, maar ook op die skoolvelde buite wat
hulle vir die kind terg. Hulle maak die kind uit en somtyds het ek maar so gemaak
en gesê hulle moet hier by my kom sit onder die boom. Nou kom Mnr Y en juffrou
Y dan jag hulle die kinders weg. Ek moet nou explain ek hou die kind hier vir ‘n
rede. Ek hou die kinders uit die moeilikheid uit omdat ek nie wil hê hulle name moet
in die swart boekie in die kantoor is nie. Nou word die storie verdraai. Dis altyd die
kind wie onder druk is wie se naam daar beland. Die ander kinders, die
skoorsoeker, se naam kom nooit daar nie. Nou is hulle high en mighty en jy dink
die ander een is maar so person. Jy gaan altyd hoor hulle sê hy is maar so person.
Ek dink nie so nie. Hy probeer homself help en omdat jy sê hy is daardie person
nou wil hy dit doen.
I just want to add also teacher-student relationships. In the community there is
definitely poverty, alcohol abuse, drug abuse, al daardie goed. Teachers don’t take
that into consideration. Hoekom het die kind behavioural problems? Get to the root
of the problem. Waaroor gaan dit? Praat met die kind. Ek weet jare gelede
het…programme…speak-out sessions deur die dag gehad waar hulle op die mat
sit en you get to speak. So het baie dinge uitgekom in baie van die kinders se lewe.
Die een meisie het uitgekom dat sy verkrag was. So ek voel teacher-student
relationship plays a big role…dis amazing. ‘n Teacher wat elke dag sê wat maak
jou so spesiaal. I think my child is special. Hy is spesiaal vir my. You are the teacher
and you play a bigger role perhaps. Jy spandeer meer tyd met daardie kind as ek.
Vind uit hoekom is die kind so. Why is he having behavioural problems? Why is he
ill-disciplined? Hoekom is die kind so onnet? Wat gaan aan? It’s important to build
a relationship with that child because you can’t always blame the parent. Ek vat dit
van myself af. Try this and this and that. Dan gaan ek dit van haar af vat. So, die
teacher moet daardie verhouding met die kind het asook met die ouer. Then the
parent can intervene.
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Die laaste kind wat skool gelos het, ek het nog met daardie kind onderhandel. Dan
vat ek hom eenkant toe. Hy was so diep in die drugs, die verkoop van dit, maar hy
het so groot respek vir my gehad as ek met hom praat oor dit wat hy doen. Ons
het by hom huis gekom en sy ma het uit soos ‘n kers gelê. Maar sy moet skooltoe
kom, want Mnr X wil haar sien. Sy sê net ek kom nou. Gaan na jou die-se-daai….
Ek wil jou nie meer hê nie. Hy sê vir haar: My ma jy is dan my ma jy moet lief wees
vir my. Moenie my na my pa toe stuur nie. Ek moet na jou kyk. My trane het so
geloop vir daardie kind se onthalwe. Ek het met hom onderhandel en hy het
skoolgeloop. As hulle so met hom baklei of so uitgetart het, dan kom hy na my toe.
Dan sê ek kom sit hier ons gaan nou daardie sakie gaan regmaak. Maar wat het
hom hier uit die skool uit? Dit was vir my baie hartseer. Is ‘n onderwyser wat vir
hom sê: Jy is maar ‘n gangster. You will be nothing else. Hy het uit die klas
gehardloop. Ek het by die hek gestaan en die kleintjies was al uit. Hy kom na
daardie hek toe en ek vra: Waarheen gaan jy? Hy kom praat oor wat die
onderwyser gesê het en ek sê moenie dat die onderwyser jou ontstel nie. Jy het
God in jou hart. Jy weet mos wat het die Here op jou hart gelê. Die wat jy gedoen
het, is mos nie oor jy wil vashou verewig nie. Dis mos maar net omdat jy voel jy het
geld nodig. Maar dit gaan ook mos verbygaan. Ek sê vir hom: Uit die slegste kom
die beste en uit die beste kom die slegste. Daardie kind is by daardie hek uit en
het nooit weer terug gekom nie. Dit was vir my ‘n laagtepunt, want ek het nie
verwag iemand gaan so blatant vir hom sê: Jy is maar ‘n gangster. Blykbaar was
dit ‘n joke, maar dit was toe nie ‘n joke nie. Dis as gevolg van iets wat iemand vir
hom in die klas gesê het en toe sê hy vir die een: Jy gaan sien wat maak ek met
jou. Hy het nie opgestaan uit van sy plek nie. Dis toe die onderwyser daardie
remark gepass het, wat hom weggejaag het tot nou toe.
Weer eens: Daar is ‘n lack of communication, because we don’t know.
Communication is inconsistent.
Ek sien social workers hier maar ek weet ook nie. Het julle kennis gedra van dit?
Because our communication is so weak parents have the authority om “raroe” in
the kom. Daar word nie ge-communicate nie. Ek dink it was last week Monday toe
is hier heeldag ouers wie se kinders seergekry het by die skool. Ek glo nie die
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ouers was laat weet nie. ‘n Meisie se been is op 3 plekke gebreek. Daar was geen
kommunikasie van die skool se kant at met daai ouer nie. Daar is nog ‘n dame, ek
dink haar kind is in graad 1, iemand het die kind van die stoep afgestoot. Die oog
is blou en toegeswel. Niemand het daardie ouer laat weet nie. Daardie kind was
geen medical care gegee nie.
As die kantoor kennis dra, dis wat ek van weet, van ‘n kind wat seergekry het of
enigiets soos daardie. Wat ek weet, juffrou Z doen: Sy kry die kind se ouer se
besonderhede. Hier het nou een van die prefekte geval by die netbalveld. Mev X
was nie hier nie en ek het maar daardie kind versien. Ek het maar skoongemaak
want toe vat Mnr Y die kind huistoe met Mnr X se kar. Ek sê vir Mnr X sy is in graad
7, maar sy ken nie eers haar ouers se foonnommers nie. Net om daardie kind by
die hospital te kry, want defnitief sy het stitches ge-need. Toe raas juffrou Z met
Mnr X, want sy sê defnitief al baie lank al vra sy daardie surgical strips. As jy die
strips het jy sit nou net oor hy trek die wond toe. Jy need nie stitch nie. So ek dra
nie…As die kind miskien die ding aangemeld het by die kantoor sou die kantoor
kennis gedra het. Nou moet jy ook onthou somtyds gaan die kinder suit by die hek
met daardie seer. Hulle kom sê nie. So, hoe moet die kantoor kennis dra?
Gaan daardie teacher dan nie oplet…Jou oog was nie voor pouse so nie, wat gaan
aan?
Ja, maar nou verstaan jy, die kind en die onderwyser somehow het nie kom
aanmeld by die kantoor nie, want dit is defnitief wat ek weet. As ‘n kind ‘n gevalletjie
kry, het juffrou Z geskakel vir daardie ouer om te sê sy kind het seergekry of sy tik
‘n brief.
Die twee instances het die ouers spesifiek kantoor toe gekom because hulle was
nie ge-contact nie en ek weet die een juffrou was baie, baie woedend vir juffrou Y.
Al wat juffrou Y kon doen, was apologise. Ek weet nou nie wat die discussion was
nie, maar dit gaan nie oor wie doen wat nie, wie het ‘n rol gespeel in die ding nie.
Dit gaan oor communication.
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Die ander probleem is…wat is ook baie belangrik is né: Somtyds ons tjop en
change mos fone. Ons change mos ons sim-cards ook van tyd tot tyd. Die kinders
se inligting hier by die skool is nie altyd, word nie altyd ge-upgrade nie. Baie van
ons ouers is ook mos nie rêrig eerlik om te sê hoekom like ons nie rêrig ons
besonderhede gee altyd vir die skool nie. Verstaan jy. Jy gaan nou in ‘n file ingaan.
Jou kind is nou al van graad R af hier. Jou inligting lê hier, maar away the line het
dit ge-change. Nou probeer die skool daardie nommer en hulle kom nêrens nie.
2. The roles and responsibilities of parents in the education of their children
In baie opsigte, soms wil dit vir my voorkom asof baie van die kinders wat ons mee
deel elke dag, hulle ouers gee nie om hoe hulle vorendag kom na die skool toe nie.
As jy na hulle kyk op ‘n Maandag dan is daar sekere kinders, dit kom nou al ‘n
geruime tyd aan, wat jy kan sien die kind se hempie is nie gewas nie. Die kind
is…Ek kyk nou die ander dag kom Mnr X na my toe, juffrou Y was by my, en nou
vra Mnr X: Ek wil nie die kind embarrass nie om met haar te gesels nie. Julle is nou
darem dames wil julle nie met haar gesels nie. Nou stuur Mnr X haar af en
onmiddellik let ek haar naels op. Ek en juffrou Y kyk na mekaar, want haar
oorskulp…. Sy is 15 jaar oud en sy is ‘n meisiekind. Haar hemp se kraag is nie
netjies nie. Hy is nie net vuil nie en jy kan sien dit was nie die vorige week gewas
nie. So somtyds is dit nie net dat die kind moet opgevoed word nie, maar die ouer
ook. Dit is so moeilik want nou hoe kry jy daardie ouer na die tafel toe. Baie van
die ouers stel nie belang nie eers belang nie om te kom.
Daardie ouers stel rêrig nie belang nie en die meeste in graad 3 en 4 kry jy daai
kinders.
Dis daar dat die kinders mekaar afbreek want die een mind die ander een en dan
baklei hulle as gevolg van dit.
Op ‘n ander keer toe sit ek by juffrou Z en daardie kind daar se naels is netjies,
rond en geveil. Jou naels groei mos nie rond nie man. Sy is in graad 2 en haar
naels is so lank. Maar nou is dit vuil. Nou sê die juffrou… Nou raas ek met haar en
sê as sy môre weer met daardie naels kom gaan ek dit self knip. Nou dink ek nou
ek raas met haar voor die klas. Ek embarrass nou eintlik die kind, maar nou kom
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ek en sê vir haar: Weet jy wat is die doel van hande was? Waarom ons kinders
leer om hande te was? Ek sê: Sien jy onder jou naels? Jou naels is is lank. Die
vullis sit onder jou naels en dit is kieme. Môre-oormôre weet ons nie waarvanaf
raak jy siek nie. Jy eet met daardie hande. Daardie kieme wat onder jou naels is
gaan in, jy neem dit in. Ek verduidelik toe vir haar in dit. Ek het toe nooit opgedaag
om te kyk of sy haar naels geknip het of so nie, want ons bly mos maar gejaag hier
by die skool. Maar defnitief netheid moet van ons ouers se kant af kom, want ons
moet ‘n kind in daardie proses mos voorsien. Hoe daardie kind uitgaan by die deur.
In my beroep dink ek spesifiek aan die veiligheid van die kinders. Hoe om met die
kinders te werk. Kinders wat aangeval word – om ‘n kind te diskrimineer. Hier by
ons kry die kinders nie… by die huis daardie opvoeding nie. Hulle kom in die straat
en hulle weet nie altyd wat hulle ouers somtyds sê nie. Somtyds sê jou ma: Jy mind
nie ‘n ander kind nie jy weet nie hoe lyk hy nie. Maar tog as jy by die skool kom,
dan wil die een doen wat die ander doen. Ons sê opleiding is ons moet altyd daar
is vir die kinders. As die kinders mekaar afkraak moet jy daar wees vir die kind. As
ek ‘n kind kry wat uitgesit is, sê ek haal ‘n boek uit en leer. Jy gaan lees hier buite.
Klank al wil jy nie leer nie. Jy moet die kind so motivate dat daar nie so baie issues
kan wees nie. Ons praat die heel tyd, maar dit moet vir die kind iets goed uitbring
aan die einde van die dag. En kinders wat lief is om te bank, ons moet weet hoe
om met hulle te handel want die kinders hou nie van ‘n onderwyser en wil nie in
daardie klas ingaan nie. Of, daar is iemand in die klas wie hulle nou nie lekker is
mee nie. Nou die meeste van die tyd bank die kinders op die skoolgronde en dan
moet mens weet hoe om met hulle te handel. Met so kind kan jy nie net onbeskof
wees nie. Ons het opleiding van hoe kinders ander kinders intimideer. Hoe om met
hulle te werk en hoe om die tekens te lees. Op die oog af kan dit miskien lyk daardie
kind is stout, maar as jy met daardie kind man-to-man gesels dan gaan jy die
oorsaak kry waarom daardie kind so houding het. Ek hoor die ander dag ‘n vrou
sê: Die skool soek net geld. As ek hoor is dit ‘n raffle. As ek hoor is dit is dit ‘n ding.
Ek sê: Dame, toe jy skoolgegaan het. As jy kan terug dink. Jou ma het jou mos nie
verneder nie. As jou raffle by die huis kom, dan het jy van door-to-door gegaan.
Daardie tyd toe kan jy, as jy nie door-to-door gegaan het nie, het jou ma dit
volgemaak. Ek sê: Nou wil julle altyd vir die skool se julle kry grant. Weet jy hoe
verneder jy daardie kind om nie daardie raffle te betaal nie? Voor die klas verneder.
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Ondersteun jou kind in elke opsig. Die ouers is baie onkundig. Deesdae se ouers
dink alles gaan net oor geld. Hulle besef nie hulle kraak hulle eie kinders af nie.
Hulle is die oorsaak dat hulle kinders dinge doen op skool of agteruit gaan en nie
lekker leer nie. Hulle wil nie hulle samewerking gee nie. Jy kan nie sê ‘n raffle is so
duur nie. Dis nie elke dag dat die skool iets vra nie. Elke keer as die skool iets vra
dan moan jy oor die bietjie, maar jy vergeet jou kind is die een wat in daardie klas
sit. Wie langs ‘n ander kind sit wie se ma dit betaal en nou, jou kind voel verneder.
Nou terg die kinders mekaar. Die een het ‘n bietjie beter sê as die ander ene. Daar
was die ander dag ‘n mammie hier. Hulle is baie lief om haar kind af te kraak. En
dan praat ek met hulle en hulle maak op. Dan kom sy weer en sê hulle het haar
gemind. Die ma was by die onderwyser. Ek was so bly, want vir my het ek geweet
die kind gaan nou ophou daardie kind ‘n slegte naam gee. Haar ma dink sy is ‘n
engeltjie, maar sy het slegte maniere. Sy wil in die crowd wees. Dis daardie crowd
goed wat hulle het – ek wil in die bondel wees, maar vergeet ons maak die ander
seer.
Lack of communication tussen ouers en skool. Om net by te voeg: Die ouer sê dit
en daardie ouer sê dit. Ons kan maar luister daar by die hek as ons die kinders
uitvat. Die een sê dit en die een sê dat, maar niemand kom by die skool die regte
ding uitvind. Hulle wil van die mond-koerante buite informasie hê en dan maak
hulle hulle eie opsommings. Hulle weet nie rêrig wat by die skool aangaan nie,
want ek het vir een mammie gesê: Een dag, kom kyk ‘n bietjie een dag na die 40
kinders hier by graad R, dan sal julle voel hoe voel dit. Kom net een dag, want as
die mammies so baie te sê het van hoekom kom julle nou eers. Vrydag was dit ook
‘n storie gewees oor die magic-show nou so laat begin het. Ons het maar net stil
gebly. Hulle het obviously geweet daar gaan ‘n show wees. Die ouer sê: Nou
hoekom het julle dit nie vroeër gehou nie? En die een sê dit en daardie een dit.
Daar is ‘n groot lack tussen die ouers en die skool. Daar word nie beter gehandel
met wanneer dit kom by informasie oor enigiets wat gaan gebeur nie. So daaraan
moet daar ook bietjie meer gewerk word, want nou gaan ek na die een en daardie
een en sê vir daardie een – so gaan dit aan. Op die einde van die dag kry dit nog
stertjies by. Die storie is nou nie meer soos ek gesê het nie. Nou nog iets bygekry.
So, daardie is ‘n groot probleem.
264
Participate in the child’s life and school. Jy moet ‘n actice parent wees in jou kind
se lewe, in ‘n next kind se lewe en ook in die skool. Soos discipline en all avenues
3. Learners with special educational needs/at-risk (support structures)
Ek was daar by skool X. Die kind het ‘n problem, want hy kan nie leer nie. Toe wil
die ander kind hom help. Toe wil die juffrou nie hê nie. Toe het hulle ‘n meeting
gehou gister saam met Mnr X. Toe sê daardie vrou gisteraand, sy het tot by my
gekom, party breek die kinders af. Die kind wil hom help, maar sy wil nie hê die
kind moet hom help nie. In baie gevalle is dit rêrig so. Ek sien dit baie kere.
Dit is tog goed dat die kinders mekaar onderskraag. Om mekaar in te hak, want
aan die einde van die dag raak dit ‘n gewoonte. Jy groei op met dit. Jy is gewoond
vir iemand omgee. Aan die einde van die dag is dit nie net een wat help nie, maar
‘n ketting wat mekaar help.
En so sal hulle baie verbeter.
Maar ook as die skool meer teachers kan kry. Ek vat dit nou van hierdie area se
skole. Een teacher het 40 kinders en die kanse dat hy by elke kind gaan uitkom is?
Dis waar ons LSEN kind inkom, want daardie kind kry nie daardie aandag wat hy
nodig het nie. Die juffrou kan eenvoudig net nie by elkeen elke dag uitkom nie. Om
die klas te hanteer is teacher-assistants (TA) ‘n groot voordeel. Dit sal ook baie
help met dissipline in haar klas. Ek dink elke klas moet ‘n TA het. By die groter
klasse, graad 4 en op, moet daar 1 of 2 is.
Ons het dit gehad, maar toe was dit nooit goedgekeur nie.
Ons was vir 2 maande hier, maar…
Maar toe was die projek nog aan die go met die organisasie. Toe dit mos nie
goedgekeur word nie en niemand voel mos altyd om te volunteer nie. Dit is toe nou
waar die projek platgeval het. Maar die tipe kind wat ons het…wat ons gehad het
en wat ons nou het, is anders en hemelsbreed. Somtyds is dit so frustrerend né.
Ons is nou hier by die skool en nou kom ons neighbours na die skool toe in daardie
265
onbeskoftheid. Ek kan onthou…ek sê altyd: As jy na die skool toe gaan, gaan met
‘n goeie gemoedsrus. Weens die feit ons gaan onbeskof. Die kinders…Dan het
ons die vermetelheid om voor die klas rou te wil wees met die onderwysers. Nou
wat sê dit vir my kind? Ek is rou met die juffrou. Wat sê dit vir die klas? Die kind vat
daardie atmosfeer wat jy gebruik en hulle bespreek nou vir my. Op die einde van
die dag like jy nou nie dat my ouer bespreek word nou nie. Dis hoekom dit baie
belangrik is dat ons as ouers, as ons ‘n approach het na die skool toe, ons moet
nugter dink. Ek sê altyd in die geval van Mev. Z wat juffrou Z kom slaan het. Sy bly
daarbo toe haar kind haar gaan haal het by die huis. Sy kom deur die bos vuur en
vlam. Ek dink altyd hoe gaan ek die saak hanteer. Jy koel mos nou af. Maar nee,
aan die einde van die dag was Mev Z opgesluit. Sy het ‘n babatjie gehad en hulle
het haar soontoe gestuur, want toe is die ander tronk besig om te re-vamp. So, dis
belangrik dat ons as ouers weet hoe om die skool te approach en die onderwysers
te respekteer. Nou het ons kinders ook nie respek vir die onderwysers nie, want
die kinders praat tale wat jy daar buitekant moet hoor. Nie wat hierdie skool moet
weet nie. Wat so die hartseerste is, is ons tekort aan onderwysers. Nou kom die
mense in en ons maak gebruik van hulle. Ek het vir Mev Y gesê: Jy kry daardie
bedrag om te pop. Jy moet Stilpain met dit koop want as jy weggaan van daardie
klas af, sit jy met ‘n kopseer. Nou vra jy jouself af: Jy as ouer sit met dit. Hoe voel
die onderwyser aan die einde van die dag? My kind sien nou daar vat die
onderwyser ‘n pilletjie en mȏre kom skinder hulle daar by die huis. Ons as ouers,
dan gesels ons oor dit, want dan sê ons my kind sê die juffrou het ‘n pil gevat. Die
juffrou pop haar in skooltyd in. Ons gaan nou nie na die juffrou toe om uit te vind
nie. Ek praat maar met jou en jou en netnou bespreek ons die juffrou. Die hele
skool is sommer nou in daardie pot, want almal kyk hulle sommer nou. Ons maak
ons eie afleidings en dis hoekom die skool nie kan regkom nie, want die
onderwysers is gepop. Maar ons wil nie aandeel hê aan die saak dat ons nie reg
kommunikeer nie. Ons wil nie die saak reg benader nie. Baie mense wil ons die
blame gee wanneer ons kinders uitdrop uit die skool uit, maar ons ondersoek nie
onsself om te sê: Ek het aandeel aan my kind se failure nie. Rêrig, baie keer moet
ons as ouers net onsself ondersoek om te vra as my kind ge-fail het, waar het ek
ge-fail?
266
Wat dit so erg maak hier is die ouers. Hulle kom onbeskof hieraan. Hulle gaan na
die kantoor toe. Wat my so hartseer maak, is dat Mnr X roep nie die onderwysers
in nie en gesels…Daardie ouers lê so kliphard daar uit. Hulle is vol storms. Mnr X
roep nie die onderwyser in en dat die ding ge-settle word hier nie. Hy wag dat die
ouer loop nou roep hy die onderwyser in en dan het hy ‘n ander weergawe van
vroeër met die ouer. Hy glo in die ouer. Dit het ek mos ondervind. Die juffrouens
voel ook hulle word onderdruk. Hulle kan nie hulle werk reg doen nie, want hulle
word ook nie ondersteun nie. Die ouer word ondersteun, maar die juffrou wie onder
hom werk se rede waarom sy dit gedoen het, word nie ingesien nie. Dit maak ook
dat die juffrou nie lekker met die kinders in die klas werk nie, want die juffrou is net
so onder druk en sy wil dit nie graag weet nie.
Ek weet nie. Ek het nogal gedink die dametjie wat ons nou gebruik help met die
LSEN. Ek het gedink sy sal vir ‘n mens ‘n breër picture gee. Sy werk mos nou one-
to-one met die kinders. All over waar daar ‘n probleem is. Ek en juffrou Y was mos
na daardie workshop toe by die DoE. Dit moet nie net ‘n spesifieke leerprobleem
wees nie, wat ‘n kind moet het, wat sy mee moet werk nie. Sy doen dit mos met
die supervisor. Hulle werk met Park Drive.
4. Educational support programmes (intervention)
Ek sal so sê: Ons wat hier by die skool is, sal weet daar is baie ouers of
buitestaanders wat nie weet van hierdie kinders nie. Hoe gaan ‘n buitestaander
identifiseer dit is ‘n kind met ‘n probleem? Die kind mag normal act outside, maar
hoe act die kind in die skool? As ‘n mens …as ek jou nie ken nie, gaan ek nie weet
nie. Hoe gaan jy identifiseer dit is kinders met ‘n gebrek, wat drugs gebruik? Ek
kan verby jou loop dan weet ek nie jy is die grootste gangster nie. Jy moet eers
kan identifiseer. En dan kan jy kyk hoe gaan jy dit hanteer. ‘n Mens kan nie vuur
met vuur hanteer nie. Daardie kind kom so met baie aggressiveness en daar is
baie kinders wat baie aggressive is. Baie op die skool.
We had training for reading-support. We first look at the background of the
problem-child. Then you get the child to trust you. If you get the child to trust you
then the child can open-up and you can take it from there. Sometimes the child
267
can’t read because of background problems. If we can solve those problems, we
can teach a child to read.
Baie ouers wil nie verniet kom werk nie. Hulle sê die geld is te min en skool X
betaal meer. As daar ouers kom, sal hulle net vir ‘n dag kom en nie weer nie. Dis
wat gebeur het.
Ouers wat liefde gee. As jy daardie liefde gee, dan gaan jy sien wat gebeur. As ek
in ‘n klas gekom het, stel ek myself voor. Hulle ken my maar ek stel myself weer
voor. Ek kom sê vir hulle wat gaan ek vandag doen of ek gesels met hulle oor die
regsaspekte van die land. Dan ook die regsaspekte wat die skool het. Hoe die
skool kan optree teenoor hulle ouers as hulle onbeskof is. Ek gesels met die
kinders oor baie aspekte of somtyds as ek uitvind jy wil my dit of dat vertel. As ek
weer toesig hou dan speel ons mind-games. Ek prober dat die kinders mekaar nie
onderdruk nie. Ons noem dit groep-kamp. Jy kyk kan jy ‘n word spel. Ek sê
niemand is reg nie. Almal is verkeerd. So ons almal kan die regte antwoord op die
regte tyd gee. As ons daardie liefde vir ons kinders gee dan gaan ons ‘n sukses
van dit maak. My kinders is klaar met skool. Ek kom help die kinders. Die bietjie
wat jy ontvang, wees dankbaar vir dit. Moenie inhaling wees nie. Vra die Here om
die bietjie wat jy ontvang, te seёn sodat dit self vermeerder. As jy wil meer hê, ek
wil nie compete nie want die ander skool gee soveel. Toe ons hier kom, toe weet
ons nie van skool X se mense wat so baie kry, ‘n maand pay nie. Dis dieselfde
mense van ons. Dit het nie ons afgebreek nie. Vir nul, vir geen sent het ons elke
dag, reen, wind, son en hael, omdat ons ambisie het. Omdat dit in ons harte lê om
die kinders van die area te wil help. Nie van skool net nie. Ek self het nie kinders
by die skool nie. Hier was baie ouers wat my ge-challenge het. Baie wat onbeskof
was. Ek is mos ‘n ander mens. Daardie klein dingetjies wat jy ontbreek, sit ek by.
As jy moet kyk né, somtyds vra ek myself af hoe doen ander skole dit. In onse
aspek voel ek eintlik skaam vir myself want ek sit op daardie body en ons betaal
die sektore so min vir ons veilgheid. Ek is al 15 jaar hier by die skool en nogtans
ons raak mekaar so gewoond dan het ons nie meer respek vir mekaar nie. Daardie
one-on-one respek. Hy verloor sy waarde.
268
Mnr Y is tans besig met ‘n program, remedial dink ek, vir elke klas. Die remedial
het nog nie begin nie.
Die remedial sluit aan by die reading. Toe voel Mnr X mos omdat hulle ons so baie
uithelp. Dis mos hoekom hy julle 4 gestuur het op daardie workshop, want hy meen
julle is nou hier. Die onderwysers weet mos van dit né? So, hulle is die ouers wat
ons mos aanhelp elke dag. ‘n Mens kan net ‘n phone call maak dan sien jy hier
kom Mev Z se wieletjies al aan.
We enjoy it at the school. Dit gaan nie oor die geld nie. Net die feit dat ek met die
kinders werk.
Jy moet die kinders geniet anders sal jy dit nooit maak nie.
Die program gaan rêrig ‘n baie groot verandering maak.
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APPENDIX G: SUMMARY OF FIELD-NOTES AND REFLECTIVE
JOURNAL INSCRIPTIONS
1. INTRODUCTION: Purpose of gathering?
▪ PIP
▪ Support learners with who are at-risk in their education, learners with
barriers to learning and development
▪ Support school
WHY?
▪ Collapse of dream school
▪ Conflicting values and norms
▪ The school environment is unsafe and unhealthy
▪ Poor interpersonal relationships amongst teachers, parents and
learners
▪ Neglect of disadvantaged learners
2. VISION: The ideal school environment
▪ To include parents actively in the education of their children
▪ To embrace a safe and healthy school environment with the assistance
of parents
▪ Working together towards the goal of quality education for all
3. MISSION:
▪ To encourage good working relationships amongst school management
and parents
▪ To draw on parents’ existing skills, knowledge and experience
▪ To empower, train and mentor parents effectively in school programmes
▪ To liaise with experts in the broader school community in order to
sustain a safe and healthy school environment
4. PARENTAL INVOLVEMENT PROGRAMMES:
A. EXISTING
▪ Policing sectors**
270
▪ Feeding Scheme**
▪ QLTC – teacher-assistants (TA), invigilation in classrooms in the
absence of teachers *
▪ Learner-support-agent (LSA) soul buddies (Life Skills; parenting);
welfare/social worker; nurse, psychologists **
▪ Other health programmes, e.g. nurses from the local clinic**
B. PARENTS IDENTIFIED
▪ Safety measures**
▪ Parenting guidance
▪ Professionals: counselling, welfare, health
▪ Clothing bank **
▪ Reading-assistance*
▪ Homework-support programme *
▪ Teacher-assistants (TAs) *
▪ Co-curriculum (extra-murals): sport, culture, entrepreneurship ***
▪ Library programme *
▪ Gardening: soup kitchen (feeding scheme) **
▪ Remedial classes *
▪ Professional speakers/experts in the field
▪ Communication in Xhosa, Afrikaans and English
5. GAPS AT THE DISADVANTAGED PRIMARY SCHOOL:
As the policing sector and the feeding scheme were established at the
school, the following activities were added to the possible design of a PIP:
▪ More inclusive academic programmes (QLTC) *
▪ Welfare/Health/Safety **
▪ Second-hand clothing bank ***
▪ Extra-mural activities: entrepreneurship (craft) ****
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APPENDIX H1: CYCLE 1: EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME
1. Homework-support programme *
2. Teacher-assistants (TAs) *
3. Library programme *
4. Remedial classes *
5. Woodwork, arts, needlework, technology*
6. Parenting skills
7. Professionals – counselling, health, speakers for workshops, talks during
assembly
8. Second-hand clothing ***
9. Informal curriculum (extra-murals) – sport, culture, entrepreneurship ***
10. Gardening – soup kitchen (feeding scheme) **
11. Safety measures**
12. Communication in Xhosa, Afrikaans and English
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APPENDIX H2: CYCLE 2: EDUCATIONAL SUPPORT PROGRAMME
1. Communication skills amongst teachers, parents and learners.
2. Quality learning and teaching, practical curriculum.
3. Emotional well-being/Health/Safety/Appearance.
4. Professionals.
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APPENDIX I: QUESTIONNAIRE TO PARENTS IN THE SCHOOL
COMMUNITY
Dear Parent/Guardian
Please assist us with a survey to determine the kind of educational support your
child/children need in order to improve their development. Write down the
programmes that you would like to be implemented at school.
1. …………………………………………………………………………………………
2. …………………………………………………………………………………………
3. …………………………………………………………………………………………
4. …………………………………………………………………………………………
5. …………………………………………………………………………………………
6. …………………………………………………………………………………………
Indicate below whether you can assist the school in the education of your
child/children. Please tick off (√) and return the slip
YES, I can support learners
NO, I am unable to support learners
Name: …………………………………………………………………………………………
Address………………………………………………………………………………………..
Contact Details: ………………………………………………………………………………
Your cooperation is appreciated.
Thanking you.
Parent
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