Depositional systems, composition and geochemistry of Triassic rifted-continental margin redbeds of the Internal Rif Chain, Morocco

Depositional systems, composition and geochemistry of Triassicrifted-continental margin redbeds of the Internal Rif Chain,Morocco

MOHAMED NAJIB ZAGHLOUL*, SALVATORE CRITELLI� , FRANCESCO PERRI� ,GIOVANNI MONGELLI� , VINCENZO PERRONE§, MAURIZIO SONNINO� , MAURICETUCKER– , MARIANGELA AIELLO� and CATERINA VENTIMIGLIA�*Departement de Sciences de la Terre et d’Oceanologie de l’Universite ‘‘Abdel Maleek Essaadi’’ deTanger, Tangier, Morocco�Dipartimento di Scienze della Terra, Universita degli Studi della Calabria, 87036 Arcavacata di Rende(CS), Italy (E-mail: [email protected])�Dipartimento di Chimica, Universita degli Studi della Basilicata, Campus di Macchia Romana, 85100Potenza, Italy§Dipartimento di Scienze Geologiche e Tecnologie Chimiche e Ambientali, Universita ‘‘Carlo Bo’’ diUrbino, localita Crocicchia, 61029 Urbino, Italy–Department of Earth Sciences, Durham University, Durham DH1 3LE, England

Associate Editor: Dave Mallinson

ABSTRACT

The Middle to Upper Triassic redbeds at the base of the Ghomaride and

Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Nappes in the Rifian sector of the Maghrebian Chain

have been studied for their sedimentological, petrographic, mineralogical and

chemical features. Redbeds lie unconformably on a Variscan low-grade

metamorphic basement in a 300 m thick, upward fining and thinning

megasequence. Successions are composed of predominantly fluvial red

sandstones, with many intercalations of quartzose conglomerates in the

lower part that pass upwards into fine-grained micaceous siltstones and

massive mudstones, with some carbonate and evaporite beds. This suite of

sediments suggests that palaeoenvironments evolved from mostly arenaceous

alluvial systems (Middle Triassic) to muddy flood and coastal plain deposits.

The successions are characterized by local carbonate and evaporite episodes in

the Late Triassic. The growth of carbonate platforms is related to the increasing

subsidence (Norian-Rhaetian) during the break-up of Pangea and the earliest

stages of the Western Tethys opening. Carbonate platforms became widespread

in the Sinemurian. Sandstones are quartzose to quartzolithic in composition,

testifying a recycled orogenic provenance from low-grade Palaeozoic

metasedimentary rocks. Palaeoweathering indices (Chemical Index of

Alteration, Chemical Index of Weathering and Plagioclase Index of

Alteration) suggest both a K-enrichment during the burial history and a

source area that experienced intense weathering and recycling processes.

These processes were favoured by seasonal climatic alternations, characterized

by hot, episodically humid conditions with a prolonged dry season. These

climatic alternations produced illitization of silicate minerals, iron oxidation

and quartz-rich red sediments in alluvial systems. The estimated burial

temperature for the continental redbeds is in the range of 100 to 160 �C with

lithostatic/tectonic loading of ca 4 to 6 km. These redbeds can be considered as

regional petrofacies that mark the onset of the continental rift valley stage in

the Western Pangea (Middle Triassic) before the opening of the western part of

Sedimentology (2010) 57, 312–350 doi: 10.1111/j.1365-3091.2009.01080.x

312 � 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2009 International Association of Sedimentologists

Tethys in the Middle Jurassic. The studied redbeds and the coeval redbeds of

many Alpine successions (Betic, Tellian and Apenninic orogens) show a quite

similar history; they identify a Mesomediterranean continental block

originating from the break-up of Pangea, which then played an important

role in the post-Triassic evolution of the Western Mediterranean region.

Keywords Continental redbeds, depositional systems, Maghrebian Chain,Middle to Late Triassic, Morocco, palaeoweathering, provenance, recycling.

INTRODUCTION

Triassic-Hettangian siliciclastic redbeds occur atthe base of the Alpine orogenic cycle in manynappes of the Apenninic, Maghrebian and BeticChains. These terrains, associated with thinlithosomes of shallow-marine carbonate facies(Aubouin et al., 1980), have been considered tobe similar to the well-known successions of theTuscan Verrucano (Rau & Tongiorgi, 1974; Mar-tini et al., 1986). These latter deposits areconsidered to be the result of an aborted riftingfrom the early Middle Triassic (Cassinis et al.,1979), marked by alkaline volcanism. The red-beds pass upwards into carbonate platformsediments, which highlight the beginning of

marine sedimentation in the Alpine WesternMediterranean Chains (Fig. 1).

Recent studies (Bonardi et al., 2004; Perroneet al., 2006) provided evidence that the distinctionbetween the metamorphic Verrucano successionsand the unmetamorphosed Pseudoverrucano suc-cessions, previously pointed out in Tuscany, arerecognizable throughout all the cited chains, fromthe Apennines to the Betic Cordillera. This dis-tinction has a palaeogeographic and geodynamicsignificance at the Western Mediterranean scale.Both Verrucano-type and Pseudoverrucano-typesuccessions developed during the continentalrifting stage of Pangea, at the edges of a futuremicroplate (Mesomediterranean Microplate;Guerrera et al., 1993; Critelli et al., 2008). This

Fig. 1. Geological sketch map of the Alpine Chains in the Central-Western Mediterranean Region (after Perroneet al., 2006).

Triassic redbeds of Rifian Chain, Morocco 313

� 2009 The Authors. Journal compilation � 2009 International Association of Sedimentologists, Sedimentology, 57, 312–350

microplate lies between the Europe, Africa andAdria-Apulia plates. However, these successionsare characterized by a different tectono-metamor-phic evolution. Pseudoverrucano-like deposits aredevoid of Alpine metamorphism and characterizethe highest nappes of the tectonic stack, over-thrusting nappes bearing Verrucano-like deposits.The latter show an Alpine tectono-metamorphichistory marked by intense deformation and HP/LTmetamorphism during the Miocene and a subse-quent retrograde phase. In the Rifian Maghrebides,Verrucano-type and Pseudoverrucano-type suc-cessions are recognizable within the InternalDomains, the Upper Sebtide and the Ghomaride–‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Nappes, respectively (Fig. 2A).

This paper highlights the results of the sedi-mentological, petrographic and geochemicalstudy on the Pseudoverrucano-type redbed suc-cessions of the Ghomaride and ‘Dorsale Calcaire’Nappes. The Verrucano-type successions, char-acterizing the Upper Sebtide Nappes, are notdiscussed, because these nappes, as the corre-latable nappes of the Apennines and BeticCordillera, underwent polyphasic Alpinemetamorphism, related to subduction-exhuma-tion processes (Michard et al., 1983; Bou-ybaouene, 1993; Zaghloul, 1994; Chalouan et al.,1995; Bouybaouene & Goffe, 2003; Perrone et al.,2006).

THE RIFIAN CHAIN

In the entire Maghrebian Chain, nappes origi-nated from three main domains (Internal, FlyschBasin and External Domains) which are alsorecognizable in the Rif Chain (Fig. 1). TheExternal Nappes consist of Triassic Germano-Andalusian facies successions, followed byLower Jurassic to Tertiary mainly pelagicmarly-calcareous formations, deposited on theAfrican margin. The Flysch Basin Nappes, thruston the External Nappes, include Upper Jurassicto middle Miocene pelagic and turbiditic suc-cessions. The latter were deposited on theoceanic substratum of a branch of the Tethys,which opened between the African Margin andthe Mesomediterranean Microplate (Guerreraet al., 1993, 2005; Bonardi et al., 2001; Michardet al., 2002; Perrone et al., 2006). This micro-plate was the area from which the InternalNappes originated. These nappes, forming thehighest tectonic complexes of the Rifian nappestack, are composed of both Pre-Alpine base-ments and Meso-Cenozoic sedimentary covers;

the latter were commonly detached from theirmetamorphic basements.

The Internal Nappes of the Rifian Chain con-stitute, from bottom to top (Fig. 2A and B), threesuperimposed structural complexes: named theSebtide, ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ and Ghomaride Com-plexes, respectively (Fallot, 1937; Didon et al.,1973; Suter, 1980). The Sebtide Complex isaffected by a strong polyphasic Alpine metamor-phism. This metamorphic overprint is absent orpoorly developed in the ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ andGhomaride Nappes.

In the ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Complex, nappes orig-inating from two zones (External and Internal‘Dorsale Calcaire’; Fig. 2B) have been distin-guished (Wildi et al., 1977; Wildi, 1979, 1983;Nold et al., 1981). The External ‘Dorsale Calcaire’Nappes lack both Palaeozoic basement and Tri-assic redbeds. Stratigraphic successions startwith very thick Triassic Alpine facies carbonaterocks, evidencing a strong subsidence rate, espe-cially during the Late Triassic to Early Jurassic.The Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Nappes are char-acterized by Meso-Cenozoic successions showinga tectono-sedimentary evolution similar to that ofthe Ghomaride Nappes (Fig. 3), into which the‘Dorsale Calcaire’ realm passed laterally (Griffon,1966; Maate, 1984, 1996; Maate & Martın-Algarra,1992). The main differences are a reduced thick-ness and more distal facies in the Triassic redbedsand a thicker development of the Upper Triassicto Lower Jurassic shallow-marine carbonate rocksin the Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Nappes (Fig. 3).However, Palaeozoic basement and Triassic red-beds occur only in the El Babat Nappe; every-where else, the Alpine cover is detached at thebase of the platform carbonates following theTriassic redbeds.

The Ghomaride Complex is organized into fournappes, structurally superposed during late Oli-gocene to earliest Miocene times (Martın-Algarraet al., 2000) and, from base to top, these are theAakaili, Beni Hozmar, Koudiat Tiziane andTalambote Nappes, respectively (Chalouan,1986; Azzouz, 1992; Fig. 2A and B). All thesenappes are made up of an unmetamorphosed orslightly metamorphosed pre-Alpine basement,deformed by the Hercynian orogenesis (Michard& Chalouan, 1978; Chalouan, 1986; Chalouan &Michard, 1990) and consisting of Palaeozoicslates, phyllites, metarenites and metalime-stones, ranging in age from Ordovician to Car-boniferous; the uppermost beds are representedby Mid-Carboniferous sandstones and conglo-merates of Culm facies (Durand Delga, 1963;

314 M. N. Zaghloul et al.


Baudelot et al., 1984; Chalouan, 1986, 1987). Thebasement supports a thin Alpine Meso-Cenozoiccover (Fig. 3), severely reduced by erosion. Here,

redbeds are followed by undated dolomites andthen Lower Jurassic, shallow-marine, white mas-sive limestones, only a few tens of metres thick

A

B

Fig. 2. (A) Geological sketch map of the Rifian Internal Complexes (after Suter, 1980). (B) Representative geologicalcross-sections of the Rifian Chain along the studied sections.



(Maate, 1984, 1996; El Hatimi, 1991; El Kadiri,1991; Maate et al., 1991). This shallow-marineplatform underwent break-up, tilting and karsti-fication during the Pliensbachian opening of theMesomediterranean seaways, followed by deposi-tion of Pliensbachian to Middle Jurassic(?) con-densed pelagic successions and Palaeogeneshallow-water limestones. The sedimentary cover

is capped by upper Oligocene to Aquitanianclastic and marly rocks (Figs 3 and 4). Finally,the entire nappe stack originating from thedeformation of the Internal Domain is coveredby unconformable Burdigalian clastic deposits,preserved in a few small outcrops (Ben Yaichet al., 1986; Feinberg et al., 1990; Maate et al.,1995).

Fig. 3. General stratigraphicsections showing the Alpine coverof the Ghomaride and ‘DorsaleCalcaire’ El Babat Nappes (afterMaate, 1996; modified).



PSEUDOVERRUCANO REDBEDS OF THESALADILLA FORMATION

The literature improperly considered Pseudo-verrucano-type reddish Triassic sediments as‘Verrucano facies’ (Fallot, 1937; Milliard, 1959).The Pseudoverrucano-type sediments occur at thebase of the Alpine cover of both the Ghomarideand El Babat Nappes. Martın-Algarra et al. (1995)and Maate (1996) grouped the Pseudoverrucano-type sediments into the Saladilla Formation. Thisdefinition has been used previously in theMalaguide Complex of the Betic Cordillera (Soed-iono, 1971; Roep, 1972) for Triassic redbeds quitesimilar to those of the Ghomaride and El BabatNappes. Sedimentological, volcanic and synsedi-mentary tectonic features of the redbeds showevidence of Middle to Late Triassic extension,related to early Alpine rifting (Chalouan, 1985;Ricou et al., 1986; Ouazani-Touhami, 1994; Mar-tın-Algarra et al., 1995), in spite of the successivebrittle–ductile compressive and extensionaldeformation (Chalouan et al., 1995).

In the Ghomaride Nappes, the stratigraphicsuccession of the Saladilla Formation consists of

dominantly red, locally orange to yellow, silici-clastic conglomerates and red–pink quartz-richsandstones and siltstones. Locally, violet to greenmudstones are abundant, whereas dolomites andsome sub-volcanic mafic rocks occur rarely.These mafic sub-volcanic rocks were studied byKornprobst (1974) near Ceuta in the Playa Benitezsection. The succession usually starts withcoarse-grained quartzose conglomerates withlow-angle cross-bedding (Fig. 3), passing intosandstones with some channellized conglo-meratic lenses alternating with mudstones.Cross-bedded sandstones pass upwards intofine-grained, parallel-laminated sandstones andred–violet clays. The succession continues withLadinian (?) grey-yellow, thin-bedded dolomites,up to 20 m thick. These dolomites pass intoyellow–orange mudstones, with thin sandstone,conglomerate and gypsum layers. In the upper-most portions, dolomite beds (cargneules), asso-ciated with thin dark clay layers dated as lateCarnian (Maate et al., 1993; Martın-Algarra et al.,1995) are interbedded with sandstone and con-glomerate. Dolomites are micritic with localfenestral porosity and microbial lamination, and

Fig. 4. Correlation and chronostratigraphic diagram illustrating the nappes and formations recognized at each of thestudied areas and their ages.



conglomerates contain small carbonate clasts.The successions continue with massive dolomiteand interbedded dolomite–limestone. Palaeocur-rent analysis shows that terrigenous clastics werederived from upland source areas located in theeastern and north-eastern Ghomaride Domain(Martın-Algarra et al., 1995; Maate, 1996).

The Triassic redbeds are only present at thebase of the El Babat Nappe, representing theinnermost Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Nappe(Wildi et al., 1977; Wildi, 1979, 1983; Nold et al.,1981). In this nappe, redbed successions of theSaladilla Formation are up to 200 m thick. Red-beds show finer-grained and more distal faciesthan those of the Ghomaride Nappes (Maate,1996; Fig. 3), where mudstones and siltstonesdominate. The tops of successions are character-ized by conglomerates with well-rounded clastsof both white vein quartz and Rhaetian oolitic–bioclastic limestone bearing Triasina hantkeni.These strata form prominent beds, often seen nearTetouan and also in the Betic Cordillera (Martın-Algarra et al., 1995).

Biostratigraphic data of the studied succes-sions are very scarce. ‘Permo-Werfenian’ toMiddle Triassic ages were assigned to bothGhomaride and ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ redbeds (Fal-lot, 1937; Milliard, 1959; Nold et al., 1981).However, Baudelot et al. (1984) presented thefirst reliable data for these sequences indicatinga late Anisian to early Ladinian age. Baudelotet al. (1984), Maate et al. (1993) and Martın-Algarra et al. (1995) have reported: (i) lateAnisian, early Ladinian and late Carnian pollenin the El Babat Nappe; (ii) late Carnian pollen inthe Ghomaride Nappes; and (iii) Rhaetian invo-lutinidae (Triasina and others) in the conglomer-ate clasts at the top of the El Babat Nappesuccession.

LITHOSTRATIGRAPHY AND FACIESDESCRIPTION

Six stratigraphic sections (Fig. 2A) have beenstudied in detail and some of them have beensampled for petrographic and geochemical anal-yses. Sections commonly show a strong deforma-tion due to many faults and thrust sheets(Fig. 2B). Three sections have been studied forthe Triassic redbeds of the Koudiat Tiziane (Aınel Jir and Zarka-Kitane) and Beni Hozmar (DarBou Youssef) Ghomaride Nappes, and three forthe ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ El Babat Nappe (Beni Salah,Jebel Tellouja A and B) (Figs 5 to 8). Table 1

summarizes the key description and faciesinterpretation of all lithofacies recognized in thestudied stratigraphic sections. The correlation/chronostratigraphic diagram (Fig. 4) displays thenappes and formations recognized at each of thesampled sites and their ages.

The redbed successions start with conglo-merates and coarse-grained sandstones, uncon-formably resting on Devonian and Carboniferousbedrock. Conglomerates and coarse sandstonesdo not crop out at the base of redbeds along theAın el Jir and Jebel Tellouja section. However,some metres of conglomerates crop out veryclose to these sections. Redbeds show thicknessvarying from 180 to 380 m, in the GhomarideNappes, and from ca 65 to 120 m in the ‘DorsaleCalcaire’ El Babat Nappe. Three to four units canbe distinguished in the studied sections (Figs 5to 8) and they have been organized into threemain facies associations.

Lower facies association (Cg1–Cg2–S2–F1–F2)

This facies association includes the lower units ofthe Dar Bou Youssef and Zarka-Kitane sectionsand the intermediate unit of the Aın el Jir section.These units show strong lateral variation inthickness from 30 to 150 m and start with thick-bedded conglomeratic and sandy lithofacies(Figs 5 to 7). Basal conglomerates (up to 5 mthick) usually are base scoured, lenticular, andmainly pebble-grade, clast-supported and/or ma-trix-supported. These conglomerates show nor-mal grading and crude stratifications (sub-faciesCg2a and Cg2b) and are associated with ungradedconglomerates (sub-facies Cg1a; Table 1). Someungraded and graded discontinuous pebbly sand-stone beds (sub-facies Cg1b and Cg2c, respectively)also occur. Also present are interbedded chaoticconglomerates and breccias with intraformationalclasts and graded matrix-supported conglomer-ates and micro-conglomerates (sub-facies Cg1c

and Cg2b, respectively). Coarse decimetre-thickgraded sandstone beds (sub-facies S2a) with par-allel bedding, climbing ripples and cross-lamina-tion (sub-facies S2a, S2b and S2f) are also present(Figs 5 to 7).

These coarse lithofacies evolve upward to athick alternation of mainly graded sandstones,granule-grade micro-conglomerates, gradedmatrix-supported pebbly sandstones (sub-faciesCg2b and Cg2c) and laminated silty and massivemudstones (sub-facies F2 and F1, respectively).Locally these lithofacies are associated with thin-bedded, fine to very fine-grained sandstones and



Fig. 5. Stratigraphic section of the Triassic redbeds of Koudiat Tiziane Nappe in the Aın el Jir area (base of the section:35�51¢22,50¢¢ N, 05�26¢7,45¢¢ W). ‘1a’: Conglomerate. ‘1b’: Coarse to very coarse-grained sandstone. ‘1c’: Fine to med-ium-grained sandstone. ‘2’: Mudstone. ‘3’: Stratified sandstone. ‘4’: Parallel lamination. ‘5’: Climbing ripples. ‘6’:Oblique stratification. ‘7’: Cross-lamination. ‘8’: Wavy lamination or sinusoidal ripple. ‘9’: Lenticular bedding. ‘10’:Normal grading. ‘11’: Reverse grading. ‘12’: Irregular base of bed. ‘13’: Clay chips. ‘14’: Sandstone sample. ‘15’: Mudstonesample. ‘16’: Facies and sub-facies. ‘17’: Syn-sedimentary fault. ‘18’: Thrust. ‘19’: Grain-size scale. ‘20’: Palaeocurrent.



coarse-grained siltstones, up to 5 m thick (sub-facies F3; Figs 5 to 7).

The vertical trend of the above cited coarse-grained and associated fine-grained lithofacies ismainly thinning and fining upwards. Thesedeposits are widespread commonly in alluvialand fluvial environments and could be inter-preted as channel-fill sequences, in which astrong lateral thickness variability is common(Miall, 1985, 1996; Blair & McPherson, 1999).

Intermediate facies association (S2–F1–F2–F3)

This facies association includes the lower part ofthe Aın el Jir and Beni Salah sections and theintermediate parts of the Dar Bou Youssef andZarka-Kitane sections. These units are 40 to187 m in thickness and mainly represented byan alternation of organized red sandstone stratal-sets, mudstone and siltstones (Figs 6 to 8). Thesand/mud ratio varies between 0Æ95 and 5Æ5 and

Fig. 6. Stratigraphic section of the Triassic redbeds of Beni Hozmar Nappe in the Dar Bou Youssef area (base of thesection: 35�33¢46,82¢¢ N, 05�19¢20,17¢¢ W). ‘1a’: Conglomerate. ‘1b’: Coarse to very coarse-grained sandstone. ‘1c’: Fineto medium-grained sandstone. ‘2’: Mudstone. ‘3’: Lava flows. ‘4’: Massive sandstones. ‘5’: Stratified sandstone. ‘6’:Climbing ripples. ‘7’: Oblique stratification. ‘8’: Cross-lamination. ‘9’: Wavy lamination or sinusoidal ripples. ‘10’:Parallel lamination. ‘11’: Normal grading. ‘12’: Reverse grading. ‘13’: Clay chips. ‘14’: Irregular base of bed. ‘15’:Scouring. ‘16’: Facies and sub-facies. ‘17’: Sandstone sample. ‘18’: Grain-size scale.



https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270168746_Grain-size_and_textural_classification_of_coarse_sedimentary_particles?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-594823bb-792c-4494-95d7-756cef8954ee&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIyOTUyMzQ5MjtBUzoxNTY4NDE5NDIyMDAzMjVAMTQxNDQwNTQ0MTczMQ==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/222062336_Architectural-Elements_Analysis_A_new_Method_of_Facies_Analysis_Applied_to_Fluvial_Deposits_Earth_Science_Reviews?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-594823bb-792c-4494-95d7-756cef8954ee&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIyOTUyMzQ5MjtBUzoxNTY4NDE5NDIyMDAzMjVAMTQxNDQwNTQ0MTczMQ==

Fig. 7. Stratigraphic section of the Triassic redbeds of Koudiat Tiziane Nappe in Zarka-Kitane area (base of thesection: 35�31¢48,48¢¢ N, 05�20¢45,59¢¢ W). ‘1a’: Conglomerate. ‘1b’: Coarse to very coarse-grained sandstone. ‘1c’: Fineto medium-grained sandstone. ‘2’: Mudstone. ‘3’: Massive sandstone. ‘4’: Stratified sandstone. ‘5’: Climbing ripples.‘6’: Oblique stratification. ‘7’: Cross-lamination. ‘8’: Wavy lamination or sinusoidal ripples. ‘9’: Parallel lamination.‘10’: Lenticular bedding. ‘11’: Normal grading. ‘12’: Reverse grading. ‘13’: Clay chips. ‘14’: Irregular base of bed. ‘15’:Scouring. ‘16’: Facies and sub-facies. ‘17’: Sandstone sample. ‘18’: Syn-sedimentary fault. ‘19’: Thrust. ‘20’: Grain-size scale.



usually decreases upwards. The vertical evolu-tion of sandstone–mudstone units is usually oneof thinning and fining upward.

This facies association starts with an alterna-tion of mudstone bundles and sandstone stratal-sets up to 5 m thick. The usual internal sedimen-

tary structures within these sandstones are grad-ing, oblique, cross and parallel laminae, planarcross-bedding, and wave-formed, sinusoidal andclimbing ripples (sub-facies S2a, S2d, S2e and S2f).Metre-thick pebbly sandstones (sub-facies Cg2c),and thick-bedded, graded and stratified, coarse to

Fig. 8. (A) Stratigraphic section of the Triassic redbeds of El Babat Nappe in the Beni Salah area (base of the section:35�32¢38,78¢¢ N, 05�21¢56,98¢¢ W). (B) Stratigraphic sections of the Triassic redbeds of El Babat Nappe in the JebelTallouja area (base of the section: 35�20¢49,92¢¢ N, 05�18¢45,64¢¢ W). ‘1a’: Conglomerate. ‘1b’: Coarse to very coarse-grained sandstone. ‘1c’: Fine to medium-grained sandstone. ‘2’: Mudstone. ‘3’: Vuggy dolomite. ‘4’: Norian?-Rhaetianstratified and laminated dolomite. ‘5’: Liassic massive limestone. ‘6’: Stratified sandstone. ‘7’: Parallel lamination. ‘8’:Oblique stratification. ‘9’: Lenticular bedding. ‘10’: Normal grading. ‘11’: Reverse grading. ‘12’: Scouring. ‘13’: Claychips. ‘14’: Irregular base of bed. ‘15’: Chaotic bed. ‘16’: Sandstone sample. ‘17’: Facies and sub-facies. ‘18’: Lack ofoutcrop. ‘19’: Grain-size scale. ‘20’: Palaeocurrent.



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medium-grained sandstone stratal-sets are builtby successive individual-graded sandstone beds(sub-facies S2a, S2b and S2c); these are capped byparallel laminae and locally by planar cross-bedding (sub-facies S2d); drift ripples (sub-faciesS2f) also occur (Fig. 6). Thin-bedded laminatedmudstones (sub-facies F2) and siltstones, alter-nating with thin-bedded, fine-grained sandstones(sub-facies F3), are interbedded with sandstone;they pass to gritty, reddish or greenish-red,massive and laminated mudstones, alternatingwith thin-bedded and fine-grained sandstones(sub-facies F1, F2 and F3; Figs 6 to 8). Some ofthese mudstones show greenish-coloured mottlesand calcite concretions (glaebules) which suggestperiods where evaporation exceeded precipita-tion (i.e. seasonally dry climates) and the forma-tion of calcrete soils (Wright & Tucker, 1991;Khadkikar et al., 2000; Bridge, 2003).

The intermediate facies association displaysvarious sub-facies of fine-grained organizedsandstones and mudstones, related to flood-plain, overbank and levee deposition. Thesesediments are interpreted as fluvial channel-filldeposits and related lateral fine sediments ofa fluvial system characterized by low-sinuosity,bedload-braided rivers (Rust, 1978; Allen, 1981;Ramos & Sopena, 1983; Miall, 1992, 1996;Collinson, 1996).

Upper facies association (F1–F2–F3–S1–S2–Pf1–Pf2)

This facies association includes the upper unitsof the Aın el Jir, Dar Bou Youssef and Zarka-Kitane sections, the third and fourth units of theBeni Salah section and the whole Jebel Telloujasection. It ranges in thickness from 24 to 155 m(Figs 5 to 8). The main lithofacies are fine-

grained, represented by massive and laminatedsandy mudstones and siltstone beds (sub-faciesF1 and F2), associated with stratified, graded orrarely massive sandstone stratal-sets (mainlysub-facies S2; Figs 5 to 8); their internal struc-tures are normal grading, parallel laminae, sinu-soidal ripples and cross-laminae (sub-facies S2e

and S2f). Decimetre-thick to metre-thick, sheet-like massive sandstones (sub-facies S1a), termedSMSU according to the nomenclature of Martin& Turner (1998), also occur (Fig. 7). Green andyellow–red sandstones (gres mouchetes) and rareintercalations of thin-bedded vuggy dolomites(cargneules) occur upwards within mudstones,in the Beni Salah and Jebel Tellouja sections;they pass to thin-bedded dolomites, alternatingwith fine-grained sandstones (sub-facies F, Pf1

and Pf2). The vuggy dolomites are probably theresult of dissolution of gypsum and provideevidence for the evaporitic conditions in thecontinental areas, where the fine red–greenmuds and silts were deposited. The overlyingsandstone–dolomite alternations probably reflectthe transition from an environment of flood-plain clastics to one of intertidal platformcarbonates. The latter is indicated by laminateddolomites probably of microbial origin (Wright& Burchette, 1996). These facies, characterizedby repetitive sandstone–dolomites couplets, withincreasing dolomites upwards, are restricted tothe Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ realm (Fig. 8),being unknown in the upper units of theGhomaride sections.

In conclusion, the Lower Mesozoic SaladillaFormation epicontinental redbeds show a strati-graphic trend from dominantly fluvial channel fillconglomerates to sandy channel fill and levee,overbank and floodplain deposits, which gradu-ally evolve into peritidal low-energy platform

Fig. 9. Exposure of key lithofacies of the Saladilla Formation. (A) Organized clast-supported conglomerates mainlycontaining quartzose pebbles and sporadically with scarce sandy–gravelly matrix (sub-facies association Cg2a–Cg1a;lower interval of the Dar Bou Youssef section; compass size: 7 · 14 cm). (B) Disorganized gravelly pebbly sandstoneswith intercaltations of medium-grained sandstones with normal grading (sub-facies association Cg1b–S2a; lower unitof the Zarka-Kitane section; pencil size 15 cm). (C) Disorganized clast-supported conglomerates exclusively withquartzose pebbles (sub-facies association Cg1a; lower unit of the Zarka-Kitane section; pencil size 15 cm). (D) Un-graded pebbly sandstones (Cg1b) sharply overlain by graded medium to coarse-grained sandstone bed (S2a), reflectingsuperimposition of two different flows (sub-facies association Cg1b-S2a; lower unit of the Zarka-Kitane section; pencilsize 15 cm). (E) Stratified medium to fine-grained sandstones capped by thin-bedded parallel lamination (sub-faciesassociation S2c; intermediate unit of the Zarka-Kitane section; compass size: 7 · 14 cm). (F) Planar cross-beddedsandstones with tangential basal contact (sub-facies association S2d; lower unit of the Aın el Jir section; compass size:7 · 7 cm). (G) View of the passage from fine-grained lithofacies (mudstones and siltstones) to medium to coarse-grained stratified sandstones alternating with mudstones (facies association F; lower unit of the Aın el Jir section).(H) Metre-thick stratified coarse to medium-grained sandstones alternating with thin-bedded mudstones and silt-stones (sub-facies association S1a–S2c–F2; upper unit of the Zarka-Kitane section).



A B

C D

E F

G H



carbonates. The main redbed lithofacies areshown in Fig. 9.

SAMPLING AND METHODS

Fifty-seven unaltered medium to coarse-grainedsandstone samples and 23 mudstone samples,interbedded with sandstone and conglomeratestrata, were selected from the Triassic continentalredbeds for thin-section analysis and for chemicaland mineralogical studies. The studied samplesare representative of the continental redbedswithin the Internal Domains of the Rif Chain. Atleast 500 points were counted for each thinsection of sandstone (etched and stained forplagioclase and potassium feldspar) according tothe Gazzi–Dickinson method (Gazzi, 1966; Dick-inson, 1970; Ingersoll et al., 1984; Zuffa, 1985).Raw data are in Appendix 1 and point-countresults of the whole rocks are recalculated inAppendix 2.

Grain parameters and diagrams are after Dick-inson (1970), Ingersoll et al. (1984), Critelli & LePera (1994) and Critelli & Ingersoll (1995). Thesandstone samples range from poorly to well-sorted and have undergone a high degree ofcompaction. These samples have been modifiedextensively by diagenetic effects, includingmechanical compaction, pressure dissolution,precipitation of authigenic minerals and dissolu-tion of framework grains.

The 23 mudstone samples have been analyzedchemically to evaluate the degree of source areaweathering and to characterize the sorting andrecycling processes. Furthermore, the mineralog-ical investigation is used to identify the claymineral assemblages and to evaluate the burialand thermal history within the basin. The chem-ical and mineralogical features of fine-grainedsiliciclastic sediments proved to be a usefulrecord of possible palaeoclimate and post-depositional (including diagenesis and incipientmetamorphism) changes in source regions at thetime of deposition.

Randomly oriented whole-rock powders wereanalyzed using a Scintag X-ray diffractometer(XRD; Scintag Inc., Cupertino, CA, USA),equipped with a solid-state Si (Li) detector. Themineralogical composition of the <2 lm grain-size was determined by a thin, highly orientedaggregate (Moore & Reynolds, 1997); expandableclays were determined after treatment withethylene glycol at 25 �C for 15 h. The X-raydiffraction-based illite ‘crystallinity’ (IC) tech-

nique (Merriman & Peacor, 1999) was used todetermine the degree of post-depositional alter-ation and the range of temperature which thesamples experienced. The IC value and percent-age of illitic layers in illite–smectite (I/S) mixedlayers were measured in the mudstone samples asindicators of diagenesis and low-grade metamor-phism (Pollastro, 1993) and to estimate tectonicloading. The IC results were calibrated using a setof international standards (Warr & Rice, 1994).

Elemental analyses for major and some traceelements (Nb, Zr, Y, Sr, Rb, Ba, Ni, Co, Cr and V)were obtained by X-ray fluorescence spectrometry(Philips PW 1480; N.V. Philips Gloeilampen-fabrieken, Eindhoven, The Netherlands) onpressedpowderdiscs.X-raycountswereconvertedinto concentrations by a computer program basedon the matrix-correction method according toFranzini et al. (1972, 1975) and Leoni & Saitta(1976). Average errors for major elements are ±5%and estimated precision and accuracy are betterthan ±5%. Average errors for trace elements are lessthan ±5% except for those elements at 10 p.p.m.and lower (±5% to 10%). The estimated precisionand accuracy for trace element determinations arebetter than ±5%, except for those elements having aconcentration of 10 p.p.m. and lower (10% to15%). Total loss on ignition (LOI) was determinedafter heating the samples for 3 h, at 900 �C.

SANDSTONE PETROLOGY ANDDETRITAL MODES

Detrital composition

Appendix 1 summarizes the point-count results.The sandstone samples represent a very distinc-tive highly quartzose petrofacies (Fig. 10). Thesandstones range from quartzolithic to quartz-arenites (Qm78 F7 Lt15) and they have generallywell-sorted and well-rounded detrital grains.Monocrystalline quartz (Qm) ranges from 96%to 56% of the framework grains; lithic fragments(Lt) are subordinate and range from 41% to 3%.Feldspars (F; both K-feldspar and plagioclases)are minor or absent (21% to 0%). Detrital feldsparwas dissolved partly and/or replaced by kaoliniteduring diagenesis. Mica and heavy mineralsappear in accessory quantities. Lithic fragmentsare represented mainly by low-grade metamorphicfragments of phyllite, slate, quartzite and minorfine-grained schist, and by sedimentary fragmentsof radiolarian chert, siltstone and shale. Felsiticvolcanic lithic fragments are subordinately pres-



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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249899276_Considerations_and_Applications_of_the_IlliteSmectite_Geothermometer_in_Hydrocarbon-Bearing_Rocks_of_Miocene_to_Mississippian_Age?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-594823bb-792c-4494-95d7-756cef8954ee&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIyOTUyMzQ5MjtBUzoxNTY4NDE5NDIyMDAzMjVAMTQxNDQwNTQ0MTczMQ==

ent. Quartz grains are peculiar in these sandstones;they appear as monocrystalline and polycrystal-line quartz in the form of foliated polycrystallinequartz having a tectonite fabric, and as non-foliatedpolycrystalline quartz, probably derived fromsiliceous sedimentary rocks of chert or from felsiticvolcanic groundmass fragments. Intrabasinalgrains of mudstone and siltstone and fragmentsof pedogenic concretions of carbonate (calcrete)and non-carbonate (ferricrete and rare silcrete)fragments are also present (Fig. 11A to D).

Provenance

Sandstones had their main source in metamor-phic and siliciclastic rocks, as suggested by theirhigh compositional maturity, the dominantmonocrystalline and polycrystalline quartz, thescarcity of feldspar and the presence of metamor-phic and sedimentary lithic fragments. Thesesandstones plot at the quartz-lithic fragment(QL) side in a quartz-feldspar-lithic fragment(QFL) diagram, reflecting their transition betweena craton and a recycled orogenic provenance type(Dickinson, 1985). Source lithologies probablywere the Palaeozoic section of the basement rocksof Ghomaride–Malaguide Units. This basementsection has a complete Cambrian to Carboniferoussuccession of siliciclastics and siliceous meta-sedimentary (slate, phyllite and quartzite) rocks.The subordinate presence of volcanic detritussuggests an additional source from Palaeozoic orTriassic volcanic rocks.

Diagenetic phases

Significant diagenetic phases in the redbed sand-stones include illite, kaolinite, pyrite, K-feldspar,albite, dolomite, quartz, barite and calcite(Figs 11E to H and 12).

• Illite platelets are arranged tangentially tograin surfaces. Usually, the coats are thicker insandstone containing abundant mud intraclaststhan in sandstones with few or none of these. Inlaminated sandstones, coatings preferentiallyoccur in fine-grained laminae, suggesting aninfiltrated (detrital or pedogenic) origin for thegrain-coating illite (Pittman et al., 1992). X-raydiffraction analysis reveals that illite is associatedwith mixed layered I/S and chlorite.

• Kaolinite (dickite and/or kaolinite) forms felt-like mats of platy crystals arranged tangentiallyaround grains, locally occluding intergranularporosity. Grain-coating kaolinite is commonlymixed with illitic clays. X-ray diffraction analysisindicates that the kaolinite mineral is mostly thedickite polytype. Booklet or vermicular kaoliniteoccurs both as pore-filling cement and as areplacement of feldspars. Kaolinite probablyformed relatively early in the parageneticsequence because it is enclosed by cements suchas quartz, feldspars, sulphate and magnesite–siderite.

• Dolomite occurs as poikilotopic and rhombiccrystals. When preserved, dolomite pre-dates theprecipitation of feldspar, quartz and magnesite–siderite cements.

• K-feldspar overgrowth formed relatively earlyin the diagenetic sequence and pre-dates signifi-cant compaction and cementation.

• Magnesite–siderite occurs as a pore-fillingcement and locally has replaced frameworkgrains. It occurs as single rhombic crystals, patchycrystals and poikilotopic cement. Dark Fe-richmagnesite is replaced commonly by younger Mg-rich siderite zones. Magnesite–siderite pre-datessignificant compaction and quartz overgrowthsand seems to post-date some feldspar dissolution.

• Quartz is generally the most abundantcement even if abundance is highly variable and

Fig. 10. Ternary plots of Qm(monocrystalline quartz), F (feld-spars) and Lt (aphanitic lithic frag-ments); Qp (polycrystalline quartz),Lvm (volcanic and metavolcaniclithic fragments) and Lsm (sedi-mentary and metasedimentary lithicfragments); Lm (metamorphic), Lv(volcanic) and Ls (sedimentary)lithic fragments. Means and field ofvariations (polygons) are defined by1 SD on either side of mean.



A B

C D

E F

G H

Fig. 11. Photomicrographs of sand grains and diagenetic characteristics of Triassic redbed sandstones of Ghomarideand Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Units of Morocco: (A) radiolarian chert fragment; (B) skeletal bone fragment partiallysilicified; (C) intrabasinal coeval carbonate concretion fragment (calcrete) showing relics of plant roots; (D) alteredhematite showing limonite rim; (E) quartz overgrowths ‘Q-o’ around detrital quartz ‘Q’ in quartzose sandstones;abundant in all samples; (F) authigenic albite overgrowth ‘P-o’; and (G) K-feldspar overgrowth ‘Kf-o’; also present inmany samples around detrital plagioclase ‘P’ and K-feldspar ‘Kf’, respectively, as well as (H) other cements such asbarite ‘Brt’ and kaolinite ‘Kln’. (A), (B), (D), (E), (F), (G) and (H) are in cross-polarized light; (C) is in plane-polarizedlight. Field size of photomicrographs is ·0Æ7 mm – (A), (B), (C), (D), (F) and (G) – and · 0Æ4 mm – (E) and (H).



A B

C D

E F

Fig. 12. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the main authigenic phases in Triassic redbed sandstones ofGhomaride and ‘Internal Dorsale Calcaire’ Units of Morocco. (A) Quartz overgrowth ‘Q-o’ around detrital quartz ‘Q’sand grain; (B) K-feldspar overgrowth ‘Kf-o’ around detrital K-feldspar ‘Kf’ sand grain; (C) relationship betweenauthigenic phases of quartz overgrowth ‘Q-o’, K-feldspar overgrowth ‘Kf-o’ and illite; (D) detail of late illite cement;(E) late diagenetic halite crystals; and (F) other cements of barite ‘Brt’ after kaolinite ‘Kln’, dickite ‘D’ and quartzovergrowth ‘Q-o’.



in inverse ratio to the amount of grain-coatingclay. Quartz cement mainly occurs as syntaxialovergrowths (Figs 11 and 12). Quartz overgrowthspost-date the precipitation of dolomite, feldspar,kaolinite, magnesite–siderite and, in part, chem-ical compaction.

• Barite is present as patches of poikilotopiccrystals replacing the margins of detrital grains.Barite post-dates dolomite, K-feldspar, kaolinite,magnesite–siderite and quartz cements (Figs 11and 12). Barite is only partially covered by thelatest poikilotopic calcite.

• Several minor authigenic phases (chlorite,Fe-oxide, fibrous illite, halite and the latest poi-kilotopic calcite) occur throughout the entiresuccession. Fe-oxide occurs in minor amountsand forms poikilotopic patches. Minor amountsof late-diagenetic fibrous illite replaced or inter-grew with previous authigenic or detrital clays.Minor occurrences of late-diagenetic chlorite as apore-filling cement are present. X-ray diffractionof interbedded mudstones confirms its presencewith illite crystals. Halite occurs as single crystalsand as crystals within intraclasts, particularly thecarbonate concretions.

MUDSTONE MINERALOGY ANDGEOCHEMISTRY

Mineralogy

Whole-rock XRD patterns show that the analyzedmudstone samples are rich in phyllosilicates(micas/clay minerals, 63% to 80%), associatedwith significant amounts of quartz (5% to 11%)and hematite (13% to 25%) and negligibleamounts of feldspar (1% to 4%). The <2 lmgrain-size fraction of the mudstone samples col-

lected along the Aın el Jir section is composedmainly of illite; I/S mixed layers are present invariable amounts. The percentage of kaolinite andchlorite is very low.

In the studied samples, there is little variationin clay mineral composition. Those variationsthat do occur are associated principally with thepercentage of I/S mixed layered clays, whichdecrease down the succession. The content ofillitic layers in the I/S mixed layers (rangingfrom 75% to 95%; R ordering = 1 to 3;Reickeweite number) increases slightly withincreased burial depth. These changes are con-sistent with the increasing temperature duringburial diagenesis (Perri, 2008). The IC value,measured on both air-dried and ethylene glycol-solvated oriented mounts, is in the range of 0Æ6�to 0Æ7� D2h CuK. These values are typical ofmoderate to intense diagenetic alteration (Merri-man & Frey, 1999).

Geochemistry

The elemental concentrations and the palaeo-weathering index are given in Appendix 3.

Elemental analysisThe elemental distributions normalized to Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS; Taylor &McLennan, 1985) are shown in Fig. 13. Theredbeds are characterized by narrow composi-tional variations for Si, Ti, Al, Fe, Mg and K,which are also close to those of PAAS (Fig. 13A).Ca, Na, Mn and P are depleted strongly relative toPAAS and Ca shows the highest variability inconcentration ranging from 0Æ08 to 1Æ33 wt%. Mnshows a wide range of abundance, from 0Æ02 to0Æ12 wt% and the element is, in most of thesamples, well below the PAAS value (0Æ11 wt%).

A B

Fig. 13. (A) Major element compositional ranges normalized to the Post-Archean Australian Shale (PAAS); outliersample (FP38a) is shown separately. (B) Trace element compositional ranges normalized to the PAAS. Outliersamples (FP38a and FP38b) showing anomalous Zr, Sr and Ba contents are shown separately.



The Mn depletion may have multiple causes, butis most probably due to source area compositionand redox chemistry, promoting Mn solubility asMn2+ under surface conditions.

The distribution of the large ion lithophile traceelements is characterized by a wide spread,ranging from Sr values of 60 to 552 p.p.m., thatare, like Ca, relatively depleted when comparedwith PAAS. Rb, Ba and K have abundances closeto those of PAAS (Fig. 13B). Sample P38b is anexception, showing the highest Ba content(1448 p.p.m.) well above the PAAS value(650 p.p.m.). Furthermore, Rb has a positivecorrelation with K, suggesting that these elementsare controlled mostly by the mica-like clayminerals. Samples FP38a and FP38b deviate fromthe general trend, especially for Ba and Sr. Thesesamples are more enriched in micaceous mineralsrelative to other samples and the Ba and Srenrichment may be due to their preferentialretention as cations in the mineral structure,possibly in the interlayer position.

The high field strength trace elements and theheavy rare earth elements (La and Ce) haveconcentrations very similar to those of PAAS.The concentrations of the transition trace ele-ments are relatively close to the PAAS, even if inmany samples Cr, Ni and V have abundancesgenerally slightly lower than those of PAAS.

Palaeoweathering indices, sorting andrecyclingThe chemical composition of clastic sedimentsdepends on several factors, including source areacomposition, palaeoweathering, sorting and, insome cases, burial history. Thus, in usingterrigenous sediment to monitor provenancethe non-trivial problem of evaluating andminimizing, the effects of the other factors isencountered.

The most widely used chemical index to deter-mine the degree of source area weathering is theChemical Index of Alteration (CIA) proposed byNesbitt & Young (1982). This index workscorrectly when Ca, Na and K decrease as theintensity of weathering increases (Duzgoren-Aydin et al., 2002). In general, CIA values inPhanerozoic shales, ranging from 70 to 75, reflectmuscovite, illite and smectite compositions, andindicate a moderately weathered source, whereasCIA values close to 100 are due to more intenseweathering, which produces residual claysenriched in kaolinite and Al oxihydroxides.

Many of the studied redbed mudstones arealtered significantly (CIA > 70), whereas other

samples show medium–low CIA values (CIA = 65to 70), with an average of 72Æ4 ± 4Æ1 (Fig. 14). Inthe A–CN–K triangular diagram all the studiedsamples fall above the A50 line (the feldspar join;Fedo et al., 1995) in a tight group with a vectorparallel to the CN–A join and a vector parallel onthe A–K join close to the muscovite point(Fig. 14). The weathering trend suggests K-enrich-ment during diagenesis according to mineralo-gical data. The degree of weathering is quitevariable within the individual suites, producingscatter along the trends towards the K apex. Thenature of this metasomatic event could not beevaluated but it appears similar to the meta-somatic K-enrichment observed in most otherPrecambrian palaeosoils from all over the world(MacFarlane & Holland, 1991). The mica-typeminerals are possibly a product of K+-richhydrothermal solutions that reacted withkaolinite. It is also most likely that the hydro-thermal solutions were rich in silica, such that asecond generation of quartz (quartz overgrowth)is observed associated with the other silicateminerals (Fig. 12C and F).

Because the CIA index is not sensitive to thedegree of weathering when K reintroductionoccurs to the system, as in the present case,alternative indices can be used to monitor palaeo-weathering at the source. Harnois (1988) pro-posed the Chemical Index of Weathering (CIW),which is not sensitive to post-depositionalK-enrichments and, in a similar way to the CIA,is a molecular immobile/mobile ratio based on

CIA

Fig. 14. Ternary A–CN–K plot. Gr, granite; Ms,muscovite; Il, illite; Ka, kaolinite; Ch, chlorite; Gi,gibbsite; Sm, smectite; Pl, plagioclase; Bi, biotite; Ks,K-feldspar; A, Al2O3; CN, CaO+Na2O; K, K2O. Thesamples fall close to the A–K join along a trendindicating K addition during diagenesis.



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the assumption that Al remains in the system andaccumulates in the residue while Ca and Na areleached away. Phanerozoic shales have CIWvalues close to 85 and higher values are indica-tive of intense weathering. The studied redbeds,with the exception of a few samples, show veryuniform CIW values (average = 94Æ3 ± 2Æ9) and inthe A–C–N diagram form a tight array close to theA apex (Fig. 15A). This observation is suggestiveof intense weathering in steady-state conditionswhere the material removal rate matches theproduction of mineralogically uniform weath-ering products generated in the upper zone ofsoil development.

The degree of the chemical weathering can alsobe estimated using the Plagioclase Index ofAlteration (PIA; Fedo et al., 1995). Unweatheredplagioclase has a PIA value of 50 whereas thePAAS has a PIA value of 79. The studied redbeds,with the exception of a few samples, show veryhigh PIA values (average = 92Æ1 ± 3Æ7) with a tightarray close to the A–K apex in the A-K–C–Ndiagram (Fig. 15B), indicating that most of theplagioclase has been converted to clay minerals.This, in turn, accords with data obtained usingthe CIW index, and indicates intense weatheringat the source area.

Mechanical sorting during transport and depo-sition may affect the chemical composition ofterrigeneous sediments and may consequentlymodify the distribution of palaeoweathering andprovenance proxies (Bauluz et al., 2000; Le Peraet al., 2000). The distribution of the chemicalcomponents within a suite is determined mainlyby the mechanical properties of the host minerals.The process basically fractionates Al2O3 (clayminerals) from SiO2 (quartz and feldspars). Sort-ing also fractionates TiO2, mostly present in clayminerals and Ti-oxides, from Zr, present inzircon, and sorted with quartz. However, the

variable content of inert elements in mudstone ismostly due to the degree of weathering affectingparent rocks. Ternary plots based on Al2O3, TiO2

and Zr eliminate the weathering effects and mayillustrate the presence of sorting-related fractio-nations, which are recognizable by simple mixingtrends on a ternary Al2O3–TiO2–Zr diagram (Gar-cia et al., 1991; Mongelli et al., 2006; Critelliet al., 2008). A mixing trend is evident (Fig. 16),mostly characterized by changes in the Al2O3/Zrratio, which could be due to recycling.

Recycling can significantly affect the weath-ering indices such that the CIW and PIA indicesmay record the cumulative effects of weathering.Both CIW and PIA indices are controlled stronglyby the amount of plagioclase in the rock; theirpaucity in the mudstone redbeds could be evi-dence of a recycling effect, which may especially

A B

CIW PIA

Fig. 15. (A) A–C–N plot; the samples fall close to the A apex suggesting intense weathering in the source area.(B) A–K–C–N plot; the samples fall close to the A–K apex indicating that most of the plagioclase has been convertedto clay minerals and suggesting intense weathering in the source area.

Fig. 16. Ternary 10Al2O3–200TiO2–Zr plot showingpossible sorting effects. See text for more details.




involve the siliciclastic metasediments of thebasement.

The source area for the continental redbeds ismost likely to have been the metasediments of thePalaeozoic basement. However, other lithologiesoccurring in the basement, including maficmetavolcanics, may represent an additionalprovenance terrain. The supply from maficmetavolcanic rocks is minor, but it cannot beexcluded; Cr/V and Y/Ni ratios (Hiscott, 1984)support the conclusion of a negligible contribu-tion from a mafic supply. In the Y/Ni vs. Cr/Vdiagram a significant mafic–ultramafic supply isexcluded on the basis of the mixing curvebetween granite and a mafic–ultramafic end-member (Fig. 17).

The ranges of elemental ratios La/Co, La/Cr andLa/Ni in the shales, siltstones and sandstoneshave also been used to determine provenance.The studied sediments show the La/Co (aver-age = 2Æ54), La/Cr (average = 0Æ57) and La/Ni(average = 1Æ26) ratios quite similar to the PAAS(La/Co = 1Æ65; La/Cr = 0Æ35; La/Ni = 0Æ69) andUCC (La/Co = 3Æ00; La/Cr = 0Æ86; La/Ni = 1Æ50)ratios. The ratios of the studied samples fall in therange of similar published data (Cullers, 2000),suggesting provenance from source areas whichare fairly silicic rather than mafic in composition.

The A–CN–K triangle can also be used toconstrain initial compositions of source rocks.The diagram illustrates a metasomatized sample

suite that typically has a linear trend with a lesssteep slope; however, its intersection with thefeldspar join (Fedo et al., 1995) indicates thelikely source rock composition because theamount of K addition to clays necessarilydecreases as the amount of host clay materialdecreases. The studied samples seem to be relatedto granitoid source rocks where the variabledegree of K metasomatism in the samples reflectsthe quantity of secondary kaolinite (derived fromplagioclase) available for conversion to illite(Fedo et al., 1995).

DISCUSSION AND CONCLUSIONS

The studied Triassic epicontinental deposits ofthe Internal Rifian Chain reach more than 300 min thickness in the Ghomaride Sub-Domain andno more than 120 m in the Internal ‘DorsaleCalcaire’ Sub-Domain. In both sub-domains, thestudied redbeds form an upward fining andthinning megasequence, consisting predomi-nantly of red sandstones and mudstones, withintercalations of conglomerates, in the lower part,and some carbonate and evaporite beds, in theupper part. The successions reflect variablepalaeoenvironments in space and time. Thesevariations are characterized by arenaceous allu-vial systems in the Middle Triassic and muddycoastal plain systems with some local carbonateand evaporite episodes in the Late Triassic.

The abrupt and increasing subsidence ratesrelated to the earliest rifting of the WesternTethys were responsible for the development ofopen-marine carbonate platforms during theNorian–Rhaetian and Early Jurassic. In detail,the Ghomaride stratigraphic successions (Figs 3and 5 to 7) consist of, from base to top, sandy–gravelly channel fills and floodplain deposits,characterized by discontinuous lenticular conglo-merates, interbedded sandstones and conglo-merates, and massive mudstones and finesiltstones. These fine-grained lithofacies prevailupwards and some were deposited probably increvasse and sheet-splays in the overbank area,connecting the main river channels with theflood plain. The passage to the overlying dolo-mites (Fig. 3) is characterized by intercalationsof red mudstones and siltstones with thin-bed-ded vuggy dolomites (‘cargneules’), whereas thetopmost strata are represented locally by strati-fied dolomites. The latter alternate with thindark clay layers and evolve to Rhaetian (?)–Hettangian massive Austro-Alpine-type dolom-

Fig. 17. Cr/V vs. Y/Ni diagram (Hiscott, 1984). Twomixing curves are reported, connecting an ultramaficend-member (‘UMF’, data from Turekian & Wedephol,1961) to granite (GR, data from Turekian & Wedephol,1961) and upper continental crust (‘UCC’, data fromTaylor & McLennan, 1985) end-members. Ultramaficsources have very low Y/Ni and high Cr/V ratio. Thesamples have Y/Ni and Cr/V ratios that exclude maficsupply.




https://www.researchgate.net/publication/232372372_The_geochemistry_of_shales_siltstones_and_sandstones_of_Pennsylvanian-Permian_age_Colorado_USA_Implications_for_provenance_and_metamorphic_studies_J_Lithos_51_181-203?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-594823bb-792c-4494-95d7-756cef8954ee&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIyOTUyMzQ5MjtBUzoxNTY4NDE5NDIyMDAzMjVAMTQxNDQwNTQ0MTczMQ==

https://www.researchgate.net/publication/249524901_Ophiolitic_source_rocks_for_Taconic-age_flysch_Trace-element_evidence?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-594823bb-792c-4494-95d7-756cef8954ee&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIyOTUyMzQ5MjtBUzoxNTY4NDE5NDIyMDAzMjVAMTQxNDQwNTQ0MTczMQ==

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ites, followed by massive Sinemurian limestones(Wildi et al., 1977; Durand Delga & Fontbote,1980; Wildi, 1983).

In the Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’, the youngerredbed successions show very scarce or absentconglomerate channel fills. Hence, the redbedsevolved progressively from sandy channel fills toflood plain deposits with abundant fine-grainedlithofacies, notably micaceous siltstones andmudstones (Figs 3 and 8). Locally, dark mud-stones occur at the top of redbeds, overlain bythin-bedded to medium-bedded dolomites, whichare brecciated locally.

The Ghomaride and Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’redbeds show a quite similar composition in thedifferent studied sections, characterized byquartzarenitic to quartzolithic sandstones. Theseredbeds were all deposited to the west and north-west of a mountainous region, where metamor-phosed Palaeozoic successions and silicicplutonic bodies (tonalite to granite) widelycropped out. A strong chemical weathering ofsuch rocks, under a tropical, hot and episodicallyhumid climate, with a prolonged dry season,caused illitization of silicate minerals, oxidationof iron, rubefaction of soils and sediments (red-dening) and concentration of quartz in thick soilprofiles. These soils were later denuded by fluvialerosion, producing relatively mature, quartz-richred sediments, which were deposited in alluvialsystems.

Chemical results from redbed mudstones pro-vide more detailed information on the source areacomposition, palaeoweathering, sorting and recy-cling. Weathering processes occurring in thesource area have been recognized using the CIA,CIW and PIA palaeoweathering indices. The CIAvalues for all redbed samples are low and theyplot on the A–K side of the A–CN–K diagram,close to the muscovite–illite fields, suggesting aK-enrichment during the burial history, which issupported by the mineralogical data.

The K-enrichment process may be related to thepresence of post-depositional K-rich fluids and itcould be responsible for the partial conversion of1:1 clay minerals into 2:1 K-rich clay minerals. Inthese cases, the K-enrichment in the systeminfluences the reduction of CIA values; for thisreason, the CIA index cannot correctly detect theweathering processes occurring in the source area(Fedo et al., 1995). On the other hand, the high Kvalues may be related to K-enrichment within thesource terrains. As a result, the samples charac-terized by slightly high CIA values probablyreflect an increase of the alteration grade.

Based on palaeoweathering indices, it has beensuggested that the source area experienced in-tense weathering with considerable sedimentrecycling from the dominantly metasedimentarybasement rocks. Recycling effects are also recog-nized by the distribution of an Al2O3–TiO2–Zrternary plot, in which the redbeds fall along atrend involving zircon addition and thus sedi-ment recycling. Recycling could significantlyaffect the weathering indices, which then proba-bly reflect a cumulative effect, including a firstcycle of weathering in the source area. Like theweathering processes, the recycling processeswere also favoured by seasonal climatic alterna-tions, characterized by hot and episodicallyhumid conditions with a long-standing dry sea-son (Mongelli et al., 2006). Thus, it is possible tosuggest that recycling played an important role inthe sedimentary evolution of the Middle Triassicto Lowermost Jurassic continental redbeds duringthe geodynamic events that occurred in theWestern Mediterranean area (Mongelli et al.,2006; Perri et al., 2008a,b).

Clay mineral distribution in the studied sam-ples shows that illite and mixed-layer I/S domi-nate the mudstone mineralogy, althoughsubordinate amounts of kaolinite and chloriteare observed. Clay minerals in the redbed mud-stones underwent considerable diagenetic re-actions during burial, such as increasing illite inI/S mixed layers and a slight variation in ICvalues. The Basin Maturity Chart of Merriman &Frey (1999) shows the relationship between claymineral change and temperature from the relativepercentages of illite in I/S layers and IC values.Accordingly, the temperature experienced by thestudied samples can be estimated to have fallenwithin the range of 100 to 160 �C. Starting fromthe temperature estimates by clay mineral-basedgeothermometers, a diagenetic/tectonic evolutioncorresponding to ca 4 to 6 km of lithostatic/tectonic loading can be hypothesized for thestudied successions.

The Ghomaride and Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’Middle to Upper Triassic redbeds are similar, asregards their lithology and tectono-sedimentaryevolution, to the coeval Pseudoverrucano succes-sions of the Tuscan Apennines, as well as to theCalabria–Peloritani Arc, Kabylias and Betic Mala-guides (Perrone et al., 2006). The term ‘Verrucano’,frequently used for these deposits, has to beabandoned because the peculiar features of theVerrucano successions (Alpine high-pressuremetamorphism, reaching 2Æ0 GPa and early evo-lution to Late Triassic evaporitic and carbonate




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https://www.researchgate.net/publication/234079154_Sedimenatry_recycling_provenance_and_paleoweathering_from_chemistry_and_mineralogy_of_Mesozoic_continental_redbed_mudrocks_Peloritani_mountains_southern_Italy_J_Geochemical_Journal_40_197-209?el=1_x_8&enrichId=rgreq-594823bb-792c-4494-95d7-756cef8954ee&enrichSource=Y292ZXJQYWdlOzIyOTUyMzQ5MjtBUzoxNTY4NDE5NDIyMDAzMjVAMTQxNDQwNTQ0MTczMQ==

shelf environments) are lacking. Furthermore, inthe Pseudoverrucano redbeds of the Ghomarideand Internal ‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Nappes, there islittle evidence for the Middle Triassic earlyaborted rift, which is recorded in the Verrucanosuccessions. Evidence for this is provided bywidespread and commonly very thick MiddleTriassic platform carbonates, transgressive oncontinental deposits (Cassinis et al., 1979; Rauet al., 1985; Martini et al., 1986; Iannace et al.2005). In the studied areas, Middle to LateTriassic extension did not lead to the depositionof platform carbonates like those in the Verru-cano-type successions (Perrone et al., 2006).

Regionally, the Ghomaride and Internal ‘DorsaleCalcaire’ Pseudoverrucano redbeds characterizea continental block, in which erosional moun-tainous regions persisted in Anisian–Carniantimes and supplied, mainly with quartzosesediments, surrounding intracontinental basins.These sediments passed laterally to stronglysubsiding rift basins, in which Middle to UpperTriassic shallow marine platform carbonateswere deposited with typical Alpine facies. Thelatter, characterized by Verrucano-type litho-facies, are represented in the Rifian Sebtideand Betic Alpujarride Complexes (Martın-Algarraet al., 1995; Perrone et al., 2006; Martin-Rojaset al. 2009).

According to the post-Triassic evolution of thePseudoverrucano and Verrucano successions, thecontinental block became part of a Mesomediter-ranean Microplate from the Middle Jurassic. Thismicroplate was independent from the Europe–Iberia, Africa and Adria Plates (Guerrera et al.,1993, 2005; Bonardi et al., 2001; Michard et al.,2002), because the continental block was sur-rounded by oceanic branches, which were openfrom Middle Jurassic times (Nevadofilabride–Piemontese–Ligurian belt to the north and Mag-hrebian Flysch Basin–Lucanian Ocean to thesouth and to the east). The MesomediterraneanMicroplate constituted the hinterland for theWestern Mediterranean Alpine Belts. The Alpinetectonic phases completely destroyed this micro-plate and after this the Internal Nappes of allthe Western Mediterranean Alpine Belts werecreated.

In conclusion, the stratigraphic, sedimentolog-ical, petrographic, mineralogical and chemicalfeatures of the Middle to Upper Triassic quartz-ose redbeds of the Ghomaride and Internal‘Dorsale Calcaire’ Nappes are similar in all ofthe studied sections, suggesting a commonpalaeogeographic and palaeotectonic evolution.

These redbeds can be considered as a regionalpetrofacies that marks the onset of the continen-tal rift stage of taphrogenetic events which, inthe Western Pangea, started in the MiddleTriassic and which, only in the Middle Jurassic,allowed for the opening of the oceanic realms ofthe Western Tethys.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This research has been carried out within theMIUR-COFIN Project 2001.04.5835 ‘Age andcharacteristics of the Verrucano-type depositsfrom the Northern Apennines to the Betic Cord-illeras: consequences for the palaeogeographicand structural evolution of the central-westernMediterranean Alpine Chains’ (support to V.Perrone), MIUR-ex60% Projects (Palaeogeograph-ic and Palaeotectonic Evolution of the Circum-Mediterranean Orogenic Belts, 2001–2005; andRelationships between Tectonic Accretion, Vol-canism and Clastic Sedimentation within theCircum-Mediterranean Orogenic Belts, 2006;Resp. S. Critelli) and the 2006–2008 MIUR-PRINProject 2006.04.8397 ‘The Cenozoic clastic sedi-mentation within the circum-Mediterranean oro-genic belts: implications for palaeogeographicand palaeotectonic evolution’ (Resp. S. Critelli).The authors are indebted to Bob Cullers, AgustinMartin-Algarra, the Associate Editor David Mall-inson and the Editor Peter Swart for their reviewsand suggestions on an earlier version of themanuscript.

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Petr

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VR

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VR

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27

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30

VR

31

VR

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VR

34

VR

35

VR

35b

VR

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VR

38

VR

39

VR

41

VR

42

VR

43

VR

46

VR

47

SC

655

SC

656

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Petr

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VR

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VR

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VR

27

VR

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VR

31

VR

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VR

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VR

34

VR

35

VR

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VR

38

VR

39

VR

41

VR

42

VR

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VR

46

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SC

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666

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668

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669

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670

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286

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Oxid

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iO2

59Æ1

556Æ6

562Æ3

856Æ8

758Æ0

664Æ2

755Æ8

057Æ3

356Æ7

351Æ2

662Æ3

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058Æ1

156Æ0

457Æ0

558Æ0

164Æ0

661Æ1

763Æ0

560Æ7

260Æ4

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1Æ0

80Æ9

70Æ8

60Æ8

80Æ9

00Æ7

90Æ9

20Æ9

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00Æ7

60Æ8

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119Æ2

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97Æ3

97Æ2

67Æ5

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36Æ8

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45Æ5

25Æ7

95Æ8

64Æ4

35Æ2

34Æ9

53Æ9

84Æ6

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33Æ3

33Æ5

42Æ9

83Æ6

23Æ5

63Æ6

12Æ6

82Æ9

82Æ9

43Æ4

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20Æ0

60Æ0

50Æ0

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5Æ2

95Æ6

64Æ5

15Æ7

55Æ4

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15Æ8

45Æ9

46Æ8

08Æ2

74Æ8

35Æ8

56Æ5

76Æ8

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16Æ3

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999Æ9

999Æ9

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7

Tra

ce

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117

130

107

138

131

107

146

136

132

139

110

127

136

144

174

157

143

104

120

120

137

117

127

Cr

101

119

79

114

103

76

102

111

98

110

79

97

102

111

122

110

109

75

94

83

78

85

96

Co

13

18

18

20

20

17

37

27

23

27

20

23

24

22

26

26

29

20

25

24

20

23

23

Ni

30

31

37

46

44

75

67

52

45

47

36

45

46

44

54

56

52

35

56

41

37

42

44

Rb

192

190

160

187

183

132

176

177

173

255

140

166

207

174

221

217

184

123

146

150

170

163

168

Sr

444

552

308

370

269

111

157

113

112

89

73

97

85

72

76

70

91

73

87

88

65

78

97

Y58

54

38

38

37

40

51

56

39

34

37

37

36

29

46

34

42

36

42

40

40

41

38

Zr

454

262

252

221

212

246

242

215

227

162

254

215

197

176

187

209

207

280

247

268

286

235

220

Nb

26

22

19

20

20

19

23

22

20

21

20

20

20

22

23

22

24

18

22

20

20

20

20

Ba

929

1448

511

602

566

525

684

506

659

470

463

579

404

464

488

430

535

419

479

452

386

455

574

La

66

66

40

62

55

45

61

68

53

46

46

50

50

56

63

60

67

52

59

59

50

56

50

Ce

137

143

99

112

100

73

129

110

92

88

95

103

97

102

115

114

120

101

113

112

84

96

103

Rati

os

La/C

o5Æ0

83Æ6

72Æ2

23Æ1

02Æ7

52Æ6

51Æ6

52Æ5

22Æ3

01Æ7

02Æ3

02Æ1

72Æ0

82Æ5

52Æ4

22Æ3

12Æ3

12Æ6

02Æ3

62Æ4

62Æ5

02Æ4

32Æ1

7L

a/C

r0Æ6

50Æ5

50Æ5

10Æ5

40Æ5

30Æ5

90Æ6

00Æ6

10Æ5

40Æ4

20Æ5

80Æ5

20Æ4

90Æ5

00Æ5

20Æ5

50Æ6

10Æ6

90Æ6

30Æ7

10Æ6

40Æ6

60Æ5

2L

a/N

i2Æ2

02Æ1

31Æ0

81Æ3

51Æ2

50Æ6

00Æ9

11Æ3

11Æ1

80Æ9

81Æ2

81Æ1

11Æ0

91Æ2

71Æ1

71Æ0

71Æ2

91Æ4

91Æ0

51Æ4

41Æ3

51Æ3

31Æ1

4C

IW97Æ7

097Æ7

397Æ5

897Æ9

897Æ6

995Æ9

996Æ9

897Æ7

588Æ0

989Æ8

193Æ2

490Æ1

293Æ4

996Æ3

195Æ0

896Æ2

294Æ0

991Æ6

193Æ7

092Æ2

392Æ3

193Æ2

790Æ7

9C

IA67Æ9

267Æ7

365Æ4

167Æ9

867Æ3

269Æ5

369Æ7

170Æ6

768Æ4

168Æ1

076Æ3

972Æ8

274Æ8

779Æ8

376Æ5

177Æ4

074Æ9

976Æ0

676Æ3

874Æ8

072Æ7

275Æ8

773Æ1

9P

IA95Æ9

095Æ9

395Æ2

496Æ3

995Æ8

093Æ5

395Æ0

496Æ3

583Æ2

885Æ0

491Æ3

287Æ0

491Æ3

395Æ3

593Æ5

095Æ0

092Æ0

789Æ4

691Æ8

589Æ8

689Æ4

791Æ2

787Æ8

7



Depositional systems, composition and geochemistry of Triassic rifted-continental margin redbeds of the Internal Rif Chain, Morocco

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