Depicting a whole picture: A review of recent literature concerning international college students

Depicting a whole picture:

A review of recent literature concerning international college students

KenZen Chen

University of Illinois at Urbana‐Champaign

International Students

Kenzen Chen

1

Abstract

The population of international students has increased dramatically in the past decade, and the

United States is the premier provider of tertiary education for international students. According to the

“Open Doors Report 2007” from the Institute of International Education, the number of international

students studying in the U.S. in year 2006/2007 total 58,2984, which increased 9.97% compared to the

last school year. In one of the annual reports titled “Foreign students in higher education” published

by the National Center for Education Statistics, in 2004, in Canada, France, Great Britain, and Germany,

international students comprise more than 10% of the cohorts at higher education programs of these

host countries. Moreover, the United States hosted about 22% of international students around the

world.

Obviously, international students compose an important part of the student entity in higher

education institutions in western societies and America, and they become a significant subject which

is widely addressed in educational research. As an international student of higher education in the

United States, I am interested in how research has looked at, described, examined, and suggested

programs, policies and ways to address these international students’ needs in recent years; and, how

the research portrays a holistic picture of them collectively. Literature was retrieved and selected from

the past ten years, and I focused on peer‐reviewed journal articles and United States governmental

research reports. Five major themes, second language acquisition, identity and adaptation,

perceptions of discrimination, learning experiences and quality, and motivations and career

placements, are discussed by scholars of the field. This essay attempts to review the questions

addressed in the literatures, the methods they implied, the main findings, and practical developments

inspired by their efforts. Eventually, theoretical, methodological, and educational suggestions are

addressed in the conclusions.


Kenzen Chen

2

Introduction

The population of international students has increased dramatically in the past decade, and the

United States is the premier provider of tertiary education for international students. According to the

“Open Doors Report 2007” of the Institute of International Education (2007), the number of

international students studying in the U.S. in the school year 2006/2007 total 582,984, an increase of

9.97% compared to the previous school year. In one of the annual reports (National Center for

Education Statistics, 2007) titled “Foreign students in higher education”, in Canada, France, Great

Britain, and Germany, more than 10% international students are enrolled in higher education

programs in 2004. Moreover, the United States hosted about 22% of international students around the

world. Not only higher education is a leading export that generates $12 billion a year for the U.S.

economy through international student spending on tuition, living expenses, and other costs, but also

more than half of the international students are graduate students and many contribute to universities

as research, teaching and administrative assistants(Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006).

Obviously, international students compose an important part of the student entity in the higher

education institutions in western societies and America. This means that not only the universities in

the United States are educating many of the top quality citizens globally, but also the coming and

exchanging of foreign students and scholars are fostering cross‐national understanding between

Americans and international students. As a part of issues in higher education, I am interested on how

the literature describes, examines, and suggests programs, policies and ways to address the needs of

those international students. Do those findings really reflect the pictures of international students?

Literature was chosen from the most recent ten years, and I focused on peer‐reviewed journal articles

and the United States governmental research reports.


Kenzen Chen

3

Description of Literatures

Data Sources and Limitations

Research on international students has expanded greatly during the past decade (Chapdelaine &

Alexitch, 2004). In order to search the literature mainly on empirical studies, peer‐reviewed journal

articles, and those published in the most recent ten years, I utilized multiple databases (ERIC, EBSCO,

and Education Full Text), using keyword search by “international students”, “foreign students” and

other related words. There are at least 34 journal articles, 14 qualitative and 20 quantitative retrieved

from English‐speaking publications. In addition, several governmental research reports about

international students and homeland security issues are also retrieved from UIUC’s library catalog and

served as supplements for policy and general background. Speaking from a sense of limited time, it

was quite impossible to find out all other related articles titled by country names or regions like “Asian

students” “students from Mexico” or “Swedish students”. This limitation of non‐holistic sampling into

all literatures may bias my analysis.

Among these papers, most are published in three kinds of journals, those with the topic of:

intercultural studies, for example, Intercultural Education and International Journal of Intercultural

Relations; college student studies, for example, College Student Journal and Journal of College Student

Development; and studies in higher education, for example, Higher Education Research and

Development and Higher Education. Most of these discussed the international students’ living and

learning in major export countries in higher education like the United States and Australia. Lots of

papers discussed the issues from psychological perspectives, few were written from social or political

points of view.


Kenzen Chen

4

Methods Applied in These Researches

In the retrieved empirical papers, the quantitative exceeded (20) the qualitative (14) in the recent

years. Within the quantitative studies, survey instruments, self‐reported questionnaires and

developed accessing scales were largely implemented. Researchers used many existing scales or

questionnaires which have been developed with specific theoretical foundations. For example, the

Migration–Acculturative Stressor Scale (MASS)(Ying, 2005); Experiences in Close Relationships Scale

(ECRS), Acculturation Index (AI), and Brief Symptom Inventory 18 (BSI‐18) (Wang & Mallinckrodt,

2006); Self‐Regulation Questionnaire—Study Abroad (SRQ—SA)(Chirkov et al., 2007); Singelis’ 24‐item

self‐construal scale (SCS), Rosenberg self‐esteem scale, Beck depression inventory (BDI), Ward and

Kennedy’s Sociocultural Adaptation Scale, Cle´ment and Baker’s eight‐item English language

confidence scale(Yang et al., 2006); Global Stress Mesure, Zung Self‐Rating Depression Scale,

Behavioral Acculturation Scale(Buddington, 2002); Sociocultural Adjustment Scale (SCAS), Multi‐group

Ethnic Identity Scale(Li & Gasser, 2005), and Ideal Mentor Scale(Rose, 2005). To go a step further,

those studies paid much attention addressing the existing theories of cultural adaptation or second

language acquisition. Researchers tried to examine the hypothesis of a group of variables by implying

statistic methods like regressions, path analysis, ANOVA, and so forth. There is additional research

conducted with mixed methods, like Delphi technique (Robertson et al, 2000) and online

questionnaires (Ye, 2006). However, most of the research sampled students within one or two colleges

and only a small ‘n’. The generalizability could be largely limited to the sample size and the students’

background like ethnicity, nationality, major specialization, school type and region and so on.

In the qualitative studies, the techniques of structured or semi‐structured in‐depth interviews

and focus groups were usually adopted by researchers, supplemented with journal and document


Kenzen Chen

5

analysis. Moreover, general approaches of qualitative data collection, there were some studies done

using narrative inquiry(Hsieh, 2006, 2007; Cadman, 1997), some examined the texts through discourse

analysis(Rhee & Sagaria, 2004; Koehne, 2006), some conducted single case studies(Kher et al., 2003).

There was also a research done by conducting ethnographic studies over 9 months (Angelova &

Riazantseva, 1999). In the narrations, Hsieh (2006, 2007) listened and reported the stories of other

international students, and Cadman (1997) reflected himself as an advisor in the higher education

institution. The discourses from both what international students said (e.g. Green & Kim, 2005) and

how they are talked about by related stakeholders (Rhee & Sagaria, 2004) are analyzed. Those authors

contributed by voicing issues of international students to the academic public.

During the review of these articles, although quantitative studies provided clear guidelines or

models of the behavioral, conceptual and affective changes within international students, and

although qualitative studies portrayed insights and voices directly from students and stakeholders, the

international students were still treated as ‘Others’ and research objects. Although most of the studies

advocated suggestions to international students, the core of the studies was to generate academic

knowledge to feed the areas of ESL, higher education, social psychology, or policy studies.


Kenzen Chen

6

Topics of International College Students

According to the literatures I have retrieved and read, I divided the researchers’ concerns into five

categories, second language acquisition, identity and adaptation, perceptions of discrimination,

learning experiences and quality, and motivations and career placements. The key findings and

contributions of those articles are discussed.

Second Language Acquisition

Language is an essential component in human’s daily communication. For the sake of better

learning competence, international students are always required to provide the transcript of language

tests to the host countries, such as TOEFL and IELTS in English‐speaking countries. Most of the higher

education institutes have established benchmarks for prospective applicants. Although the universities

have screened the applicants by test results, whether the scores guarantee the students language

ability or not, especially in speaking and academic writing, are problematic. Early in 1993, there were

researches trying to examine the relationship between the test results and the academic achievement

and social adjustment without any prior studies (Vinke & Jochems, 1993). For example, Vinke and

Jochems (1993) traced the academic performances of international students majoring in engineering

from Indonesia, and compared them with their TOEFL scores. In the study, they found a possible

explanation for a correlation between the two, but the result was limited to the small sample and the

same academic background. Another interesting finding is, they also found that TOEFL score can only

explain a very little portion of students’ initial exam scores in further learning performances (Vinke &

Jochems, 1993, p. 283). That is to say, the real English language proficiency of international students


Kenzen Chen

7

needs to be examined in detail rather than rely on existing test scores like TOEFL.

Within speaking concerns, Lindemann, S. (2005) surveyed the native US English speakers, to see

how they construct social categories for people outside the U.S. by describing the foreign students’

spoken “broken English”, and seeing how they identify that term. She found that American college

students tend to express an evaluative and stigmatized way for all non‐native speakers except perhaps

(Western) Europeans. Furthermore, she tried to address the issues of language discrimination that the

international student could face during their learning (Lindemann, 2005).

Considering academic writing abilities developments and problems, Angelova and Riazantseva

(1999) traced four international students by 9‐month ethnographic research. They found that their

first language writing habits do effect their second language writing attitude; moreover, in the

beginning, international students find it difficult to find a topic for writing classroom assignments; they

need to work harder to become familiar with the structure, professional terming and organization of

American academic writing, and they lack rich vocabularies to express personal opinions in the

assignments. If there is no information sharing among US university professors and their international

students, students would keep these painful problems till the end of their studies (Angelova &

Riazantseva, 1999, p. 520). As an advisor for many years, Cadman (1997) reflected his experiences on

guiding international students with their thesis writing tasks. He found that in order to facilitate

students English language identity, it is necessary to help them build a bridge between their internal

dialogue and external challenges from the new environments.

Other than the research directly related to language proficiency and learning, researchers also

asked indirect questions about the relationship between English ability and other adaptation related

constructs. Poyrazli and Kavanaugh (2006) found there were significant differences between Asian and

European’s English proficiency, and this difference did correlate with academic achievement. In

addition, Yang, Noels, and Saumure (2006) examined the relationship among self‐construals, English


Kenzen Chen

8

language self‐confidence, and cross‐cultural adaptation of international students, by studying 81

international students at a western Canadian university. A number of researchers considered the ‘‘fit’’

between international students’ internalized self‐views and those of the host society, however,

developing linguistic and communication skill and in host language will also help students gain positive

learning experience and cross‐cultural adaptation (Yang, Noels & Saumure, 2006, p. 491).

Identity and Adaptation

Typically, international students arrive at the host countries with clear academic goals, but they

may not have considered what their social life will be like (Trice, 2004, p. 671), and are shocked by

many uncertainties after arrival (Ye, 2006). Research suggests that student sojourners often

experience greater adjustment difficulties than other immigration groups due to they temporary

contact with the host society with fewer personal resources (family and peer networks, etc.) to buffer

the adjustment process (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh, 2006). When discussing international students’

perception and behavior during study abroad, the adaptation process and development were key

issues that researchers do care about. What do international students learn and cope with in the

second culture, how do they build their multi‐identities, what difficulties do they face, which

backgrounds or capacities or attitudes are helpful with this adaption process, and what strategies and

assistances provided from host universities could really help them reduce the painful process, are

researchers’ major concerns.

Many factors influence sojourners’ adjustment to the host culture like language proficiency,

gender, age, education level, status, self‐esteem, and prior cross‐cultural experience (Rosenthal,

Russell, & Thomson, 2007). One of the well‐known concepts discussed were “culture shock” processes.

According to Chapdelaine and Alexitch (2004, p.168‐169), researchers offer cognitive, behavioral,


Kenzen Chen

9

phenomenological, as well as psychological and sociocultural explanations of culture shock, and tried

to explain the adjustment stresses when individuals relocate to another culture. To follow,

Chapdelaine and Alexitch (2004) tested the Social Skills and Culture Learning Model of Culture Shock

argued by Furnham and Bochner (1982), and found that both cross‐cultural differences and previous

cross‐cultural experiences not only actually have a direct effect on culture shock, but cause effects

through international students’ social interactions with hosts. This study suggests an intermediary role

played by the international student advisors. Another discussed whether social capital theory can

successfully explain the frequency of international students’ interaction with American students. Trice

(2004) concluded that owing to similar cultural heritage, Western Europeans establishing relationships

with Americans easier than other world regions, and those who regularly interact with Americans will

increase their understanding about other cultures. Moreover, because of lots “pre‐arrival exposure” to

American culture through mass media, Taiwanese students cannot be said to have suffered obvious

culture shock in their first‐year of study (Ying, 2005, p. 67). Other background factors such as marital

status were a concern of researchers. For example, researchers admitted that marriage has a

significant importance on international students' lives, and helps them feel lower levels of adjustment

strain. However, a married international student would likely spend a substantial portion of time in the

company of their spouses, which may diminish opportunities for social interaction with both other

international and domestic students and causes an increased social isolation (Poyrazli & Kavanaugh,

2006). Yet it is interesting that Trice(2004) explained in alternative way that although married students

interacted less with Americans than single students, they would had the support from their spouse

and have less need for outside friendships.

Thus it can be seen that there are diverse explanations possible concerning international

students’ adaptation. Some researchers tried to conduct a longitudinal research design in order to find

relationships and the gradual changes within key variables to address this complexity. Ying (2005)


Kenzen Chen

10

clarified the change pattern of five major problems that international students feel difficult to adjust.

Findings of significant time differences showed that from the first academic year, problems with

academics and unfamiliar climate declined significantly; then problems with homesickness, cultural

difference, and social isolation declined significantly during the second academic year (Ying, 2005).

Researchers kept eyes on factors impacting students’ adaptation except personal characters and

backgrounds. For instance, Yang, Noels and Saumure (2006) emphasized successful cross‐cultural

experiences depended on both personal character and communicative competences, and those

experiences would feedback to individual’s self‐confidence.

There is other research related to the process of adaptation. Some researchers examined the

relations between predicting factors, such as Wang and Mallinckrodt (2006) found that in the process

of acculturation, high attachment anxiety and avoidance can be predictors of international students’

sociocultural difficulties and psychological distress. Moreover, Li and Gasser (2005) checked the

intermediated impact of host contact between cross‐cultural self‐efficacy and sociocultural

adjustment. Others tried to examine the effectiveness of existing theories. For example, Burnapp

(2006) reviewed the limitation of two theories: U‐curve and learning curve theories. The U‐curve

believes that international students would perceive an initial stage like honeymoon, and then

followed by frustration and anxiety, and after gain recovery and adaptation; the learning curve

denied the stage of honeymoon and argued that the adaptation should be a gradual progress.

Burnapp (2006) concluded that the adaptation process should not be a linear line but an endless

cycle, and the end result should be accepted “hybridity rather than complete acculturation” (p. 91).

Ye (2006) mentioned the previous studies of cross‐cultural adaptation had mostly looked at positive

functions of new social networks that sojourners established in the host country. She wished to

discover the roles of online ethnic social groups. Her findings indicated that although the online

ethnic social groups was not the host groups or individuals providing useful assistances for


Kenzen Chen

11

international students to accommodate in the host society, these groups still played a proactive role

on supporting those students affectively and informatively.

Compared to the majority of studies which described intrapersonal harmony and a positive

adaptation as the ultimate goal for international students, there were a few researchers who

addressed students’ identity negotiation and the cultivation of their multi‐identities during time of

studying abroad. Poyrazli and Lopez (2007) studied international students’ homesickness and related

predictors, Koehne (2006) conducted interviews of 25 international students, to see how they

described themselves. The interviewees talked about the “the endless speaking of the Westerners as

experts with valuable knowledge” over their learning (Koehne, p. 255). However, students developed a

strong desire to resist this ‘endlessly speaking’ as the only one source, and tended to provide and

export their local knowledge as a vehicle of capacity building. A narrative inquiry of the female

experiences of Chinese international students reported that although they recognized it vital to

conform to the social norms of the host society, they did not conform but negotiated their given

identities, and tried to direct the interactions to their own favor (Hsieh, 2006). They still tried to be

accepted and to succeed (Robertson et al., 2000).Those findings indicate that international students

devote themselves to building their identities by coping, negotiating and countering the host

mainstream cultures.

Perceptions of Discrimination

Many of the researchers looked at the problems of international students’ adaptation mainly in

the dimension of the adjustments they faced. However, Lee and Rice (2007) appealed that some of the

more serious challenges that international students met are due to “inadequacies within the host


Kenzen Chen

12

society” (p. 381). There are both quantitative and qualitative researches concerning international

students’ perceptions of discrimination. Quantitative studies eager to find out if there are differences

among ethnic groups and discriminations, or, to make sure what factors can predict the

discriminations. Not only for the general findings like language proficiency, gender differences, but age

predicts the level of discrimination. A survey study found plenty of interesting results such as the more

time international students spent living in the US, the more perceived discrimination they would have;

students with better English understood more verbal behaviors of discrimination; and, academic

achievement did not correlate with discriminations(Poyrazli & Lopez, 2007), or even the degrees of

acculturation(Buddington, 2002). Lindemann (2005) discovered one component of discrimination, the

linguistic prejudice of non‐native English by native US English speakers. He found that if native US

English speakers listened to a non‐accent English by foreign students, they tended to give positive

evaluations because they are “better than expected” (p. 210). Robertson et al. (2000) also found that

staff always criticized international students’ language ability without empathy.

For the qualitative studies, Lee and Rice (2007) interviewed 24 international students from 15

countries, to consider the difficulties in perceptions of unfairness and inhospitality to cultural

intolerance they have met after 911. They analyzed the students’ experiences within the conceptual

framework of neo‐racism, which was “acquired through acculturation within an ethnic group” (p. 389).

Students felt uncomfortable with ways they were treated, such as a Chinese female reported that she

felt “that’s not the place that you should be” (p. 397), or met interpersonal difficulties with an advisor

due to cultural intolerance(p. 398), and got verbal attacks like “go back to your country” (p. 399). Lee

and Rice criticized the adaptation studies as failing to critically examine the underlying reasons as to

why international students struggle in their host environment. Other than Western countries,

international students in Japan also faced those problems, for example African and other Asian

students there felt they were treated as inferior(Murphy‐Shigematsu, 2002).


Kenzen Chen

13

Two scholars described female experiences of discriminations. Hsieh (2007) narrated a story of a

girl, Li‐Ling, from Hong Kong. Li‐Ling recalled her learning experiences with American classmates and

felt they thought her stupid and incompetent, and was outside the class groups due to her silence. To

solve this conflict, she decided to achieve high GPAs to prove her competent. Another Korean female

doctoral students’ story was about how they raised their voice against gender and racial stereotypes.

For example, as an Asian, they were burdened as “cute little girls” or “model minorities” (Green & Kim,

2005). The former indicates that their voice would not be noticed and their actions would not be

considered as adult by white people; the latter indicates the stereotype myth that all Asian are always

successful on coping with all difficulties like academic achievement in the host country.

Rhee and Sagaria (2004) interpreted the phenomenon by a broad sense of domination. They

conducted a critical discourse analysis over the “Chronicle of Higher Education” from 1996 to 1999,

and concluded three themes of U.S. imperialism: international students as capital (sources of tuition

fees and cheap diligent workforces), international students as subjugated ‘Others’, and imperialism as

self‐identity. Rhee and Sagaria (2004) argued the imperialism as “a self‐identity preserves the elite

status of U.S.‐educated international students beyond its borders and the proud U.S. claim of being an

educator of world leaders” (p. 91). Back to the micro level, Lee and Rice (2007) also critiqued the

atmosphere that:

International students confront an array of cultural adjustments, but the responsibility is often left to the

student to ‘adjust’ or ‘adapt’ to the host culture rather than for institutions to understand and try to

accommodate their unique needs. (p. 386)

After September, 11, 2001, the policies of border and homeland security become a vital concern

that shaped and inhibited recruiting international students in the United States. As the hearings and

progress reports in House of Representatives that I retrieved, the issues of how to monitor and


Kenzen Chen

14

security check those foreign students to ensure the country’s safety were discussed for years (e.g.

United States Congress House, 2003, 2004, 2005, 2007). In this atmosphere, international students are

suspected, labeled and linked with terrorists. Those kinds of discriminations impacted not only

students, but also university staffs who provide services to them. For example, Rosser et al. (2007)

surveyed the changes of international students and scholar services in universities after 911, they

argued that:

SEVIS [Student and Exchange Visitor Information System] ‘‘discourages exchange’’, yet many ISSAs

[international student and scholar advisors] are in the profession to promote international exchange, as

revealed in their comments about joining the profession. Moreover, there is stress surrounding how to

serve the cultural and academic needs of international students and scholars in an environment that

focuses on reporting rather than relationship building. (p. 540)

It should be wondered if international students could not get enough and instantaneously

assistances when they demand the services. For Rosser, many staff members who treated ISSAs as

their personal careers for helping international students, have left the positions due to the policy

change after 911.

Learning Experiences and Quality

International students stay in the host countries for only a couple of years, but researchers also

care about their school lives and learning quality. Some researchers just did surveys to know whether

international students were satisfied with learning and well‐being in the host countries (e.g. Sam,

2001); others seek deep explanations and suggestions.

Researchers who described students’ English proficiency also addressed studies and suggestions


Kenzen Chen

15

about how to improve their writing and communicative ability by universities’ facilitations. For

example, ESL courses are vital to international students in their first year learning, this is the only way

where students acquire the knowledge of American academic writing systematically without resolving

those problems during the whole school life in America (Angelova & Riazantseva, 1999). Cadman

(1997) narrated his advising story and reflected that the struggle to represent oneself in this specific

way in writing extends far more deeply than the construction of a textual product for international

students. He suggested that a reflexive teaching context should be established for international

students as a bridge over their internal dialogue and external academic environment (p. 12). While

English knowledge and academic preparation are positive indicators of success in foreign study, some

countries like Turkey misinterpret the consequences as the only standard to select prospective

students (Mathews, 2007). The research results and practical implications remain unclear and

controversial for policy making.

Some researches focused on graduate students’ learning experiences. For example, it can be

found international students had much more difficulty in becoming part of peer student cultures and

academic cultures than did home and full‐time students, but they seemed most able to enter and

embrace research training cultures (Deem & Brehony, 2000). They suggested that each department

should provide an entry course about research training, in order to help them be familiar with

research cultures. In another finding, international students considered a mentor’s willingness to

engage in a personal relationship with them to be more important to their definition of a mentor than

did domestic students (Rose, 2005, p. 72). In other words, international students expected an advisor

who helped their enculturation process or even built interpersonal involvement. For Australian

experiences, the assisting programs or course becomes more important due to the increasing

enrollment and class size of students (Beasley & Pearson, 1999).

Among these learning problems, Robertson et al.(2000) argued for an integrated perspective on


Kenzen Chen

16

problems international students faced during their learning, including language, tuition cost, and

feelings of isolation. Back to the larger scale of all international students, services such as admission,

registration, residence life, and dining do not well accommodate international students despite the

greater needs in tertiary education institutions (Kher et al., 2003). Murphy‐Shigematsu (2002) also

recommended international students need careful assessment, positive feedback, and sincere

encouragement by stakeholders like campus counselors. Rosenthal, Russell, and Thomson (2007) also

reported that international students in Australia always lack the contact with people who know them

as individuals, and who care about them personally and with whom they can talk at a personal level (p.

81). Those findings indicate that resource persons and facilities are quite necessary for international

students.

Motivations and Career Placements

Some scholars described the issues of why international students decided to study abroad, their

career plans after graduation, and the impacts toward their learning experiences through differences

within the two dimensions.

One study was found in the recent literature about motivations to study abroad. Chirkov et al.

(2007) reviewed migration motivation literatures of immigrants, and designed a study of international

students based on the former findings. They examined if international students were self‐determined

in their decision to study abroad, and would their cultural adaptation be more successful than

non‐self‐determined students. The findings indicated that if international students felt themselves

standing personally behind this decision to study abroad and not driven by external expectations, their

adaptation to a new cultural environment would be more successful. It shows that the “voluntary vs.

forced theory” of immigration adapts to international students, too (Chirkov et al., 2007, p. 216).


Kenzen Chen

17

In dimensions of career choices, Shen & Herr (2004) conducted an exploratory study by in depth

interview to see the variations of factors international students have in their career plans. Specifically,

the factors affecting the students’ plans ranged from individual concerns to collective concerns, which

led to different considerations of their future possibilities to stay in or leave the United States after

their graduation (p. 24). They also suggest that international students’ career placement requires both

job search skills and know how with their professional fields; their career needs should be assisted by

school agencies. Singaravelu, White, and Bringaze (2005) found that international students’ career

choices would change over time compared to former literatures, and there are differences among

diverse ethnic backgrounds in career certainty. Moreover, they reported that most of the international

students expressed the need for assistance in their academic and career decision making but did not

seek career counseling services offered at the university (p. 55). This could be a warning message to

university career counselors.

Conclusions and Suggestions

The goals of this literature review were to try to get a scope of how international students are

researched and discussed, what was described, and what was neglected. Consequently, based on the

literature reviewed, research on international students was very active owing to the huge trend of

international education. To stand firmly or the former studies like immigrants and social psychology,

there are many ready‐made theories and instruments applicable for researchers, and bring sounding

research outcomes. After reviewing those articles, I would like to propose several suggestions

theoretical, methodological, and educational, through different dimensions for further research.

Theoretically, the efforts of predecessors have provide rich reasoning resources for international


Kenzen Chen

18

students from the micro scale like living, learning, identity, and acculturation to larger scale like

discrimination, achievement, and related political issues. Based on the outcomes, there are two gaps

that researchers may consider to fill. First, how the formation process of stereotypes towards

international students impact their learning and living. Take the biased myth “model minorities” as an

example, although many Asians come to the United State with higher social economics status and

cultural capital, it does not mean that the students will receive and transfer the advantages to their

competences of learning. Moreover, there are still students studying abroad without those advantages.

The background and rationale of such stereotype making and labeling of international students should

be discovered thoroughly, for the groundwork of promoting correcting actions.

Secondly, the mechanism and the standard of selecting students should be examined continually.

The admission sections of higher education institutions and the grant agencies (governments,

foundations, NGOs, and so forth) relied on the findings and theories of measurements and

assessments to judge the most appropriate candidates for providing them opportunities toward

advanced education. However, the predictors found were still problematic on projecting students’

academic achievements. There are still high demands researches in the fields.

Methodologically, diverse research approaches were widely applied in the literatures. There are

two suggestion addressed as followed. Quantitatively, considering the limitation of individual

researchers’ capacity of collecting valid data, it is essential to establish a longitudinal database system

by national government agencies such as National Center for Education Statistics (NCES), for the

purpose of gathering the basic and survey information of international students. Therefore,

researchers can utilize these given secondary database for further analysis, and discover the results

comparable to other countries.

Qualitatively, for the sake of academic purpose itself, the direct interests and voices of

international students are usually overlooked by the researchers of host countries. In order to depict


Kenzen Chen

19

the whole life history and to express the deep understanding and meanings, the autobiographical

studies with narrative inquiry by international students themselves should be encouraged and assisted.

The prospect researches will provide a meaningful views of how international students think and feel,

what they care, and why they do in their daily lives. These alternative studies will be valuable

discourses in educational fields.

Educationally, there are several suggestions claimed. To begin with, the impacts of governmental

policies and actions after September 11, 2001 should be examined more carefully. According to

literatures, these policies influences not only international students themselves, but also all the

environments in tertiary education. The achievement and side‐effects should be examined for

educational purposes. Moreover, the harmonizing and understanding of each individual’s embedded

cultures should be set into actions by society. Despite the importance of acculturation with

international students’ learning success, it is still vital to help them gracefully with patience and skill,

because they have to adjust themselves with higher cognitive and affective loads between original

cultures and host cultures.

Besides, the opportunities and assistances for cross‐cultural understanding in universities should

be provided systematically. Foreign language and cultural courses, extra‐curricular clubs and cultural

associations, and faculties around the world should collaborate together to foster an empathetic

supporting cultures for international and domestic students to catch on each other. For example, to

encourage international graduate students join the multicultural classroom as resource teachers, or

provide host family projects, or enhance the language exchange projects, could help facilitate the

interactions and appreciations for all college members.

As a prospective researcher myself, the major reflection of those readings help me understand

how the outside world looks at me as an international student. Although I am not choosing higher

education as my major career in the future, those findings also impulse me to think of what I can


Kenzen Chen

20

devote, to raise more conscious of this issues toward the host countries and my country. I think it

could be meaningful to write journals of my experiences and insights during this learning period in the

United States. Hopefully, the reflections of mine could be beneficial some day.


Kenzen Chen

21

References

Angelova, M., & Riazantseva, A. (1999). "If you don't tell me, how can I know?": A case study of four international students

learning to write the U.S. way. Written Communication, 1, 491‐525.

Beasley, C. J., & Pearson, C. A. L. (1999). Facilitating the learning of transitional students: Strategies for success for all

students. Higher Education Research & Development, 18(3), 303‐321.

Buddington, S. A. (2002). Acculturation, psychological adjustment (stress, depression, self‐esteem) and the academic

achievement of Jamaican immigrant college students. International Social Work, 45, 447‐464.

Burnapp, D. (2006). Trajectories of adjustment of international students: U‐curve, learning curve, or third space.

Intercultural Education, 17(1), 81‐93.

Cadman, K. (1997). Thesis writing for international students: A question of identity? English for Specific Purposes, 16, 3‐14.

Chapdelaine, R. F., & Alexitch, L. R. (2004). Social skills difficulty: Model of culture shock for international graduate students.

Journal of College Student Development, 45, 167‐184.

Chirkov, V., Vansteenkiste, M., Tao, R., & Lynch, M. (2007). The role of self‐determined motivation and goals for study

abroad in the adaptation of international students. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 31, 199‐222.

Deem, R., & Brehony, K. J. (2000). Doctoral students' access to research cultures‐‐are some more unequal than others?

Studies in Higher Education, 25(2), 149‐165.

Furnham, A., & Bochner, S. (1986). Culture shock. New York: Methuen & Co.

Green, D.O., & Kim, E.(2005). Experiences of Korean female doctoral students in academe: Raising voice against gender and

racial stereotypes. Journal of College Student Development, 46, 487‐500.

Hsieh, M. (2006). Identity negotiation among female Chinese international students in second‐language higher education.

College Student Journal, 40 , 870‐884.

Hsieh, M. (2007). Challenges for international students in higher education: One student's narrated story of invisibility and

struggle. College Student Journal, 41, 379‐391.

Institute of International Education(2007). Open Doors Report 2007: Report on international educational exchange.

Retrieved November, 11, 2007 from http://opendoors.iienetwork.org/

Kher, N., Juneau, G. and Molstad, S. (2003). From the southern hemisphere to the rural south: A Mauritian students’

version of coming to America, College Student Journal, 37, 564–569.

Koehne, N. (2006). (Be)coming, (be)longing: Ways in which international students talk about themselves. Discourse: Studies

in the Cultural Politics of Education, 27, 241‐257.

Lee, J., & Rice, C. (2007). Welcome to America? International student perceptions of discrimination. Higher Education, 53,

381‐409.

Li, A., & Gasser, M. B. (2005). Predicting Asian international students' sociocultural adjustment: A test of two mediation

models. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29(5), 561‐576.


Kenzen Chen

22

Lindemann, S. (2005). Who speaks "broken English"? US undergraduates' perceptions of non‐native English. International

Journal of Applied Linguistics, 15, 187‐212.

Mathews, J. (2007). Predicting international students' academic success...... may not always be enough: Assessing Turkey's

foreign study scholarship program. Higher Education: The International Journal of Higher Education and Educational

Planning, 53(5), 645‐673.

Murphy‐Shigematsu, S. (2002). Psychological barriers for international students in Japan. International Journal for the

Advancement of Counseling, 24(1), 19‐30.

National Center for Education Statistics(2007). Foreign students in higher education: 2004. In Education indicators: An

international perspective(pp.12‐13). Retrieved November, 11, 2007 from

http://nces.ed.gov/surveys/international/intlindicators/pdf/2007006_foreign.pdf

Poyrazli, S., & Kavanaugh, P. R. (2006). Marital status, ethnicity, academic achievement, and adjustment strains: The case of

graduate international students. College Student Journal, 40, 767‐780.

Poyrazli, S., & Lopez, M. D. (2007). An exploratory study of perceived discrimination and homesickness: A comparison of

international students and American students. Journal of Psychology, 141, 263‐280.

Rhee, J., & Sagaria, M. A. D. (2004). International students: Constructions of imperialism in the "Chronicle of Higher

Education". Review of Higher Education, 28, 77‐96.

Robertson, M., Line, M., Jones, S. and Thomas, S. (2000). International students learning environments and perceptions: A

case study using the Delphi technique. Higher Education Research and Development 19, 89–102.

Rose, G. L. (2005). Group differences in graduate students' concepts of the ideal mentor. Research in Higher Education, 46,

53‐80.

Rosenthal, D. A., Russell, J., & Thomson, G. (2007). Social connectedness among international students at an Australian

university. Social Indicators Research, 84, 71–82.

Rosser, V. J., Hermsen, J. M., Mamiseishvili, K., & Wood, M. S. (2006). A national study examining the impact of SEVIS on

international student and scholar advisors. Higher Education, 54, 525–542.

Sam, D. L. (2001). Satisfaction with life among international students: An exploratory study. Social Indicators Research, 53,

315‐337.

Shen, Y. J., & Herr, E. L. (2004). Career placement concerns of international graduate students: A qualitative study. Journal

of Career Development, 31, 15‐29.

Singaravelu, H.D., White, L.J., & Bringaze, T.B. (2005). Factors influencing international students’ career choice: A

comparative study. Journal of Career Development, 32(1), 46‐59.

Trice, A. G. (2004). Mixing it up: International graduate students' social interactions with American students. Journal of

College Student Development, 45, 671‐687.

United States Congress House (2003). Dealing with foreign students and scholars in an age of terrorism: Visa backlogs and

tracking systems: Hearing before the Committee on Science, House of Representatives, One Hundred Eighth Congress,

first session, March 26, 2003. DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

United States Congress House (2004). Addressing the new reality of current visa policy on international students and

researchers: Hearing before the Committee on Foreign Relations, United States Senate, One Hundred Eighth Congress,


Kenzen Chen

23

second session, October 6, 2004. DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

United States Congress House (2005).Tracking international students in higher education : a progress report: Hearing

before the Subcommittee on 21st Century Competitiveness and the Subcommittee on Select Education of the

Committee on Education and the Workforce, U.S. House of Representatives, One Hundred Ninth Congress, first session,

March 17, 2005. DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

United States Congress House (2007). International students and visiting scholars: Trends, barriers, and implications for

American universities and U.S. foreign policy: Joint hearing before the Subcommittee on International Organizations,

Human Rights, and Oversight of the Committee on Foreign Affairs, and the Subcommittee on Higher Education,

Lifelong Learning, and Competitiveness, Committee on Education and Labor, House of Representatives, One Hundred

Tenth Congress, first session, June 29, 2007. DC.: U.S. Government Printing Office.

Vinke, A. A., & Jochems, W. M. G. (1993). English proficiency and academic success in international postgraduate education.

Higher Education, 26(3), 275‐ 285.

Wang, C. C. &, Mallinckrodt, B. (2006). Acculturation, Attachment, and Psychosocial Adjustment of Chinese/Taiwanese

International Students. Journal of Counseling Psychology, 53(4), 422‐433.

Yang, R., Noels, K., & Saumure, K. (2006). Multiple routes to cross‐cultural adaptation for international students: Mapping

the paths between self‐construals, English language confidence, and adjustment. International Journal of Intercultural

Relations, 30 , 487‐506.

Ye, J. (2006). Traditional and online support networks in the cross‐cultural adaptation of Chinese international students in

the united states. Journal of Computer‐Mediated Communication, 11, 863‐876.

Ying, Y. W.(2005). Variation in acculturative stressors over time: A study of Taiwanese students in the United States.

International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 59–71.

Depicting a whole picture: A review of recent literature concerning international college students

Documents