1 ANINWEZE, CHIDINMA ANITA PG/M.ED/08/48952 EFFECTS OF TWO INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY APPROACHES ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND RETENTION IN BIOLOGY FACULTY OF EDUCATION DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION Ameh Joseph Jnr Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name DN : CN = Webmaster’s name O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka OU = Innovation Centre
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ANINWEZE, CHIDINMA ANITA
PG/M.ED/08/48952
EFFECTS OF TWO INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY APPROACHES ON SENIOR
SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT AND RETENTION IN
BIOLOGY
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
Ameh Joseph Jnr
Digitally Signed by: Content manager’s Name
DN : CN = Webmaster’s name
O= University of Nigeria, Nsukka
OU = Innovation Centre
2
EFFECTS OF TWO INSTRUCTIONAL DELIVERY APPROACHES
ON SENIOR SECONDARY SCHOOLS STUDENTS’ ACHIEVEMENT
AND RETENTION IN BIOLOGY
BY
ANINWEZE, CHIDINMA ANITA
PG/M.ED/08/48952
M.Ed THESIS SUBMITTED TO THE
DEPARTMENT OF SCIENCE EDUCATION
FACULTY OF EDUCATION
UNIVERSITY OF NIGERIA,
NSUKKA
JUNE, 2014
3
4
CERTIFICATION
Aninweze, Chidinma B, a postgraduate student in the Department of Science Education
with Registration Number PG/M.ED/08/48952 has satisfactorily completed the requirements for the
degree of Master of Education in Biology Education.
The work embodied in this thesis is original and has not been submitted in part or full for
any other Degree in this or any other university.
________________________ __________________
Aninweze, Chidinma Blessing Prof. U.M.Nzewi
(Student) (Supervisor)
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DEDICATION
This research is dedicated to the Almighty God, Ever faithful: Source and custodian of all
knowledge.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I sincerely appreciate the contributions made by various people at different stages of this
research work and the entire programme. In a special way, I am ever grateful to my supervisor Prof.
U.M. Nzewi, who took time to guide her, right from when the research topic was approved to the
final documentation of the report of this study. It was not an easy task, but she in her motherly care,
listening ears and corrections helped us arrive at what we have in this documentation piece. I pray
that God will lift her to higher grounds.
My heartfelt gratitude goes to Prof. A.A. Nwosu, Dr. L.N. Nworgu, Dr. B.C. Madu and Dr.
T. Ofoegbu for their constructive criticisms at the various stages of the research work. Special
thanks to Emma Nwangwu who assisted me greatly in the production of the instructional materials
(VTI and PPP CD ROM) and was always patient at all times. My thanks also goes to Dr. Okoye
Amaka, Miss Okoyefi Queendaline and all my colleagues for their contributions towards the
completion of this work. The teachers and students that participated in the study are also
appreciated.
I am most grateful to my father, Surv. Silas U. Eze and my late mother, Mrs. Alice C. Eze
for giving me the opportunity to start this academic journey and for their moral and financial
support. God bless you in Jesus name, Amen.
I remain eternally grateful to my beloved husband, Barr. Peter O. Ugwu for all his
encouragement and financial support. Dear, you are one in a million. God will lift you up to
enviable heights.
Finally, and above all, the researcher acknowledges God, who inspired her and gave her the
wisdom, grace and strength to move on. To Him be praise forever.
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ABSTRACT
The study examined the effects of two instructional delivery approaches on senior secondary
schools students’ achievement and retention in biology. The two instructional delivery approaches
used were Videotaped instructions (VTI) and Power point presentations (PPP). VTI is a form of
multimedia that conveys information through two simultaneous sensory channels: aural and visual
while PPP is a presentation package that allows you to produce on screen computer presentations,
overhead projection transparencies, posters and web-pages. Biology students taught with VTI were
compared with their counterpart taught with PPP, to ascertain whether significant differences exist
in their mean achievement and retention scores. The study also investigated the influence of gender
on students’ mean achievement and retention scores in Biology when taught with VTI and PPP.
The design of the study is the pretest-posttest non-equivalent group design. Seventy – Nine (79)
Biology students in Senior Secondary Two (SSII) were drawn from two intact classes. The two
treatment groups (VTI and PPP) were randomly assigned to the intact classes. Biology
Achievement Test (BAT) and Biology Retention Test (BRT) were administered as Pre-test, Post-
test and delayed Post-test respectively. Six research questions and six hypotheses were also
formulated to guide the study. The research questions were answered using mean and standard
deviation while the hypotheses were tested using Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). The result of
the analysis showed that VTI had a significant effect on students’ achievement and retention in
Biology. Gender was a significant factor in students achievement as the male students achieved
higher than the female students. Gender also has a significant effect on student retention as the male
students retained higher in total mean retention scores but females retained better when taught using
VTI. Following the findings and implications of this study, it was recommended that Biology
teachers should employ the use of VTI in teaching Biology to enhance students’ achievement and
retention. It was concluded that VTI was more effective in enhancing students’ achievement and
retention in Biology in Senior Secondary Schools. Suggestions for further studies were also made,
one of which is; a study to investigate the effect of VTI on students’ acquisition of science process
skills and interest in biology.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title page - - - - - - - - i
Approval page - - - - - - - - ii
Certification - - - - - - - - - iii
Dedication - - - - - - - iv
Acknowledgment - - - - - - - - v
Abstract - - - - - - - - - vi
Table of contents - - - - - - - - vii
List of tables - - - - - - - - - x
CHAPTER ONE: INTRODUCTION - - - - - 1
Background to the study - - - - - - - 1
Statement of the problem - - - - - - - 9
Purpose of the study - - - - - - - - 10
Significance of the study - - - - - - - 10
Scope of the study - - - - - - - - 11
Research questions - - - - - - - - 12
Hypotheses - - - - - - - - - 13
CHAPTER TWO: LITERATURE REVIEW - - - - 14
Conceptual framework - - - - - -- - 15
• Concept of instructional materials - - - - - 15
• Instructional delivery approach - - - - - 17
• Power Point Presentation in teaching and learning - - 19
• Video-taped Instructions - - - - - - 21
• Students’ Achievement in Biology - - - - - 23
• Gender and students’ Achievement in science - - - 24
• Concept of Retention - - - - - - 26
Theoretical framework - - - - - - - 33
• Stimulus – Response (S-R) theory - - - - - 30
• Social – cognitive theory - - - - - - 31
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Empirical studies - - - - - - - - 33
• Studies on the use of Power Point Presentation - - - 33
• Studies on the use of video-taped Instructions - - - 35
• Studies on gender and students’ achievement in science - - 38
• Studies on retention - - - - - - - 41
Summary of literature review - - - - - - 43
CHAPTER THREE: RESEARCH METHODS - - - - 46
Research design - - - - - - - - 46
Area of the study - - - - - - - - 47
Population of the study - - - - - - - 47
Sample and sampling technique - - - - - - 47
Instrument for data collection - - - - - - 48
Development of instructional materials - - - - - 48
Validation of instrument for data collection and instructional materials - 49
Reliability of instruments - - - - - - - 49
Experimental procedure - - - - - - - 50
Control of extraneous variables - - - - - - 50
Methods of Data collection - - - - - - - 52
Method of Data Analysis - - - - - - - 52
CHAPTER FOUR: RESULTS - - - - - - 53
Summary of results - - - - - - - - 61
CHAPTER FIVE: DISCUSSION OF RESULT, CONCLUSION,
IMPLICATIONS, RECOMMENDATION AND SUMMARY - - 62
Discussion of results - - - - - - - - 62
Conclusion - - - - - - - - - 66
Educational implications - - - - - - - 67
Recommendations - - - - - - - - 68
Limitation of the study - - - - - - - 69
Suggestions for further research - - - - - - 69
Summary of the study - - - - - - - 69
References - - - - - - - - - 71
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Appendices - - - - - - - - - 79
A. Script for First Lesson - - - - - - 79
B. A section of Senior Secondary School Core Curriculum for Biology - 114
C. Biology Achievement Test - - - - - - 115
D. Biology Retention Test - - - - - - 119
E. Table of specification - - - - - - - 123
F. Week/Lesson schedule - - - - - - 124
G. Answers to Biology Achievement Test - - - - 125
H. Computation of KR20 Reliability Co-efficient - - - 126
I. Summary of validators’ comment - - - - - 128
J. List of Schools - - - - - - - 132
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X
X
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of students’ achievement in biology 53
Table 2: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of students’ retention in biology 54
Table 3: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of gender and students’ achievement
in biology 55
Table 4: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) of gender and students’
retention in biology 55
Table 5: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on interaction effect of mode of
instruction (VTI and PPP) and gender on the mean achievement
scores of students in biology 56
Table 6: Mean ( ) and Standard Deviation (SD) on interaction effect of mode of
instruction (VTI and PPP) and gender on the mean
retention scores of students in biology 57
Table 7: Analysis of covariance of students’ mean achievement scores in biology 58
Table 8: Analysis of covariance of students’ mean retention scores in biology 60
X
X
X
X
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CHAPTER ONE
INTRODUCTION
Background of the Study
Science has contributed immensely to the development of the modern world and has been
recognized as the bedrock on which modern day technological breakthrough is hanged. Nowadays,
countries all over the world, especially the developing ones like Nigeria, are striving hard to
develop technologically and scientifically. Since the world is turning scientific, proper functioning
of lives depend greatly on Science. Ogunleye (2002) stated that Science is a dynamic human
activity concerned with understanding the workings of our world. This understanding helps man to
know more about the universe. Without the application of science, it would have been difficult for
man to explore his environment. Science comprises the basic subjects such as Physics, Chemistry,
Mathematics, Agriculture and Biology.
Biology is one of the science subjects offered at the senior secondary school levels in Nigerian
Secondary Schools, (FRN, 2004). Biology is a very important science subject and a requirement for
higher learning in a number of science-related professional courses like medicine, agriculture,
pharmacy. According to Ofoegbu (2003), biology is a science subject done in secondary schools by
majority of the students and in most schools, it is optionally compulsory for all students in that, it is
one of the core subjects. It is therefore, a science subject that enables students to acquire the
knowledge to live effectively in the modern age of science and technology. In contemporary
Nigeria, greater emphasis is placed on science and technological development. As a result students
are being encouraged to take up science-related subjects and one subject that most students opt for
is Biology. Today, Biology pervades literally every field of human endeavour and it plays a
fundamental role in educational advancement.
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Nigeria’s need for an effective scientific and technological development appears to be
overwhelming as she is going through hard times in her history especially with regard to her
economy. This hard condition has partly resulted to a poor living standard of the people.
Agommuoh and Nzewi (2003) acknowledged that science and technology have always been
recognized as critical factors in the process of development. Science and Technology can provide
the basis for Nigeria’s social, economic and political well-being. Therefore, many people in Nigeria
have come to realize that science and Technology can be applied to solve many problems facing the
nation, especially as a result of the technological breakthrough in the advanced countries. Eno
(2005) predicted that in a short time to come, only persons with appropriate and appreciable
knowledge and skills in science and technology disciplines would be required in the job market.
The implication of this is that economic survival, relevance and social mobility will depend
considerably on the level and appropriateness of the knowledge and skills an individual has
acquired through science education. Science education is needed to dispel ignorance, poor cultural
practices and beliefs in the society. Nigerians are still enslaved by diseases, poverty and ignorance
and these calls for effective science education that is relevant to the improvement of the society.
The major goal of science education is to develop scientifically literate individuals that are
concerned with high competence for rational thoughts and actions. The objectives of science
education in this country according to Maduekwe (2006) include the need to prepare students to:
• Observe and explore the environment,
• Explain simple natural phenomena,
• Develop scientific attitudes including curiosity,
• Critical reflection and objectivity,
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• Apply the skills and knowledge gained through science to solve everyday problems in the
environment,
• Develop self-confidence and self-reliance through problem solving activities in science.
The importance of science education especially at the secondary school level cannot be over-
emphasized. Consequently, the Federal Government of Nigeria and all those concerned with
education have focused attention on how to improve science teaching and learning (FRN, 2004). To
this effect, some state governments have established special science schools at secondary school
level, the Science Teachers’ Association of Nigeria and other relevant agencies have mounted
several long vacation programmes, conferences, workshops, seminars, science fairs and quizzes in
order to improve science teaching and learning. Inspite of these actions, students’ achievement in
biology has remained low (Mandor 2002, Okoye 2003, Ibe 2006). For instance, the achievement of
students in Biology at the end of the secondary school has not improved lately in the last decade
(Umoinyang, 1999).
Poor achievement in Biology can be attributed to many factors such as: unavailability of
laboratory facilities, lack of instructional materials, inadequate time allocation, large class size and
poor instructional delivery approaches. According to Etukudo (2009), the fall in standard of
achievement in biology is incontrovertibly attributed to poor instructional delivery approach
adopted by teachers in schools. To support this assertion, Salau (2009) submitted that many
researchers have adduced that poor achievement in public examinations is traceable to instructional
delivery approaches adopted by teachers. The resultant effect is the low achievement and low
retention level in students outcome both in internal and external examinations. This implies that the
mastery of biology concept might not be fully achieved without the use of a good instructional
delivery approach that utilizes instructional materials. West African Examination Council (WAEC)
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Chief Examiner’s report (2005-2010) states that the persistent poor achievement of students in
biology at senior schools certificate examination leaves one in doubt about the effectiveness of
instructional materials and instructional delivery approaches popularly used by the biology teachers
for the teaching and learning of biology. Statistics from the West African Examination Council
(WAEC, 2010) revealed that achievements in biology in the May/June examinations has been on
the decline. Of the total number of students who sat for the examination in the year 2010, the total
percentage of candidates who attained credit level and above is 26% while 53.13% failed out
rightly. Also, statistics from the National Examination Council (NECO) indicate that the percentage
failure in Biology for years 2008, 2009 and 2010 were 55.80%, 57.60% and 55.20% respectively.
This trend if not arrested will spell doom for the scientific and technological development of the
nation. To this effect, the WAEC chief examiner proffered remedies to solve this problem, one of
which is adopting instructional delivery approaches that utilizes instructional materials to help
students understand biological concepts.
According to Ibeneme (2000), instructional materials are those materials used in the
classroom for instruction and demonstration purposes by teachers and students. The term
instructional materials are used to denote resource materials, devices or anything which can help
the achievement of learning objectives and which can transmit or help to transmit learning
experiences through any of the sense of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. In the field of
education, TLM is a commonly used acronym that stands for “teaching/ learning materials”.
Broadly, the term refers to a spectrum of instructional materials that teachers use in the classroom
to support specific learning objectives as set out in lesson plans (Davis and Wilcock, 2009). These
instructional materials are used to aid in transferring information from one person to another and
can be grouped in three; audio, visual and audio-visual. According to John (2009), audio-aids
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appeal only to the sense of hearing, therefore, learners focus more on the spoken word rather than
the written one. Examples of audio-aids include tape recorders, radio, audio compact disc. Visual-
aids are instructional materials that appeal only to the sense of seeing. Visual learners understand
meaning through graphic portrayals such as charts, pictures, power point presentations, models.
Audio-visual aids appeal to the sense of both hearing and seeing. Audio-visual aids make students
benefit as much content, skills and expertise of broadcast provided. Audio-visual aids have the
tendency to make the lessons more memorable and may also enhance retention. Examples of audio-
visual aids are videos, televisions, laptops, video-taped instruction.
According to Jocelyn (2010), instructional materials are important because they can
significantly increase students’ achievement and retention by supporting learning. Instructional
materials regardless of what kind all have some function in student learning. Jocelyn (2010) also
pointed out that instructional materials in addition to supporting learning can assist teachers in an
important professional duty which is the differentiation of instruction. Differentiation of instruction
is the tailoring of lessons and instruction to the different learning styles and capacities within a
classroom. Furthermore, the use of relevant instructional materials in science teaching enables
students to acquire the necessary science process, attitudinal, creative and practical skills which will
enable them function as effective and productive members of the society. The use of instructional
materials in teaching process provide the basis for improved teaching and learning of an subject.
Instructional materials are designed, produced and used to achieve specific instructional goals.
Ayinde (1999) opined that an intelligent use of instructional materials may stimulate student’s
understanding and increase retention.
Considering the need to improve on the achievement and retention of students in biology, it
becomes necessary to explore two instructional delivery approaches supplemented by instructional
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materials which may facilitate or enhance achievement and retention. To support this assertion,
(Nwagbo, 2006) stated that high achievement is usually enhanced by proper instructional approach
while (Okoye, 2003) states that instructional delivery approaches have also been known to
influence students’ retention. Students’ retention of biology contents is highly facilitated by the
availability of these instructional materials as this will enable them link the present learning with
the previous learning.
Retention is the act of retaining or an ability to recall or recognize what has been learnt or
experienced over a long period of time. Probably, if what has been learnt is retained over a long
period of time, it may lead to higher achievement because retention is measured in collaboration
with achievement (Iji,2010). This study is designed to look into the effect of two instructional
delivery approaches on students’ achievement and retention in biology.
These instructional delivery approaches are:
• The use of Video Taped Instructions (VTI)
• The use of Power Point Presentation (PPP)
Video as a medium in instruction comes as an invention of educational technology. When
used in the classroom, it is termed instructional video (Obinna and Nnenna, 2010). Oguntuase
(2008) defined video as a record or any medium through which a moving image may be produced
.According to Alaku (1998), video play a vital role in teaching and learning. When used effectively,
it stimulates and induces longer retention of factual ideas. Video is a form of multimedia that
conveys information through two simultaneous sensory channels: aural and visual. It often uses
multiple presentation modes, such as verbal and pictorial representation (Mayer, 2001). Cruse
(2007) states that, educators have recognized the power of audio-visual materials to capture the
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attention of learners, increase their motivation and enhance their learning experience. Videotaped
instruction (VTI) combines still and motion pictures in its pictorial presentation and it is a medium
which may be used to achieve various teaching and learning objectives (Mudasiru,2006). The use
of VTI can present factual and conceptual information with visual illustration and graphics. This
type of instructional delivery approach is portable and can be available to students anywhere and
anytime. Curzon (1990) affirmed that VTI like some other audio-visual aids can multiply and
widen the channels of communication between the teacher and students. Furthermore, Agommuoh
and Nzewi (2003) reported that VTI has the qualities of providing a semi-permanent, complete and
audio-visual record of events. They claimed that, it is a method that has the potentials of increasing
the probability that students will learn more, retain better and thus improve performance. VTI have
certain advantages such as providing complete uninterrupted instruction, it can be viewed as many
times as necessary, it is great for learning concepts, home stud and test review.
The other instructional delivery approach in view is the use of power point presentation
(PPP). PowerPoint which is also called Micro-soft power point is a software product used to
perform computer-based presentations. It is a presentation package that allows you to produce on
screen computer presentations, overhead projection transparencies, posters and web-pages
(Information Technology Service, 2006). Power point (PP) allows you the manipulation of text and
graphical elements with great creative flexibility, whilst also providing a set of pre-designed
templates which make it possible for even the most non-artistic user to produce professional
layouts. In an educational setting, PP is ideal for producing full-screen computer presentations to
enhance lectures, demonstrations or displays. Martha (1997) is of the opinion that PPP can enhance
the effectiveness of classroom lectures by highlighting key points, providing pictures and other
graphics supporting the material. PP is a useful tool for displaying learning objectives, presenting
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information to students, giving directions and incorporating multimedia into a lesson
(Elizabeth,2011). It can also be an effective tool to present material in the classroom and encourage
student learning. PP can be used to project visuals which would otherwise be difficult to bring to
class. It can be used to prepare lectures and presentations by helping instructors refine their material
to salient points thereby making it easier for the teachers to keep the students interested in class
(Priya,2012). PPP also have advantages such as; it is easy to learn, it can effectively hold students
attention through graphics and video, students can receive the slides in advance and use them in
their presentation for attending their lecture and it is also possible to retain eye contact with your
audience during the presentation.
Gender issues and academic achievement has become a very important issue among
researchers. According to Nworgu (2004), there is an acknowledged problem of female under
achievement when compared with their male counterparts apparently under equivalent conditions
and this problem of female under achievement appear to be more pronounced in science and
mathematics. The term “gender” refers to socially ascribed roles, responsibilities and opportunities
associated with women and men, as well as the hidden power structures that govern relationships
between them. Gender is in essence, a term used to emphasize that sex inequality is not caused by
the anatomic and physiological differences that characterize men and women, but rather by the
unequal and inequitable treatment socially accorded to them (Igwe, 2003). In this sense, gender
alludes to the cultural, social, economic and political conditions that are the basis of certain
standards, values and behavioural patterns related to genders and their relationship. Gender is the
different socio cultural stereotyped roles and responsibilities expected of men and women.
According to Eze (2008) gender is a parallel and socially unequal division into masculinity and
femininity. Biases and misconceptions about women and science is that, science is a male
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enterprise and this has remained the main focus of concern among science educators. In Nigeria
gender bias is still prevalent; it has persisted even within the science classroom. According to Igwe
(2003) gender issue is an important factor in educational setting and could be a hindrance to high
achievement of learners in sciences.
Some factors have been identified to account for differences in male and female
achievement in science subjects. Prominent among the factors identified by Okeke (1990) is sex-
role stereotyping which seems to be the origin of differences between male and female achievement
in science education. Some research works have shown contradictory evidences in students’
academic achievement in sciences due to gender. For instance, Olikeze (1999) and Ifeakor (2005)
found out that there is no significant difference in the achievement of males and females in biology
and chemistry respectively. It is therefore, worthwhile to see how VTI and PPP would bridge the
gap in science achievement between male and female students in biology. This study intends to find
out the effects of these two instructional delivery approaches, VTI and PPP on senior secondary
school students’ achievement and retention in biology.
Statement of the Problem
In most secondary schools, the conventional instructional delivery approach of teaching is
in vogue. This has constantly led to poor performance of students in the Senior Secondary School
Certificate Examination. High achievement is usually enhanced by proper instructional delivery
approach and educational technologist as well as curriculum experts have proved that the use of
innovative media have high potential in the teaching and learning situation, for it can multiply and
widen the channel of communication between the teacher and students.
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Empirical studies involving VTI and PPP instructional delivery approach in teaching
biology are few in number and none of them have compared the effects of VTI and PPP on
students’ achievement and retention. Probably, the use of VTI or PPP would enhance students’
achievement and retention in biology. The problem of the study stated in question form is; would
the use of VTI or PPP enhance students’ achievement and retention in biology?
Purpose of the Study
The main purpose of this study is to investigate the effects of two instructional delivery approaches
on students’ achievement and retention in biology. Specifically, this study will determine;
1) effects of VTI and PPP on students’ achievement in biology
2) effects of VTI and PPP on students’ retention of biology concepts
3) influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ achievement in biology
4) influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ retention of biology contents
5) interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean achievement
scores in biology.
6) interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean retention scores
in biology
Significance of the Study
The theoretical significance of this study is that, it will provide opportunities for a better
understanding, elaboration or refinement of the Stimulus-Response Associationist’s behavioral
theory. S-R theory proposes that learning occurs due to the influence of the environment on an
22
organism which makes the organism respond. If the study shows that the use of these two
instructional delivery approaches (VTI and PPP) helps in enhancing students’ achievement and
retention of biology concepts, the result will validate the S-R theory. Otherwise, it questions the
S-R theory.
The findings of this study will be beneficial to stakeholders in the educational sector. These
stakeholders include curriculum planners, government, teachers and students.
If the use of these instructional delivery approaches (VTI and PPP) are found valuable,
curriculum planners will be provided with information that may be used in recommending effective
innovations in teaching strategies.
Findings could provide information which could inform the government on the need for
workshops, seminars and conferences on the use of VTI and PPP as instructional delivery
approaches for teaching biology. The study might provide an insight into other school subjects on
whether to use VTI or PPP to enhance students’ achievement and retention.
The study could be useful to classroom teachers who decide what instructional delivery
approach to present content will be. Results of this study if found valuable, could provide a guide
for choosing VTI and PPP as innovative instructional delivery approach.
The study could be beneficial to students if found effective. VTI and PPP could be used to
enhance students’ achievement as well as help them retain what they have learnt. Finally, the results
of this study could provide empirical information to researchers interested in the use of VTI and
PPP in education.
Scope of the Study
This study focuses on three independent variables, videotaped instruction, power point
presentation and gender and two dependent variables achievement and retention. The content scope
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of this study is skeletal system and year two students (S.S.2) will be used for this study because, it
is at this stage in the core curriculum that the topic of the study is taught. The geographical scope of
this study is delimited to two co-educational secondary schools because gender is a factor in the
study in Nsukka Education Zone of Enugu State.
Research Questions
The following research questions will guide the study;
1) What is the effect of VTI and PPP on the mean achievement scores of students taught
biology as measured by a Biology Achievement Test (BAT)?
2) What is the effect of VTI and PPP on the mean retention scores of students taught
biology as measured by a Biology Retention Test (BRT)?
3) What is the influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ mean achievement
scores as measured by a Biology Achievement Test (BAT)
4) What is the influence of VTI and PPP on male and female students’ mean retention
scores as measured by a Biology Retention Test (BRT)
5) What is the interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean
achievement scores.
6) What is the interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’ mean
retention scores.
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Hypotheses
Six null hypotheses were formulated for this and will be tested at 0.05 level of significance.
1) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of students exposed to
VTI and those exposed to PPP as measured by BAT.
2) There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of students exposed to
VTI and those exposed to PPP as measured by BRT.
3) There is no significant difference in the mean achievement scores of male and female
students taught biology using VTI and PPP as measured by BAT.
4) There is no significant difference in the mean retention scores of male and female
students taught biology using VTI and PPP as measured by BRT .
5) There is no significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’
mean achievement scores.
6) There is no significant interaction effect of mode of instruction and gender on students’
mean retention scores.
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CHAPTER TWO
LITERATURE REVIEW
The researcher undertook a preliminary survey of books, journals, theses and other resource
materials with a view to finding out what works other researchers had done on the study and other
related studies. The literature review was organized under Conceptual Framework, Theoretical
Background, Review of Empirical Studies and Summary of Literature Review.
Conceptual framework
- Concept of instructional materials
- Instructional delivery approach
- Power point presentation in teaching and learning
- Video – taped instructions
- Students achievement in Biology
- Gender and students’ achievement in science
- Concept of retention
Theoretical background
- Stimulus – Response (S-R) theory
- Social – cognitive theory
Empirical studies
- Studies on the use of power point presentation
- Studies on the use of video – taped instructions.
- Studies on gender and students’ achievement in science
- Studies on retention
Summary of literature review
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CONCEPTUAL FRAMEWORK
Concept of Instructional Materials
Instructional materials are resource materials, devices or anything which help in the
achievement of learning objectives and which can transmit learning experiences through any of the
sense of sight, hearing, smell, touch and taste. According to Jocelyn (2010), instructional materials
significantly increase students’ achievement by supporting learning. Madhavan (2010) states that,
instructional materials are used to aid the transfer of information from one person to another. Dahar
and Faize (2011), are of the opinion that instructional materials are used within the classroom to
facilitate the teaching and learning process. Instructional materials (IM) are objects or devices,
which help the teacher to make a lesson much clearer to the learners (Isola, 2010). According to
(Agina-Obu, 2005), IMs are also described as concrete or physical objects which provide sound,
visual or both to the sense organs during teaching. Miranda(2007) states that IMs are part of the
instructional procedure because they supplement the instructional delivery approach adopted by the
teacher.
Ofoegbu (1994) identified the importance of IM in teaching of concepts and principles,
stating that, IM is necessary if pictures and images are to be vividly retained in the memory.
Furthermore, Ofoegbu agreed that human beings learn easily and faster through the use of IM than
by verbal expression alone. Ofoegbu explained that the various organs of sight, hearing, smell and
touch could cause excitation along the neural channels, which reach mental centers where the
impressions fuse with previous acquisitions. She further said that IM facilitate the retention and
recall of materials. This is because they seek to evoke the maximum response of the whole
organization. Ofoegbu (1994) argued that IM supply the basis for making learning more permanent.
They also motivate students to carryout investigations on their own.
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According to Nicholls (2000), Education has become wide spread and exclusive oral
teaching cannot be the key to successful pedagogy. For this reason, to make teaching and learning
interesting, the teacher has to use instructional materials. Jotia and Matlale (2011) states that, a
resourceful instruction needs to give all students the opportunity to grasp the content taught at a
time. In so doing, active participation during instruction increases learning and retention. Lecturing
is still a common way for instructors to communicate information. However, it does not allow for
much interaction between learner and teacher and as a result, the instructor may falsely assume that
students fully understood the concepts that he presented (Cope, 2011). Therefore, students learn
more efficiently by participating in instruction. Also, using a variety of teaching approaches can
significantly improve learning and retention in students of all ages.
Instructional materials are of various classes such as audio or aural, visual and audio-visual
(Oladejo, 2011). Thus, audio instructional materials refer to those that make use of the sense of
hearing only, like radio and audiotape recordings. Visual instructional materials on the other hand,
are those devices that appeal to the sense of sight only, such as, the chart, slide, power point and
film-strip. An audio-visual instructional material however, is a combination of devices which
appeal to the sense of both hearing and seeing such as television, motion picture, videotaped
instruction and the computer. The use of audio-visual aids can revolutionize teaching and can help
decrease forgetting and increase the permanence of what is taught (Quddus, 1990). Among the
instructional materials the classroom teacher uses, the visuals out-numbered the combination of the
audio and audio-visual. According to Miranda (2007), teaching aids are useful to reinforce what
you are saying, ensure that your point is understood. Also, enable student to visualize or experience
something that is impracticable to see or do in real life and engage students’ other senses in the
learning process.
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The usefulness of instructional materials in the teaching- learning process is highlighted
below:
• Facilitate the learning of abstract concepts and ideas.
• Keep the learners busy and active thus, increasing their participation in the lesson
• Save teachers’ energy of talking too much
• Illustrate the concepts clearer and better than the teachers’ words only.
• Help overcome the limitations of the classroom, by making the inaccessible accessible.
• Help to broaden students’ knowledge, increase their level of understanding as well as
discourage rote- learning (if used judiciously)
• Help to stimulate and motivate learners (Esu, Enukoha and Umoren, 2004:107).
Inyang-Abia and Esu (1990) cited in Esu, Enukoha and Umoren (2004:103) assert that
“instructional materials are the pivot on which the wheel of teaching and learning rotates”.
Teaching and learning are complex processes composed of interaction among teachers, students,
instructional content and the environment (Miller, 1997). For this study, the instructional materials
used are projector, laptop, VTI and PPP CD ROM containing biology instruction.
Instructional Delivery Approach
Instructional delivery approach is a process in which a teacher uses variety of teaching
strategies to communicate and interact with students around academic content. The teacher
effectively engages students in learning by using a variety of instructional delivery approaches in
order to meet individual learning needs. According to Bannon (2012), instructional delivery
approach is a way in which information is presented to students. It is also an educational approach
for turning knowledge into learning. Berlongieri (2013) states that, the teacher should use a variety
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of instructional approach to encourage students’ development of critical thinking, problem solving
and performance skills. This is because, students learn on different levels. Therefore, the way in
which the instruction is given can help the students use various types of skills to think and solve
problems on their own.
Cepni, Tas and Kose (2006), states that, the use of traditional instructional approach to teach
biology makes students understand subject at knowledge level and they usually memorize the
science concepts without understanding the real meanings. As a result, they do not conceptualize
the science well as intended. It is therefore obvious that alternative instructional delivery approach
is needed to teach this sort of difficult concepts in biology. To support this assertion, the
Educational Encyclopaedia (2013) submitted that improvement of instruction has been a goal of
educators as far back as the teachings of the Greek Philosophers Socrates. Although there are a
wide variety of approaches, in most cases instruction can be characterized by the following tasks;
• setting objectives,
• teaching content based on these objectives, and
• evaluating performance
This formula is indeed the most common, however, there have been many advocates of alternative
approaches. Nafees, Farouq and Tahirkheli (2012) are of the opinion that, the selection of proper
instructional delivery approach ensures the achievement of the stated instructional objectives
effectively. Appropriate instructional delivery approach portrays good teaching technique and
successful learning.
An instructional delivery approach is characterized by certain regularities in the ways in
which teachers and students interact with each other and with instructional materials (Corcorain and
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Silandar, 2009). Among instructional delivery approaches used by teachers in delivering
instructions are lecture, demonstration, discussion, brainstorming, peer instruction, problem
solving, role playing, field trips, projects, simulations and so on. For this study, the instructional
delivery approaches in view are; the use of VTI and PPP in teaching of biology. Lim and Moris
(2009), states that, as a result of the advancement in communication and network technologies,
more innovative instructional delivery approaches have emerged in order to provide meaningful
learning experiences for learners in academic settings. According to Nafees et al (2012),
instructional delivery approach are used in the presentation of lesson to help the students learn by
ensuring the smooth delivery of the instruction. Therefore, the classroom teacher must determine
the most effective instructional delivery approach for his/her students.
Power point Presentation in Teaching and Learning
Power point forms part of the Microsoft office suite and is also called Microsoft power
point. It is a presentation package that allows you to produce on-screen computer presentations,
overhead projection, transparencies, posters and web pages. (Information Technology Service,
2006). Asogwa and Echemazu (2011), defined PowerPoint as a commercial presentation program
developed by Microsoft. Power point Presentation(PPP) consists of individual pages or slides.
Slides may contain text, graphics, sound, movies, animation and other objects which may be
arranged freely. The presentation can be printed, displayed on a computer or navigated through at
the command of the presenter. For larger audiences, the computer display is often projected using a
video projector and only the essential details are meant to be projected point by point to those
viewing.
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PPP is a powerful representation which enables viewers to understand better the meaning of
words or concepts used. It conveys meanings and influence attitude when colour is added to it. The
colours chosen and the way it is used have a strong impact on viewers, thus ensuring the success
and quality of one’s presentation. Essentially, PP enables users to create a series of slides on a
computer which may then be projected in the lecture theatre using a data projector or overhead
projector. Mason and Hlynka (1998), states that PP helps structure the content and processing of a
lesson or lecture. Aiding note-taking is another purported advantage of using PPP (Cook, 1998).
Just like other forms of visuals, PP has some advantages. According to Frank (2008), PP comes
with preformed templates to help you prepare professional looking and visually stimulating slides.
Judicial use of colour can help to stimulate interest and emphasis key points. It saves the presenter
from talking too much, except perhaps, in some cases that may require the teacher or presenter to
give certain clarifications or explanations to the students or audience on points that are not clear. PP
slide can be made in advance, thereby increasing the time available to teach. Also, PP makes it
possible to provide a much richer quality of visual including multicoloured complicated diagrams.
In addition, PP is a useful tool for displaying learning objectives and presenting information to
students in a lesson (Elizabeth, 2011).
There are certain benefits derived from using PPP in classrooms which include:
• PP provides an effective approach to both student’s work and classroom instruction. When
you teach students to use this programs and allow them to turn in work completed with it,
you effectively prepare students for the world in which they will work as adults.
• PPP hold students attention through the use of video and graphics. Therefore, increase
students’ involvement and interaction.
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• For students who missed class due to sickness or one problem or the other, can go through
passed lessons by watching PPP. Instead of copying notes of classmates, they can easily
save content into a disk and study them at home and avoid falling behind class.
For effective teaching and learning process, it is necessary that the teacher should not limit
him/herself to the use of verbal medium. This then calls for the use of interrelated instructional
media which reinforce and strengthen one another in enhancing the progress of the learner.
Videotaped Instruction
Videotaped instruction (VTI) is an instructional delivery approach that combines still and
motion pictures in its pictorial presentation and it is a medium which can be used to achieve various
teaching and learning objectives (Mudasiru, 2005). VTI is created for use in classrooms or in other
educational settings.
Video as a medium in education comes as the invention of educational technology. They are
termed instructional video (Obinna and Nnenna, 2010). Educational technologists as well as
curriculum experts have proved that VTI has a high potential in the teaching and learning situation
for it can multiply and widen the channels of communication between the teacher and the students
(Osokoya, 2007). Agommuoh and Nzewi (2003), reported that video-taped instruction has the
qualities of providing a semi-permanent, complete and audio-visual record of event. They claimed
that it is a method that has the potentials of increasing the probability that students will learn more,
retain better and thus improve performance.
According to Adedapo, Salawu and Afolabi (2001), the use of videotape (VT) in teaching-
learning process is necessary to supplement conventional efforts of the teacher. For example, it is
assumed that learning that emanates solely from the teacher tends to be restricted and closed, while
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the one that has its basis on resource material tends to be more comprehensive, open and
meaningful. Friel and Carboni(2002), states that instructional VTs provide brief windows into
models and dilemmas of classroom practice which can support reasoning about instruction. By
viewing teaching and learning situations on VT, prospective teachers may be introduced to some
experiences of teaching by seeing examples of actual classroom practice.
Research studies have established that VTI produced positive learning events (Benedict,
1994 in Mudasiru, 2005). Adam (1990) is of the opinion that VTI is one of the most influential of
all the media for teaching as a result of its power of both sight and sound. In the same vein, Barford
and Weston (1997) reiterated that benefit of colour, sound and motion attached to VT packages will
be of interest to students who are the target of this study. This view is in agreement with Chambers
(1997) when he asserts that fun and entertainment are natural ways through which students learn
and this could be provided by VTI.
Literature has also established that VTI has greatly improved the performance of children
with special needs and slow learning abilities (Okwo 1994; Mitchell 1994; Aremu 1992). If this is
true, then it should be able to produce better results in students with normal learning abilities which
are the target of this study.
VTI have certain advantages such as;
• It can easily be duplicated and used by students at convenience.
• Students can play back sections he/she is unsure of.
• It provides complete uninterrupted instruction.
• It is reviewable
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• If a student is absent from school, the video will be a reassuring aid for not only getting
caught up but staying ahead.
• It can be viewed as many times as necessary unlike classroom instruction.
• It is great for learning concepts, home study aid and test review.
Students’ Achievement in Biology
The study of biology is essential for the nation’s scientific and technological development.
Without sound knowledge and wholesome attitude towards biology, the much needed and vouched
technological breakthrough may not be achieved. The knowledge of biology contributes to
scientific literacy so that people can understand the world around them and enable them to make
informal choices about their health care, their environment and the society in which they live
(Karen,2008). For instance the knowledge of biology is brought to play in the areas of
manufacturing and processing industries, medicine, food production and pharmaceuticals among
others.
Unfortunately, research reports show that students achieve poorly in biology. Poor
achievement in biology however has been attributed to a number of factors by several researchers.
Nwagbo (2006) blamed the poor achievement on the state of science education enterprises in
Nigerian Schools. Nwosu (1998) reported that most teachers lacked the knowledge of curriculum
objectives as indicated by their failure to implement them. Inamulla (2005) reported that interaction
between the teacher and student is an essential part of all the teaching and learning processes. This
point was further stressed by Oloruntegbe (2010) that interaction in the science classroom has
always been a triple dynamics between the teacher, the learner and the instructional materials.
These three variables are expected to interact harmoniously in a way to produce the intended
learning outcomes.
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According to Opara(2011), there is a high rate of failure in biology as revealed by the
analysis of May/June SSCE result of 2006-2008. In order to address this issue of low achievement
in biology, teachers need to be exposed to appropriate teaching and learning approaches which
requires the use of instructional materials. This will promote imaginative, critical and creative skills
in the learners resulting to better achievement of instructional objectives (Federal Ministry of
Education, Science and Technology, 2001). Therefore, this study sought to establish the effect of
these two instructional delivery approaches (VTI and PPP) on students as to whether or not
achievement and retention in biology will improve.
Gender and Students’ Achievement in Science
Gender issues are currently the main focus of discussion and research all over the world,
Nigeria inclusive (Abdu-Raheem, 2012). The influence of gender on students’ achievement in
science, has for a long time been a concern to many researchers and science educators. Many of
them sought to determine whether it is true that, there is male superiority in science achievement or
not. Male supremacy and gender stereotyping are factors among others that were identified to
influence occupational choice (Ogunleye and Babagide, 2011). Longe and Adedeji (2003) are of the
opinion that science and technology is a male-dominated subject and that the females tend to shy
away from scientific and technological fields. Boys, therefore, appear to have a natural positive
attitude to technical and science subjects while girls show negative attitude.
Studies conducted across African countries, including Nigeria, have reported disparity in the
education of girls and women in science and technology (Iyang and Ekpeyong, 2000). Females are
grossly under-represented and many of them are noted to under-achieve in the science and
technology (S & T) discipline (Nzewi, 2010). According to Okeke (2001), the under-representation
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and under-achievement of females in S & T disciplines are historical and have been brought about
by several inter-related socio-cultural and inter-acting school factors which act singly and jointly to
depress female interest, enrolment, participation and achievement in S & T subjects at various
levels of Nigerian Education System. Adigwe (1999) investigated the pattern of classroom
interaction in two classroom each of Biology, physics and chemistry. He found that teachers asked
the male students more academic and procedural questions than they asked the female students;
while the females had more social interactions with the teacher than the males. The study by Nzewi
and Onimisi (2008) threw up the same pattern of interaction in science classes. Adigwe then
concluded that male and female students have unequal opportunities for learning science in Nigeria
classrooms. He added that the low number of females offering Biology, physics and chemistry
might be a direct result of their experiences with their science teachers.
Njoku (2001) confirmed that researches indicated that girls believe that science is too
difficult and not important for their future. He explained that the teaching methods used do not
assist girls to understand science. He also reported further that primary science and technology
teachers agreed that, they pay more attention to boys than girls. He also observed that there are
more male science teachers and professionals than female role models in science and technology.
The under-representation of women in science and technological manpower pool may likely be a
reflection of low participation and under-achievement of girls in S&T in schools.
Gender inequality is also reflected in enrolment into science and admission to higher
institutions of learning .Obanya (2005) confirmed that the enrolment of boys out-numbered that of
the girls in science, Technology and Education in Nigerian Universities, Polytechnics and
Technical Colleges. The UNESCO World science Conference held in Budapest in 1999 gave
attention to the issue of women in scientific research. Among the points they emerged at the
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conference was that inadequate preparation at the secondary level remains a handicap for young
women seeking a scientific career. The gender inequalities are also the product of a failure to
recognize women’s knowledge and know how, in order words, a failure to recognize that women
are responsible for half of the human knowledge and technical expertise as agriculturalists,
gardeners, animal-breeders, forest users, managers of their community water, needs and resources
and also as technological innovators and agents of change. According to UNESCO (2011), research
has shown that globally, 39 million girls of lower secondary age are currently not enrolled in either
primary or secondary education while two-thirds of the world’s 796 million illiterate adults are
women. Only about one-third of the countries have achieved gender parity at secondary level. This
evidence shows that something needs to change.
In conclusion, differences in sex were found to affect the students’ achievement in science.
With this, in mind, this study sought to find out how VTI or PPP would influence students’
achievement and retention in biology.
Concept of Retention
Retention is defined by Kundu and Tutoo (2002) as a preservative factor of the mind. The
mind acquires the materials of knowledge through sensation and perception. These acquired
materials in the mind need to be preserved in form of images for knowledge to develop. When a
stimulating situation occurs, retained images are revived or reproduced to make memorization
possible. Hence, biology concepts need to be presented to the learners in a way or method that
touches their sub consciousness which can trigger quick recalling of the concept being taught or
learnt. According to Hornby (2001), retention is the ability to remember a thing. Retention can
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also be defined as the ability to keep or retain the knowledge of biology contents learnt and to be
able to recall it when required.
Using VTI or PPP, both high and low ability learners would be able to collaborate in terms
of understanding, explaining and retaining the concepts they have learnt in biology class. Martin
(1993) speculated that educators could improve retention of concepts and information by explicitly
creating memorable events involving visual or auditory images through the use of projects, plays,
simulations and other forms of active learning. Retention drops rapidly in the first weeks after
instruction and then levels off. Whatever students have retained about 12 to 24 weeks after
instruction, they may retain forever (Slavin, 1997). Also, the more time that passes after learning,
the less will be remembered. This form of forgetting is often referred to as “time decay” (Woolfolk,
1998). For instance, neural connections, like muscles grow weak without use.
Okoye (2003), refers to retention as the process of maintaining the availability of new
meanings or some part of them. It may be suggested that the amount of the original meaning that
will be retained at any given point in time is a variable quantity. Therefore, forgetting represents a
decrement in the availability of an acquired meaning. That is, it describes the loss in availability
that occurs between the original establishment of the meaning and its later reproduction.
Considering the two terms, retention is seen as referring to the positive aspects of memory while
forgetting refers to the negative aspects.
Frequent reviews and tests, elaborated feedback and active involvement of students in
learning projects have all been associated with longer retention. Cope (2011), stated that active
participation during instruction increases learning and retention. Lecturing is still a common way
for instructors to communicate information. However, it does not allow for much interaction
39
between learners and teacher and as a result, the instructor may falsely assume that the students
fully understood the concepts that he presented. In order words, students learn more efficiently by
participating in instruction. To further support this idea, ( Iji,2002, chianson,2008) stated that
retention in biology is not acquired by mere rote learning but through appropriate instructional
delivery approach . Therefore, using a variety of instructional approaches can significantly improve
learning and retention in students of all ages.
Measurement of retention
Okoye (2003), identified three methods of measuring retention which include; the recall
method, the recognition method and the relearning or saving method.
� The Recall Method: this seems to be the method that is most familiar to every teacher. It
requires the learner to recall as much as he can of the skills he has acquired. The
measurement of vocabulary in a foreign language such as French may be measured by a
recall test. In this test, the foreign (French) words may be presented and people are asked to
give their English translation. Alternatively, the English words are given to be translated
into French. Essay test typically calls for recall skills. Such a recall procedure is the least
sensitive one available for measurement of retention.
� The Recognition Method: this method applies to the measurement of cognitive skills as are
learnt in the academic classrooms. When this method is applied, the subjects demonstrate
retention by recognizing a correct response. The objective type of examination is the most
widely used example of this method of measuring retention. Every pupil and teacher knows
that it is much easier to recognize the right answer than it is to produce an answer. In the
recognition method of measuring retention, many cues are provided, but in the recall
40
method, there are very few present to elicit the response. The difference in the number of
cues present accounts for the difference in sensitivity of the recognition method in
comparison with the recall method.
� The Relearning or Saving Method: some sensitive techniques have been developed that can
demonstrate that there has been retention even though all the ordinary test of retention used
in schools indicate that there has been none. A very sensitive technique widely used in
laboratories is known as the saving method. In this method, the subject learns the material to
a certain level of proficiency. If he is learning a list of words, then he may learn them to the
point where he can repeat the list back perfectly on three successful occasions. If twenty-
five repetitions might be required in the initial learning series to reach the point of perfect
recall, only five repetitions might be required at later time to reach the same point of
learning. Now, since on relearning, five instead of twenty-five repetitions were required, it
might be said that on relearning, there was a “saving” of eighty percent. This is how the
method got its name. In some studies, it has been the only method so far developed that is
sensitive enough to provide evidence that there has been some retention of the original
material learnt.
Having briefly examined the three major methods of measuring retention, it becomes
necessary to relate these ideas to the present study. The recognition method is used in this study
because the achievement and retention test will call for recognition of the subject matter learnt in
the lessons.
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THEORETICAL FRAMEWORK
The theoretical framework of the study is based on the Stimulus-Response theory and the
Social cognitive theory. Learning theories have been developed to explain how learners respond to
a particular stimuli under certain influences (Alao and Adeniyi, 2008). Learning theories form a
distinct part of theoretical psychology. In recent years, many psychologists have been dedicated to
the study of learning theories because they are intrigued by how the mind acquires knowledge. It is
only when we know how knowledge is acquired that we will be able to use appropriate teaching
and learning methods in the classroom.
Stimulus-Response (S-R) Learning Theory
S-R learning theory is also known as the behavioural theory. The proponents of S-R theory
are called Associationists or Behaviourist. Oladele (1998) noted that a stimulus could be a visual
event, a sound, a taste, a touch, a smell or any combination of these. While a response is an event or
process, which is elicited by a stimulus .Nkwocha (1990) defined a stimulus as anything external or
internal to an organism, which can stir it to action while a response is the reaction to a stimulus.
According to Wikibooks contributors (2006), the provision of a reward or reinforcement is believed
to strengthen the response and therefore result in a change in behaviour, the test, according to this
school of thought, is as to whether learning has occurred.
Okoye (2011) stated that the major proponents of the behaviorist theory include; I.P.Pavlov,
E.L. Thorndike and B.F. Skinner. The behaviourist believes that learning occurs through the
process of conditioning with reinforcement as an important factor in the process. The S-R
associationist assumes that man is born a tabula rasa and mainly depends on his environment for all
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that he learns. They see learning as a durable change in behavior which is purely determined by
environmental factors. In their view about the learning process they noted that:
• mental process which takes place during learning is simple association of things which are
presented together in quick succession. They refer to this as stimulus Response (S-R)
connection
• associations are formed automatically, as the learner is at the mercy of his environment for all
his reactions
• learning is automatic in nature. Perception of just a unit of a situation can lead to understanding
of the whole situation
• learning is affected through two types of conditioning; operant and classical conditioning;
• learning is acquired through trial and error
For the behaviourist, the quality of what is learnt depends on the strength and nature of the
links between the stimulus and the response. Behaviourism has useful application in learning such
as programmed learning, teaching machines and computerized systems (Nkwocha, 1990). In this
study, students will be instructed using VTI and PPP CD-ROM containing Biology instructions.
The instruction here is the stimulus because it contains visuals and sound sensations. The responses
of students to these will be assessed.
Social Cognitive Theory
This study is anchored on the social learning theory. Social learning is a type of learning
usually undertaken by way of observation or imitation through which an organism watches or
observes another organism. According to Nnachi (2007), owning to his social nature, a human
being forms his behavior by observing the way others behave; he endeavours to imitate others.
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Learning can then be carried out by observation and imitation, such learning is referred to as
modeling.
Albert Bandura and Walter Mischel are the major proponents of social learning theory.
Albert Bandura specifically propounded the cognitive mediation theory of social learning. The
basic premise of Bandura’s mediation learning theory is that behavior results from a continuous
interaction between significant factors. These factors include imitation, vicarious learning and
symbolic learning (Wiltig and William III 1984; in Okoye 2012). It is Bandura’s view that the
learner plays a prominent role in cognitively selecting, organizing and transforming stimuli from
the environment in which he is found. Accordingly, learning occurs by watching the events of the
environment. By social learning then, humans are seen as social animals that through observations
of their social world or the interpretations of such world or the interpretations of such observations
collect large amounts of data or information through which complex and skilled performances are
learnt.
Bandura, in Alao and Adeniyi, 2008 stated that social learning theory focuses on the
behaviour of individual and groups and how behavior is affected by the presence or influence of
other people. For social learning to take place, there are four factors which must be present. These
are observers (learners), teacher (model), learners’ attention and proximity or nearness. The process
of learning is influenced by the extent of identifications and imitation by the learners to the other
three factors. According to Bandura’s theory of social learning, it is possible to explain that
learning has occurred by acts performed by the observer, during and after observing the model.
According to Nnachi(2007), these acts are sometimes carried out by the observer covertly; this
might involve thinking deeply about the events carried out by the model. The cognitive mediation
theory of social learning has useful application in learning such as computerized systems.
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In this study, the students watched (observed) Biology instructions as presented using VTI
and PPP (stimuli). The study assessed if the students were able to cognitively organize and
transform the stimuli. The assessment was done using their answers (responses) to the questions
posed on the instructional content. Acquisition of skills (learning) indicates ability to transform
stimuli from the environment.
EMPIRICAL STUDIES
Studies on the Use of PPP (Power Point Presentation)
Asogwa, and Echemazu (2011) studied the effect of PPP on secondary school students’
achievement in Christian Religious Knowledge. Two intact classes of 60 students were randomly
selected from two public senior secondary schools in Nsukka Local Government Area of Enugu
State participated in the study. The instrument for data collection was Christian Religious
Knowledge Achievement Test (CRKAT). The data were analysed using the mean and the Analysis
of Covariance (ANCOVA). The results of the study revealed that students taught with PPP
performed better than those taught conventionally.
Polk (2013) studied the effect of teaching biology concepts with animations versus static
cartoons via PPP on content retention. The research study adopted two activity groups:
experimental and control groups. Students were pre-tested prior to the introduction of content in
three units of study. Cellular transport, proteinsynthesis and mitosis. A sample of eighteen students
were randomly arranged to the experimental and control groups. The experimental group viewed an
animation on the topic using PPP and accompanied by teacher narration while the control group
viewed a series of static cartoons with captions through PPP. The two groups were post-tested
together immediately following the treatment and again approximately 21 days later. The data
45
collected was analysed using a Krustal-Wallis (non-parametric ANOVA analog), along with a
Dunn’s Multiple Comparisons test, was run to determine if any statistically significant differences
existed between the means of control and experimental group. At 0.05 level of significance, the
result showed that no statistically significant differences due to animations were found in these
comparisons, though student engagement and class discussion were increased by the use of
animations based on teacher observations. A class survey revealed an overwhelming interest in
continued use of the animations as an instructional technique to increase students’ retention of
biology content.
Nouri and Shahid (2005) investigated the effect of PPP on student learning and attitudes. In
the study, they tested whether using PP in an accounting course enhances student long-term
memory, short-term memory and attitudes toward class presentation and the instructor. They
conducted an experiment which includes a treatment-control design in a classroom setting
throughout a semester. In one section of an accounting principles II (managerial Accounting)
course, PP was used as the delivery system while the second section was taught using a traditional
delivery system. The samples used were 36 and 38 students for treatment and control groups
respectively. Data was collected using a questionnaire with internal consistency reliability
coefficient of 0.83. The data was analysed using the mean and the Analysis of Covariance
(ANCOVA). The result shows that PPP may improve students’ attitudes toward the instructor and
class presentation. The results do not provide conclusive evidence that PPP improve short-term or
long-term memory.
Rotimi, Ajogbeje and Akeju (2011) studied the application of a New Kind of Visual-Model
Instructional Strategy in physics education as a means of improving the learning achievement of
physics students. The new kind of visual model instructional strategy introduced in their research
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was a computer intelligent-based power point visual simulation used to investigate learning
achievement in physics. The research study adopted the Quasi-Experimental Research Design and
two activity groups: Experimental group and control group. A sample of 168 purposively selected
for the research. The instrument used in the study was NKVM and the method of statistical
analysis used for the research study is the T-test. The research study revealed that the New Kind of
Visual Model Instructional Strategy called computer intelligent-based power point visual
simulation contributed positively to learning achievement in physics. Result also showed that there
is significant effect of treatment on students’ retention of learned materials.
From the reviews of related literature, it is evident that studies on the use of PPP on
students’ achievement and retention in Biology is scanty. This dissertation aims at filling this gap
by investigating the effect of PPP as an instructional delivery approach on students’ achievement
and retention in biology.
Studies on the Use of Video Taped Instruction
This section reviews some empirical works on the use of VTI on students’ achievement and
retention.
Osokoya (2007) studied the effects of VTI on secondary school students’ achievement in
History. In his study, he adopted the quasi-experimental research design using a videotaped
instruction and conventional strategies. A multi-stage sampling technique was employed to select
92 history students made up of 40 males and 52 females. A validated history achievement test
instrument with reliability co-efficient of 0.75 was administered. The result showed that students
taught with VTI performed better (X=25.30) than those taught with the conventional method
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(X=20.12). The result of the ANCOVA statistical analysis revealed that gender F(2,91): p>0.05)
was not a significant factor on students’ achievement in history when VTI are used.
Chinna and Dada (2013) investigated the effects of developed Electronic Instructional
Medium (video-instructional package) on students’ achievements in biology. The quasi-
experimental, pre-test – post-test control group design was used for the study . The sample
comprised of 180 senior secondary year two students from six (6) schools located in the 3
educational zones of Niger State. The students were divided into an experimental group (electronic
instructional medium) and a control group (traditional lecture instruction). Structured Biology
Achievement Test (SBAT) with internal consistency reliability co-efficient of 0.83 was used to
measure the students’ achievement before and after the treatment. The data obtained from the study
were analysed using the Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA) and Scheffe test indicated that the
achievement of students’ in biology greatly improved with the use of electronic instructional
medium. The result have implications for innovative use of instructional media and creating sound
strategies for disseminating science in the classroom.
Mudasiru (2005) in his study of the effects of videotape and slide tape instructions on
students’ performance in Junior Secondary School Social Studies, examined the significant
difference in the post test and retention test achievement scores of students taught using VT, slide
tape and the normal classroom instruction. The sample consisted of 191 Junior Secondary School
students drawn from three equivalent secondary schools within Ilorin metropolis. The social studies
achievement test (SSAT) was administered to students as pre-test, post-test and retention test. The
results of students were analysed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA). Turkey’s test was used
for post-hoc confirmation of significant deference. The results indicated that the students using VT
and those taught using slide-tape performed significantly better than their counterparts taught using
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the normal classroom instruction. However, there was no significant difference reported in the post-
test and retention test scores of students taught using VT and those exposed to slide-tape
instructions. These findings indicated that social studies content could be taught and learnt better
through the resourceful integration of VT and slide-tape into social studies instruction.
Agommuoh and Nzewi (2003) in their study of effects of VTI on secondary school students
achievement in physics made use of a sample of 398 SSI students selected from 2 co-educational
schools. Three research questions and three hypotheses guided the study. Data generated were
analysed using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) at 0.05 level of significance. The results
indicated that the achievement of students in physics greatly improved with the use of VTI.
Adedapo, Salawu and Afolabi (2001) assessed the effects of VT and audio-taped
instructions on cognitive outcomes in Economics. The sample used for this quasi-experiment study
consisted of 364 senior secondary Two (SSII) students drawn from secondary schools in Oyo
metropolis. Two hypotheses were postulated and tested using analysis of covariance (ANCOVA),
Turkey/Kramer post hoc test and mean. The results of the study showed that there was significant
difference in the students’ cognitive achievement and interest in Economics which were mostly
enhanced by the VT strategy, followed by audio taped strategy and minimally by the conventional
strategy.
Literature review presented in this section shows that only a few studies have being carried
out on the effect of VTI on students’ achievement and retention in biology. Therefore, this study
intends to investigate the effect of VTI as an instructional delivery approach on students’
achievement and retention in biology.
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Studies on Gender and Student Achievement in Science
Gender as a factor in science achievement has for some time generated a lot of concern for
science educators. This concern arose from conflicting results in studies of gender achievement in
science. A comprehensive review of literature on gender differences reveals that there has yet, not
been any clear picture concerning this issue. Several factors have been found responsible for the
gender imbalance in science.
According to Lagoke, Jegede and Oyebanji (1995), these factors are grouped into six broad
categories: individual factors, cognitive factors, attitudinal factors, home and family factors,
educational factors and social-cultural factors. They reported that interventional programmes have
been mounted in several parts of the world to engage girls and women more in science and science
related careers aimed at;
i. demasculizing and demystifying science;
ii. improving girls confidence and self-perceptions of their ability to do science.
iii. Implementing teaching strategies that actively involve girls in science lessons; and
developing girls’ skills in science.
Lagoke et al (1995), conducted a study to find out whether the teaching of selected
biological concepts using analogical linkages chosen from the learners’ socio-cultural
environment significantly reduced the achievement differences between female and male in
these concepts. A total of 248 (205 boys and 43 girls) SSIII (equivalent to grade two)
students with a mean age of 16.8 years in two classes selected from two schools in Zaria
township of Kaduna State of Nigeria participated in this experimental study. Using an
adaptation of Glynn’s Teaching with –Analogy (T.W.A) model, a pretest and a delayed
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post test comparison, showed that both girls and boys attained equivalent cognitive
outcome after a six-week treatment period.
Abdu-Raheem (2012) worked on the influence of Gender on Secondary School Students’
Academic Achievement in South-West, Nigeria. The results of 2003/2004 to 2007/2008 West
African School Certificate Examinations (WASCE) were collected on English language,