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FORMS OF TEMPORAL EXPERIENCE IN THE MUSIC OF TORU TAKEMITSU
by
Tomoko DeguchiSeptember 22, 2005
A dissertation submitted to theFaculty of the Graduate School
of
the State University of New York at Buffaloin partial
fulfillment of the requirements for the
degree of
Doctor of Philosophy
Department of Music
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Copyright by
Tomoko Deguchi
2005
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I would like to extend my heartfelt thanks to the following
people whose
assistance and support was critical for the successful
completion of my dissertation.
Special thanks first and foremost to Dr. Martha Hyde for
carefully reading the entire draft
of my dissertation and providing numerous invaluable
suggestions, comments and
editorial guidance. Thanks also to Dr. Charles Smith for his
extremely useful advice and
comments, Dr. Michael Long for his advice and guidance,
especially in the Ran
chapter, Dr. Jeffrey Stadelman for agreeing to serve on my
committee after the untimely
and all too soon departure of Professor John Clough, and John
Clough for his assistance
in the early versions of my Piano Distance chapter. I also
greatly appreciate Dale Scott
and Bud Newcomb for their editorial assistance.
Schott Japan is greatly acknowledged for permission to reproduce
excerpts of
Rain Tree. Also special thanks to my husband Ronald Keith Parks
for his many hours of
proof reading, help with music examples, and his unwavering
support, love, and
encouragement. And finally, I extend my thanks, love, and
gratitude to my daughter
Kotone for her patience, encouragement, and for maintaining a
sense of humor
throughout my studies.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS iii
ABSTRACT vi
INTRODUCTION 1
CHAPTER I: CONCEPTS OF TEMPORALITY, LINEARITY, AND FORM IN
THE ANALYSIS OF TAKEMITSUS MUSIC 11
CHAPTER II: REQUIEM FOR STRINGS (1957): CYCLIC-TIME FORM 41
2.1 Harmonic and Metric Ambiguities 44
2.2 Repetitions of Materials in the Melodic Line and Cyclic-Time
Form 55
2.3 Conclusion 82
CHAPTER III: PIANO DISTANCE (1961): FORCE THAT BECOMES ONE
AFTER ANOTHER 86
3.1 Pitch Materials and How They are Constructed 88
3.2 Analysis of Musical Motion, Continuity, and Form 97
3.3 Conclusion 128
CHAPTER IV: RAIN TREE (1981): INTER-SUBJECTIVITY AND FORM
134
4.1 Actions and Inter-subjectivity in the Narrative of Music
139
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v4.2 Analysis 145
4.3 Conclusion 180
CHAPTER V: GAZING AT TIME: NOHKAN MUSIC FOR KUROSAWAS
RAN 184
CONCLUSION 214
BIBLIOGRAPHICAL NOTES 222
SELECTED BIBLIOGRAPHY 223
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ABSTRACT
This dissertation integrates the studies of my three primary
interests: the concept
of time in music, how this concept of time influences the
perception of form, and the
music of Japanese composer Toru Takemitsu (1930-1996). The
analyses are based on the
standpoint that the temporal mode in Takemitsus music is
primarily Western; Western in
the sense that his music is linear, has a definite beginning
(but not necessarily a definite
ending), and the musical events have continuous relationships
with each other. Also
given that music can only be experienced in time, the subject of
time engages the issue of
musical form. Listeners can experience structure and form in
Takemitsus music through
a dynamic process of form-building. The resultant form of the
three compositions
examined reveals strong commonalities with Japanese
sensitivities and aesthetics.
The process of form-building is utilized in the analyses of the
three compositions
that are the focus of this dissertation. In Chapter II, I
discuss the recurring three-note
figures in the melodic line of the Requiem that are embedded in
the small and large scale
repetitions. This simulates a palindromic formation which gives
rise to what I call the
cyclic-time form. I use the concept of cyclic time as a
representative of Eastern
aesthetics that parallels the Requiems perception of form. Piano
Distance best represents
the concept of form-building. The perception of phrase formation
solely comes from the
relationships between the expectation and the retention of
musical events. I make use of
the concept of Japanese consciousness, force that becomes one
after another to
illustrate the phrase formation of Piano Distance. In Rain Tree,
certain parts of the music
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come to obtain two formal functions, in which the interpretation
is based on the events
happening before and after those parts. The concepts of
inter-subjectivity and non-
subjectivity can be associated with the Japanese mode of
narrative found in Rain Tree. In
the final chapter, I return to the topic of how time, viewed as
an unending cyclic entity,
affects musical form. I analyze and explore the significance of
the music of the Japanese
Noh flute (nohkan) in Akira Kurosawas film Ran, and show how
Takemitsu uses flute
music and an Eastern conception of time to accommodate
Shakespeares King Lear (as
retold by Kurosawa through Ran) a work that relies on Western
notions of linearity and
development. I conclude that my analyses reveal that Japanese
aesthetics intersect with
the perception of form in Takemitsus music.
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1INTRODUCTION
This dissertation integrates the studies of my three primary
interests: the concept
of time in music, how this concept of time influences the
perception of form, and the
music of Japanese composer Toru Takemitsu (1930-1996). Takemitsu
considered himself
a composer who wrote music in the style of the Western musical
tradition. Although he
did not have formal training in composition, he believed he was
most profoundly
influenced by Western composers such as Debussy, Messiaen, and
Schoenberg.1
Takemitsu became familiar with these composers as a founding
member of Jikken Kobo
(Studio of Experiments), a group of musicians, artists, and
novelists, who promoted new
and experimental directions in the arts. They learned the music
of recognized Western
composers, still unknown to the Japanese public, by programming
their works for the
groups recitals.
In spite of these expressed intentions, Takemitsu admits that
artists cannot easily
escape the cultural heritage into which they are born and
raised:
I am not a composer who represents Japan, nor even a Japanese
composer[composers who are intentionally conscious of having
Japanese nationality andincorporate Japanese elements into their
music]. Born and raised in Japan, awarethat I am influenced by its
culture, even as I try to free myself from that influence,at the
same time I am fully aware that is impossible.2
1 From a lecture by Toru Takemitsu delivered at Columbia
University, 14 November 1989; quoted inTimothy Koozin, Octatonicism
in Recent Solo Piano Works of Toru Takemitsu, Perspectives of
NewMusic 29, no. 1 (1991): 124, n. 1.2Toru Takemitsu, Confronting
Silence: Selected Writings, trans. and ed. Yoshiko Kakudo and
GlennGlasow (Berkeley, California: Fallen Leaf Press, 1995),
142.
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2Here Takemitsu professes his belief that a persons sensibility
is inherent in his nature
through specific cultural values in which he was raised.
Takemitsu apparently became
increasingly conscious of this sensibility as a Japanese
composer later in his life, but I
will show that Japanese aesthetic values influenced his work
throughout his career. He
writes for example:
There is an advantage for a Japanese composer who has studied
modern Westernmusic music from a completely different culture. That
is, he can view his ownJapanese tradition from within but with
anothers [outsiders] eyes.3
While the compositional materials that Takemitsu uses in his
music draw upon those used
by Western composers (for instance, materials derived from the
octatonic collection,
whole-tone scale, and pentatonic scale4), many listeners
nonetheless identify a Japanese
quality, even in pieces that do not use traditional Japanese
instruments. As a Japanese
musician and scholar who has been trained in the West, I believe
that the primary quality
that marks Takemitsus music as Japanese is how he controls and
structures smaller
musical units or events and temporality, and how the resultant
musical form reflects and
engages Japanese aesthetics. I argue that the temporal mode of
Takemitsus music is
primarily Western; Western in the sense that his music is
linear, has a definite beginning,
and has continuous relationships between musical events.
However, unlike much Western
music his forms are not hierarchical in structure. It is this
non-hierarchical nature of
Takemitsus musical forms that reflects the influence of Eastern
aesthetic values. I
3 Ibid., 143.4 It is interesting that Takemitsu incorporates
exotic scales adapted by Western composers that originatedfrom
Western composers interest in Orientalism.
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3explore the differences between Eastern and Western concepts of
time in the first chapter,
as well as define my terminology, such as linear, continuation,
and directedness.
Issues of time in music continue to be debated among music
theorists.5 While
music is a temporal art that can exist only through time, how we
perceive time is an
elusive concept that is difficult to formalize. Thus St.
Augustines famous question
remains relevant: What, then, is time? I know well enough what
it is, provided that
nobody asks me, but if I am asked what it is and try to explain,
I am baffled.6 Those who
discuss the general nature of time often draw examples and
images from music, since
music is perceivable only through time. For example, Susanne
Langer writes that music
makes time audible, and its form and continuity sensible.7
Leonard Meyer points out the danger of placing too much emphasis
on the
structure of the musical work as a single event interpreted as
an integrated and
unchanging whole. He writes:
5 Recent discussion concerning musical time includes: Karlheintz
Stockhausen, Momentform, Texte zurelektronischen und instrumentalen
Musik (1963), Gyrgy Ligeti, Metamorphoses of Musical Form, DieReihe
7, Form-Space, trans. Cornelius Cardew (1965), Barney Childs, Time
and Music: A ComposersView, Perspectives of New Music (1977),
Robert Morgan, Musical Time/ Musical Space, CriticalInquiry
(1979-80); Thomas Clifton, Music as Heard: A Study in Applied
Phenomenology (1983); MarthaHyde, A Theory of Twelve-Tone Meter,
Music Theory Spectrum (1984); George Rochberg, TheConcepts of
Musical Time and Space, The Aesthetics of Survival (1984); Joel
Lester, Notated and HeardMeter, Perspectives of New Music, (19856);
David Lewin, Music Theory, Phenomenology, and Modesof Perception,
Music Perception (19856); Christopher Hasty, On the Problem of
Succession andContinuity in Twentieth-Century Music, Music Theory
Spectrum (1986); Jonathan Kramer, The Time ofMusic (1988); Judy
Lochhead, The Metaphor of Musical Motion: is There an Alternative?
Theory andPractice (198990); Barbara Barry, Musical Time: The Sense
of Order (1990); Jonathan Kramer, ed.,Time in Contemporary Musical
Thought, Contemporary Music Review (1993); Christopher Hasty,
Meteras Rhythm (1997); and Justin London, Rhythm in
Twentieth-Century Theory, The Cambridge History ofWestern Music
Theory (2002).6 St. Augustine, Confessions, Book XI, trans. R. S.
Pine-Coffin (New York, 1977): 264, quoted in JudyLochhead, The
Metaphor of Musical Motion: Is There an Alternative? Theory and
Practice 14/15(1989/90): 102.7 Susanne Langer, Feeling and Form
(New York: Charles Scribners Sons, 1953), 110.
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4Too much emphasis upon the highest architectonic level not only
tends tominimize the importance of meanings as they arise and
evolve on otherarchitectonic levels but it also leads to a static
interpretation of the musicalprocess.8
He directs his criticism against aspects of music theory that
are concerned more with the
grammar and syntax of music which treats musical compositions as
things, rather than as
meanings or as the dynamic experience to which it gives rise.9
Meyers main criticism
addresses the analysis of common-practice tonal music; however,
the same criticism aptly
applies to analyses of post-tonal music. Similarly, Takemitsu
criticizes formal
structuralism from the composers viewpoint that composers too
have been steeped in
techniques, trying to grasp sounds only through their function
within the system. He
believes that the task of the composer should begin with the
recognition and experience
of the more basic sounds themselves rather than with concern
about their function.10
Although Takemitsu exploits his own system of pitch derivation
in composing, how his
music is realized in sound is more important for him.11
Exploring further Meyers perspective, I maintain that musical
structure and form
in Takemitsus music result from a dynamic process that can be
experienced through
time. In this dissertation, I draw upon my experience both as a
performer and as a
listener. My study of Takemitsus scores, then, is not isolated
from the music as it is
performed or heard. At the same time, my analysis of the music
seeks associations of
musical objects or events that arise in relation to the temporal
process of past, present,
8 Leonard B. Meyer, Emotion and Meaning in Music (Chicago:
University of Chicago Press, 1956), 52.9 Ibid, 54.10 Toru
Takemitsu, Confronting Silence: Selected Writings, trans. and ed.
Yoshiko Kakudo and GlennGlasow (Berkeley, California: Fallen Leaf
Press, 1995), 80.11 Ibid, 114.
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5and future. My goal is to better understand how Takemitsu
structures time in his music
and how listeners can experience these structures.
Takemitsus music is not goal-oriented a concept often used to
describe Western
tonal music in which motion is felt in one direction moving away
from and resolving
into, for example, the tonic harmony. Even though Takemitsu
focuses on certain pitch-
classes or sonorities in his music, he seldom establishes any
central harmony or collection
comparable to that of a tonic or a tonal key. Moreover, in
Takemitsus music, the sense of
climax and ending is less evident than in most Western music.
Also in relation to Western
traditions, his music is less teleological in the way that it
defines form. I raise many of the
same questions regarding Takemitsus music that Jonathan Kramer
has raised in The
Time of Music.12 Among these questions are: How does music
structure time, or how
does time structure music? How and why do compositions begin and
end? How do the
concepts of past, present, and future apply to music? What is
continuity, and is it optional
or necessary in music? And in comparison to Western art music,
does music influenced
by Eastern thought differ in any way in structure, form, and
perception? To explore these
questions, I use Takemitsus compositions, which on one level are
written in the style of
the Western musical tradition that uses conventional notation of
pitch and duration, and
are scored for Western instruments, but which nonetheless
reflect Japanese aesthetic
values.
12 Jonathan D. Kramer, The Time of Music: New Meanings, New
Temporalities, New Listening Strategies(New York: Schirmer Books,
1988), 14.
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6Previous studies have explored temporality in Takemitsus music,
and many of
them employ traditional Japanese concepts of time and
incorporate examples from the
Japanese tradition, such as the Shinto culture and the Japanese
Zen master Dogen, whose
ideas attracted Takemitsus attention. Most of these previous
discussions are highly
metaphorical, such as portraying the Oriental view of time in
Takemitsus music as an
unchanging temporal stasis. But these earlier discussions
largely neglect the issue of how
the listener experiences temporality in Takemitsus music.
Despite claims of addressing
temporality, most analyses of Takemitsus music are narrowly
focused on pitch
relationships. Koozin, for example, derives Takemitsus pitch
materials from symmetrical
scales or collections (such as the octatonic, whole-tone, and
Messiaens modes of limited
transposition) and argues that by virtue of their symmetry, the
pitch structure in
Takemitsus music dissolves into a static and undifferentiated
temporal field.13 Although
I do not oppose the metaphor of a static temporal background for
Takemitsus music, I
support more strongly a view that posits a dynamic experience
that unfolds in the
continuum of time. Here I find most useful Christopher Hastys
model of phrase
formation and his concepts of duration and motion. My critique
of Koozins approach
and adaptation of Hastys concepts appear in Chapter One.
My approach to Takemitsus music as a dynamic experience is
influenced by the
phenomenological attitude as characterized by Thomas Clifton,
who writes:
13 Timothy Koozin, Spiritual-Temporal Imagery in Music of
Olivier Messiaen and Toru Takemitsu,Contemporary Music Review 7
(1993): 186.
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7the most telling contribution of a phenomenological attitude is
the means it offersfor uncovering and describing phenomena which
are immanent in the compositionand presented by it. This is
different from the more traditional purpose of analysis,which
describes how certain events or compositional procedures are
constitutiveof the composition.14
An in-depth discussion of the philosophy of phenomenology is
outside the scope of this
dissertation. I adopt this phenomenological attitude, however,
as a means of articulating
observations, which are in one sense objective in describing
musical events adequately,
but subjective in another sense in addressing the temporal
meanings that emanate from
the same musical events. This is the reason why it is critical
to embody my subjective
viewpoints as a performer and a listener.
Given that music by necessity can only be experienced in time,
temporality
naturally engages the issue of musical form. Temporality and
form are closely related,
since form can only unfold in time; form here means the
constructive or organizing
element in music.15 The conscious concept of musical form was
developed in the
nineteenth century not to understand music of the past, but
rather to teach musicians how
to compose. Consequently, discussions of form were largely
prescriptive, and the abstract
forms they described served more as molds that guaranteed the
degree of uniformity
needed for syntactical coherence. Given its pedagogical goals,
it is hardly surprising that
nineteenth century concepts of form relied on abstraction and
generalization.16
14 Thomas Clifton, Music as Heard: A Study in Applied
Phenomenology (New Haven and London: YaleUniversity Press, 1983),
ix.15 Arnold Whittall, Form, Grove Music Online, ed. L. Macy
(Accessed 18 October 2005),
16 Ibid.
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8However, the interpretation of the term form changed direction
when twentieth-
century music was emancipated from the stability and singularity
of formal
categorization. Arnold Whittall writes, The fact that there is
more to composition than
form, and that discussing form separately from content in all
but the most directly
technical sense is purely pedagogical, has encouraged
musicological interpretation of the
musical work as a multivalent entity.17 Because music in the
twentieth century became
considerably divergent, we could no longer classify a piece into
one single category.
Now, when we interpret the form of a piece, we must study the
individual events or
content in each musical work. The handed-down genres and forms
from the previous
century tended towards fragmentation and disintegration.18
Musical form became an
entity, which can be discussed from diverse perspectives.19
In my discussion, I analyze form in Takemitsus music from the
perspective of
form as a processive entity, and not merely identifying formal
components, such as
phrases and sections. Judy Lochhead adopts a similar approach in
order to formalize pitch
structure, employing time-like or processive models of form for
the analysis of Roger
Sessions Third Piano Sonata.20 Inspired by her analysis, I
consider form the result of the
17 Ibid.18 Ibid.19 Recent research concerning musical form
includes: Edward Cone, Musical Form and MusicalPerformance (1968);
Nicholas Cook, Musical Form and the Listener, The Journal of
Aesthetics and ArtCriticism (1987); Janet Schmalfeldt, Form as the
Process of Becoming: The Beethoven-HegelianTradition and the
Tempest Sonata, Beethoven Forum IV (1995); Charles Rosen, The
Classical Style:Haydn, Mozart, Beethoven (1997); William Drabkin,
Chopin, Schenker, and Musical Form, OstinatoRigore (2000); Scott
Burnham, The Second Nature of Sonata Form, Music Theory and Natural
Orderform the Renaissance to the Early Twentieth Century (2001);
James Hepokoski, Beyond the SonataPrinciple, Journal of the
Amaerican Musicological Society (2002);20 Judy Lochhead, Temporal
Process of Form: Sessions Third Piano Sonata, Contemporary
MusicReview 7 (1993): 163-83.
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9relationships among segments that emerge through associations
to past musical events. If
Takemitsus music is influenced by his Japanese heritage, then
Japanese aesthetic values
must influence how his music structures time. Examining
Takemitsus music from an
Asian perspective, I will argue that Takemitsus compositions are
coherent and
continuous entities, which sustain an equilibrium between the
confluence of Eastern
aesthetics and Western musical styles.
I use three of Takemitsus compositions for analyses: Requiem for
Strings (1957)
in Chapter II; Piano Distance for solo piano (1961) in Chapter
III; and Rain Tree for
three percussionists (1981) in Chapter IV. Each piece employs
different instrumentations
and they represent Takemitsus output from the earlier to the
middle periods in his life.
Because I focus on Takemitsu as a composer who wrote music in
the Western musical
tradition, all of the analysed compositions are written for
Western instruments.
Takemitsus ideal of ensemble performance is to enhance each
performers personality,21
which differs from the Western ideal of ensemble performance
that strives for individual
sounds to blend into one cohesive sound as if played by one
person. In order to interpret
the interactions between performers in the ensemble, I analyzed
Takemitsus music in
smaller settings. In the chapter that I analyze the Requiem, I
discuss how the recurring
small melodic fragments are embedded in larger repetitions, thus
contributing to the
palindromic structure of the piece. The resultant affect for the
listener is that the music
seems to be constantly returning to a point in the past. This
perception of form relates to
21 Takemitsu described many features of the traditional Japanese
music in Oto, Chinmoku toHakariaeruhodoni (Sound, confronting
silence) (Tokyo: Shinchosha, 1971).
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the Eastern concept of cyclic time. In Chapter III, I discuss
the temporal continuity which
has a definite beginning and a cohesive totality that arises
from related parts in Piano
Distance. I then explore the non-hierarchical nature of musical
structure in this piece,
which relates to a principle that is prominent in Japanese
traditional art. In Chapter IV, I
make use of the concept of inter-subjectivity in Japanese
literature to discuss the formal
structure and expressive meaning of Rain Tree.
In the final chapter, in order to provide an opposing
perspective of time, culture,
and music, I return to the topic of how time, viewed as an
unending cyclic entity, affects
musical form. The final chapter shows how Takemitsu used the
nohkan flute in the
soundtrack for Akira Kurosawas film Ran to accommodate
Shakespeares King Lear, a
work that relies on Western notions of linearity and
development. Kurosawa made many
changes when adapting the plot of King Lear for Ran. These
changes reflect the
differences between Japanese concepts of time and change and
that of the West. I
conclude that the nohkan music in Ran embodies and signifies the
Japanese concepts of
time and change in Kurosawas adaptation of King Lear.
There are no pre-existing standard formal types in Takemitsus
music (i.e., sonata
form, rondo form). Structure and form in his music results from
a dynamic process that
must be experienced through time. By examining Takemitsus works
individually, I
argue that the process of form-building is unique for each
piece, and that the resultant
musical form overlaps with the various aspects of Japanese
aesthetic values.
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CHAPTER I
CONCEPTS OF TEMPORALITY, LINEARITY, AND FORMIN THE ANALYSIS OF
TAKEMITSUS MUSIC
My approach to analyzing Takemitsus music is based on the
concepts of process
oriented formation of structure and recognition of relationships
among musical events
that occur in a continuous temporal succession. In this chapter,
I discuss relative theories
that have been developed by other scholars, as well as theories
having to do with the
Eastern concept of time, the concept of temporality developed by
Western scholars,
concepts of linearity and nonlinearity, and the concept of
form-building. Before I discuss
these issues, it will be helpful first to review relevant
biographical information about
Takemitsu and key insights gleaned from his own writings.
Takemitsu explains that he started seeking his unique sound in
the ruins after the
fire of World War II. Perhaps somewhat fancifully, he recounts
that as the war was
approaching its end, he heard Lucienne Boyer singing the French
chanson Parlez-moi
damour from an old phonograph, and that it was the first time he
became aware of the
beauty of music from Western culture. And it was this
realization that brought about
his desire to make a career of composing music in
Western-style.1 As it turned out, the
West was about to invade Japan both physically and culturally.
His was the first
generation, in fact, caught in the confrontation between
Japanese values and radical
westernization. Defeat forced the young Japanese to be exposed
and to absorb the culture
1 Takemitsu writes about his early musical experiences in Toru
Takemitsu, Toi Yobigoeno Kanatani(Beyond the far calls) (Tokyo:
Shinchousha, 1992), 27-28.
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of the West, primarily that of America. In 1948, Takemitsu
became a private pupil of
composer Yasuji Kiyose with whom he studied for several years.
However, by his own
account, he largely taught himself through listening to American
radio broadcasts and by
frequently visiting the American library where he studied the
scores of numerous
American composers, including Roy Harris, Aaron Copland, Walter
Piston, and Roger
Sessions.2
Initially, Takemitsus compositions were not immediately well
received in Japan.
Not until Igor Stravinsky visited Japan, heard Takemitsus
Requiem for Strings
(composed in 1950), and praised its artistry, originality, and
intensity did he gain wider
recognition. In the years following, Takemitsu was inspired to
write in more varied
genres, such as musique concrte, tape music, aleatoric music,
music using graphic
notation, as well as music written with more conventional
techniques. While his attitude
toward music and composition was profoundly influenced by John
Cage, he nonetheless
identifies Messiaen as his spiritual mentor, from whom he
learned the concept and
experience of color in music and form.3 Takemitsu also became
recognized for his
artful composition of soundtracks for a large number of
films.4
In the second half of the twentieth century, Takemitsu became
recognized as
Japans most distinguished composer.5 Since 1960, his awards in
international
2 Ibid., 28.3 Toru Takemitsu, Confronting Silence: Selected
Writings, trans. and ed. Yoshiko Kakudo and GlennGlasow (Berkeley,
California: Fallen Leaf Press, 1995), 141. Takemitsu does not give
a precise descriptionof what he means by these concepts.4 See
footnote 1 in Chapter 7 regarding Takemitsus work as film
composer.5 Biographical information is taken from Toru Takemitsu,
Confronting Silence: Selected Writings, trans.and ed. Yoshiko
Kakudo and Glenn Glasow (Berkeley, California: Fallen Leaf Press,
1995), xiii.
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competitions include two UNESCO Rostrum of Composers Prizes, the
Inter Design
Grand Prize, the prix International Maurice Ravel, the Kyoto
Music Grand Prize (a
distinction shared with John Cage and Olivier Messiaen), and the
Grawemeyer Award.
He was twice commissioned for the 125th and the 150th
anniversaries of the New York
Philharmonic Orchestra, for which he composed November Steps
(for shakuhachi, biwa,
and orchestra) and Family Tree: Musical Verses for Young People
(for narrator and
orchestra, poems by Shutaro Tanikawa). He had numerous
commissions, served as music
director in various expositions and projects, was a jury member
in national and
international composition competitions, and gave lectures at
Yale, Harvard, and Boston
University, as well as other universities and music festivals.
In 1990, he was awarded two
honorary Doctorates of Music (from the City of Leeds College of
Music, and Durham
University) and was made an honorary member of the American
Academy, the Institute
of Arts and Letters, and the French Ordre des Arts et des
Lettres.
Takemitsu was always concerned about the situation of
traditional and
contemporary Japanese music and its reception in international
music venues. For the
twenty years following 1973, he organized and served as the
music director of Music
Today, a series of annual concerts of international contemporary
music. His
accomplishments were also reflected in many national awards.
Takemitsu as an author is now becoming known outside of Japan.
However, there
is still a large portion of his writings that remain
untranslated. He has written essays and
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14
commentaries, and some of his lectures have been transcribed for
publication.6 His ideas
on such topics as music, sound and silence, nature, the
universe, and the West and East
are frequently expressed in these writings. For example,
Takemitsu writes:
To give clear shape to amorphous and irregular musical ideas and
images, onecannot avoid depending on words. These are not technical
words of music theorybut are instinctive, dramatic, communicative
flashes. For that reason, at timeswords are for me a kind of filter
of my thoughts, not the means of communicatingevents or emotions.
In order to be totally immersed in music I cannot
neglectverification of my relationship to the world through the use
of words.7
Takemitsu did not write program music, nor did he believe that
words explain the essence
of music. For him, words were more like stimulants for his
imagination that activated his
sensibilities in his search for sounds.
In the beginning of his career, Takemitsu states that he avoided
Japanese music,
since he believed that old-fashioned Japanese music would call
back the detestable
memories of old Japan.8 However, he describes one influential
experience involving the
Japanese traditional art form of Bunraku, which led him to be
aware of the richness of
Japanese culture and to have a greater appreciation for it.
Takemitsus interest in
Japanese traditional instruments started in 1961, when he used
the biwa, a traditional
Japanese lute-like instrument, for the first time in the music
for the documentary film
Nippon no Monyo (Japanese patterns). He used the same instrument
again in the
soundtrack for the movie Seppuku, which received the Mainichi
Music Festival prize for
6 For the list of writings by Takemitsu (both in Japanese and in
translation), see Peter Burt, The Music ofToru Takemitsu
(Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), selected
bibliography, 283-84.7 Toru Takemitsu, Confronting Silence:
Selected Writings, trans. and ed. Yoshiko Kakudo and GlennGlasow
(Berkeley, California: Fallen Leaf Press, 1995), ix.8 Toru
Takemitsu, Toi Yobigoeno Kanatani (Beyond the far calls) (Tokyo:
Shinchousha, 1992), 28.
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15
best film score. Thereafter Takemitsu employed Japanese
instruments frequently in music
for film, radio, and television. His first concert work that
used traditional Japanese
instruments was Eclipse (1966) for biwa and shakuhachi (upright
flute made of bamboo).
In 1967, he again turned to biwa and shakuhachi for November
Steps. This double
concerto brought Takemitsu recognition throughout the world. In
this work, Takemitsu
sought to create a new sound through combining instruments from
the West and the East.
During the last two decades of his career, Takemitsu less
frequently incorporated
Japanese instruments in his music, perhaps because he no longer
needed the help of
Japanese instruments to incorporate Eastern aesthetic values
into his music.
Even though Takemitsu received wide recognition as a composer
internationally,
there are few analytical studies of Takemitsus music. One reason
maybe that his music
does not conform to a particular compositional style in
twentieth century music, nor does
it utilize any one compositional method. The general
understanding among scholars of
Takemitsus music is that his pitch materials often derive from
Messiaens modes of
limited transpositions, especially the octatonic and whole tone
scales. However, his
procedures are not systematic enough to generalize or codify.
Peter Burts recent
publication is the most complete outline of Takemitsus style
throughout the composers
career.9 It illustrates many theoretical features of Takemitsus
music and offers some
analyses; however, they are neither in detail nor in depth.
Other recent studies of
Takemitsus music include a semiotic analysis, which contrasts
the meaning of sound in
9 Peter Burt, The Music of Toru Takemitsu (Cambridge: Cambridge
University Press, 2001).
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16
his music with the dichotomy of Eastern and Western culture,10
and a study of pitch
structure in one of Takemitsus compositions, which compares it
to the pitch structure
characteristic of music for the traditional Japanese instrument
sho.11 Most studies,
including the above, show to some extent how Eastern culture has
influenced his music.
Many scholars have turned to the Eastern concept of time seen in
Takemitsus music as a
feature that differentiates his music from that of other Western
composers. This seems
plausible since Takemitsu himself was interested in the topic of
how music unfolds in
time. However, in this study I argue against the premise that
Takemitsus music embraces
the Eastern concept of time that is characterized as nonlinear
and discontinuous.
Although I do not necessarily disagree with the Eastern concept
of time in music from a
metaphorical perspective, nevertheless as a listener and
performer, I support more
strongly a view that asserts a dynamic experience of music that
unfolds through the
continuum of time. As a result of my analyses, I conclude that
temporality in Takemitsus
music is primarily Western in that it is structured by a
definite beginning, by continuity,
and by linearity. In my view, it is not time but the perception
of form that more strongly
reflects the influence of Eastern aesthetics. Before presenting
my own ideas, I first need
to summarize the findings of previous studies that compare
Eastern and Western concepts
of temporality.
10 Yayoi Uno Everett, Reflecting on Two Cultural Mirrors: Mode
and Signification of Musical Synthesisin Tru Takemitsus November
Steps and Autumn, in A Way a Lone: Writings on Tru Takemitsu,
ed.Hugh de Ferranti and Yko Narazaki (Tokyo: Academia Music Ltd.,
2002).11 Steven Nuss, Takemitsu and the Cry of the Phoenix, in A
Way a Lone: Writings on Tru Takemitsu, ed.Hugh de Ferranti and Yko
Narazaki (Tokyo: Academia Music Ltd., 2002).
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17
Most scholars agree that many features of Japanese traditional
music are prominent
characteristics of Takemitsus music. These include simply using
Japanese instruments,
using sounds on Western instruments that imitate the timber and
texture of Japanese
instruments,12 and the spatial positioning of instruments that
emphasize the individuality
of sound production.13 In addition to these Japanese features,
Timothy Koozin argues that
Takemitsus music can be viewed as a modern reflection of the
traditional Japanese
concept of time.14 In Oriental philosophy, being over doing has
been fundamental in
shaping the traditional Eastern concept of time. While being
suggests connection with
the infinite, doing (action) is temporal and temporary. F. S. C.
Northrop contrasts the
Oriental portrayal of time as a placid, silent pool within which
ripples come and go, while
the Western view represents time either with an arrow or as a
moving river.15 The
metaphor illustrates the contrast between the directionality of
the Western concept of time
and non- directionality of the Eastern concept of time. Koozin
argues that in many
Japanese arts, finite action and timeless eternity coexist,
which Kitaro Nishida has called
the unity of opposites.16 Here, time is represented as
foreground (finite action) and
background (timeless eternity), for which Koozin gives as an
example the Japanese poet
12 See Dana Wilson, The Role of Texture in Selected Works of
Toru Takemitsu (Ph. D. diss., Universityof Rochester, 1982).13 I
discuss this feature in Chapter IV (i.e., how the instruments are
positioned on stage in the performanceof Rain Tree).14 Timothy
Koozin explores the Eastern influence of the concept of time in
Takemitsus music in The SoloPiano Works of Toru Takemitsu: A
Linear/Set-Theoretical Analysis (Ph. D. diss., University
ofCincinnati, 1988) and in several articles, such as Toru Takemitsu
and the Unity of Opposites, CollegeMusic Symposium 30, no. 1
(1990): 34-44, and Spiritual-Temporal Imagery in Music of Olivier
Messiaenand Toru Takemitsu, Contemporary Music Review 7 (1993):
185-202.15 F. S. C. Northrop, The Meeting of East and West (New
York: Macmillan Company, 1946), 376-83.16 Timothy Koozin, Toru
Takemitsu and the Unity of Opposites, College Music Symposium 30,
no. 1(1990): 40.
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18
Bashos haiku. The idea of time represented as a unity of
opposites can be traced to the
thirteenth century writings of the Japanese Zen master Dogen,
who teaches that time is
being.17 This concept values the beauty of isolated, independent
objects or events in a
work of art. It is reflected in the appreciation of spatial and
temporal discontinuities
prevalent in Japanese traditional music, poetry, and drama. In
music it is represented by
the awareness of motion within a single tone itself rather than
among separate tones.18 In
Takemitsus music, individual tones are the finite temporal
markers, which in opposition
suggest an awareness of eternal time. Especially when there is
no audible metrical
background, the durations of pitches are projected against a
background of silence itself. A
metrical background suggests finitude, and nothing extends
beyond the beginning and end
of the musical work. Koozin then explains that a stream of local
musical events may be
superimposed against a static background of sustained octatonic
sonorities,19 which
Takemitsu utilized as a global force for pitch organization. A
sustained field of octatonic
sounds used to form a static background is a sonorous continuum,
which merges with the
all-embracing background of silence to convey an image of
eternity.20 Thus, musical and
extra-musical metaphors suggest an awareness of the infinite in
Takemitsus music.
17 Eihei Dogen, Shobogenzo (The eye and treasury of the true
law), trans. Kosen Nishiyama and JohnStevens, Shobogenzo, vol. 1
(Tokyo: Daihokkaikaku, 1977), 68; quoted in Timothy Koozin,
Spiritual-Temporal Imagery in Music of Olivier Messiaen and Toru
Takemitsu, Contemporary Music Review 7(1993): 187.18 Timothy
Koozin, Spiritual-Temporal Imagery in Music of Olivier Messiaen and
Toru Takemitsu,Contemporary Music Review 7 (1993): 187.19 Timothy
Koozin, Toru Takemitsu and the Unity of Opposites, College Music
Symposium 30, no. 1(1990): 41.20 Timothy Koozin, Spiritual-Temporal
Imagery in Music of Olivier Messiaen and Toru
Takemitsu,Contemporary Music Review 7 (1993): 189.
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19
Koozin argues that the metaphor of the opposition between
infinite and finite time
is characteristic of Takemitsus music, and that he also places
weight on isolated,
independent objects or events focusing more on individual
moments and less on the
continuity of moments. Other scholars focus on the similarities
between the temporal and
spatial discontinuities prevalent in Japanese traditional art
and the concept of Eastern
time. Fumio Hayasaka states that the form of Japanese
traditional music is an eternal
form with sections without head or tail compared to a more
dialectical development,
such as that found among the themes of a Western sonata form.21
In the literature of
haiku (short poem) or music of joururi (a narrative style of
singing), each part lacks a
clear frame; instead, parts that unfold continuously can be
replaced in any order, and they
also can start and end at any place. Jonathan Kramer takes
notice of this aspect of
Japanese art, which places emphasis on every object and every
moment of time rather
than on a long-range structure. Japanese art is non-dramatic,
and, similarly, the
elimination of the dramatic curve is a primary prerequisite for
what he calls moment
time, a term that he adopted from Stockhausens idea of moment
form.22 In moment
form, Stockhausen articulates the aesthetic of moment time:
Musical forms have been composed in recent years, which are
remote from thescheme of the finalistic [goal-directed] dramatic
forms. These forms do not aimtoward a climax, do not prepare the
listener to expect a climax, and theirstructures do not contain the
usual stages found in the development curve of the
21 Shinjo Saito and Maki Takemitsu, eds., Takemitsu Toru no
Sekai (The world of Toru Takemitsu) (Tokyo:Shueisha, 1997), 84.22
Jonathan D. Kramer, The Time of Music: New Meanings, New
Temporalities, New Listening Strategies(New York: Schirmer Books,
1988), 201-2.
-
20
whole duration of a normal composition: the introductory rising,
transitional, andfading stages.23
Kramer argues that Stockhausens idea of moment time in music
reflects a non-Western
value in its avoidance of functional implications among moments
as well as in its
avoidance of climaxes. A composition in moment time has neither
a functional beginning
nor an ending. Although the piece must start for simple
practical reasons, it does not
begin; likewise it must stop, but it does not end.24
As I discussed above, Takemitsu was keenly aware of his Japanese
heritage and
its cultural influence upon his work. We might assume that his
music reflects
Stockhausens moment form, since this idea well describes forms
in other Japanese arts,
including traditional Japanese music. Wilkins dissertation, An
Analysis of Musical
Temporality in Toru Takemitsus Rain Tree (1981), is based on a
similar assumption.25
He summarizes the concept of time in Japanese culture and then
bases his analysis of
Rain Tree on Kramers moment form. Avoiding the issue of
temporality, he focuses
primarily on the determination of the derivation of pitch
materials in each moment or
section of the piece. However, he does not provide a convincing
reason as to why he
judges Rain Tree to represent a moment form. We clearly need to
ask the question as to
whether we should perceive Takemitsus non-tonal pieces in moment
time only
because he has a Japanese cultural background. Is it indeed
legitimate to assert that his
music reflects the Eastern concept of time and its consequent
lack of beginning, ending,
23 Karlheinz Stockhausen, Momentform, trans. Brad Absetz, Texte
zur elektronischen und instrumentalenMusik 1 (Cologne: DuMont,
1963), 199; quoted from Kramer, 201.24 Ibid.25 Blake Matthew
Wilkins, An Analysis of Musical Temporality in Toru Takemitsus Rain
Tree (1981)(DMA diss., University of Oklahoma, 1999).
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21
transition, and climax? As stated above, I argue against the
assertion that Takemitsus
music is based on the Eastern concept of time. Instead, I argue
that his music is based on
the Western concept of temporality. In the remainder of this
chapter, I discuss key issues
related to the Western concept of temporality, such as
experienced time, continuity,
linearity, and motion.
Music theorists and composers have extensively discussed the
topic of temporality
in music during the past half century,26 although the subject
still does not receive enough
attention especially in the analyses of individual compositions.
Music theorists have
primarily concerned themselves with the dimension of pitch
organization. One reason for
this is that the commonly used terminology of music has direct
semantic ties to musical
space. This terminology has more specific meaning than that used
for musical time. We
can precisely describe and notate such phenomena as pitch,
chord, triad, harmony, and
register; for instance we can describe a pitch as A4 or a
harmony as roman numeral IV in
the key of G-major. In contrast, we have greater difficulty
describing phenomena such as
arsis, thesis, upbeat, downbeat, tempo, meter, rhythm, rubato,
measure, phrase, and period,
phenomena directly related to the issue of musical time. The
phenomena of musical time
are less precisely represented by music notation than are
phenomena occurring in musical
space. For example, different analysts may have varying
interpretations of phrase
structure. Furthermore, a listeners perception of upbeat and
downbeat may not coincide
with notational elements such as barlines. Often these terms
have little meaning without
26 Various writings that examine the topic of musical time are
referenced in footnote 4 in the Introduction.
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22
discussing individual pieces, and for this reason, the
generalization and categorization of
phenomena in musical time is resistant to further development.
As music unfolds in time,
the listeners experience becomes crucial in recognizing the
phenomena in musical time
for each piece. Naturally, the listening experience differs from
person to person, and
similarly, how the music unfolds in time differs from piece to
piece. In the following
discussion, I review the concepts and terminology developed by
recent writers, and then
define these concepts in relation to my analysis of Takemitsus
music.
Music is unique in our experience of time, for music is a
temporal art in which the
motion of tones and continuity are essential. In this sense,
time in music is not a
quantitative factor that can be expressed in a formula, such as
distance = velocity time.
In other words, time in music is distinguished from clock-time.
Susan Langer draws the
necessary distinction between clock time and what she calls
duration, which is the
relation of time to music. Musical duration is an image of what
might be termed lived
or experienced time.27 Langer describes musical time as dynamic
and experiential time,
calling its symbolic presentation in music the primary illusion
of music. The elements of
music are moving forms of sound, but in their perceptual motion,
nothing is physically
moving. She writes:
All music creates an order of virtual time, in which its
sonorous forms move inrelation to each other always and only to
each other, for nothing else existsthere. Virtual time is as
separate from the sequence of actual happenings as virtualspace
from actual space. In the first place, it is entirely perceptible,
through theagency of a single sense hearing. There is no
supplementing of one sort ofexperience by another. . . . music
spreads out time for our direct and completeapprehension, by
letting our hearing monopolize it organize, fill and shape it,
all
27 Susanne Langer, Feeling and Form (New York: Charles Scribners
Sons, 1953), 109.
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23
alone. It creates an image of time measured by the motion of
forms that seem togive it substance, yet a substance that consists
entirely of sound, so it istransitoriness itself. Music makes time
audible, and its form and continuitysensible.28
George Rochberg basically agrees with Langers definition of the
term
duration, which he defines as time as experienced in music.29
Rochberg considers
duration as the primary condition of music, which engages the
listeners sense of duration
in relation to his/her own experience.30 Thus, even though
musical events are notated by
the measured value of notes occurring externally, duration as
time as experienced in
music is an internalized process, which in itself is an
unmeasurable flow that is
unsusceptible to limits or demarcation.31 David Epstein
contrasts the experienced time
against measured time in music with less sense of subjectivity.
He calls the essentially
mechanistic, evenly spaced measurement of time chronometric
time, which is in large
part evenly articulated time set up within a musical measure.
Its measurements and
demarcations provide pragmatic and convenient periodization.32
At the same time,
Epstein terms the unique organization of time intrinsic to an
individual piece integral
time, which is enriched and qualified by the particular
experience within which it is
framed. He clearly articulates the duality of time in music: the
imaginary pulse which is
the marker of time, and the rhythm that reinforces or obscures
the underlying metrical
time in individual pieces.33
28 Ibid., 109-10.29 George Rochberg, The Aesthetics of Survival
(Ann Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1984), 77.30 Ibid.,
72-75.31 Ibid., 76-77.32 David Epstein, On Musical Continuity, in
The Study of Time IV: Papers from the Fourth Conference ofthe
International Society for the Study of Time, Alpbach-Austria, ed.
J. T. Fraser, N. Lawrence, and D. Park(New York: Springer-Verlag
New York, Inc., 1981), 183.33 Ibid.
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24
Lewis Rowell argues that the beginning of a composition
functions as a transition
from external time or clock-time to the internal time or
duration of the composition,
initiating the listeners engagement of expectation. He discusses
six functions of the
beginning of a composition: 1) the translation from external
time to the internal time of
the composition; 2) the overcoming of the inertia of the
surrounding silence, the zone of
atemporality that serves as a frame for the music music takes
energy to set it in motion,
and this energy must be felt (and sometimes seen) by the
auditors; 3) the demarcation of
the tonal field: laying out the boundaries within which the game
is to be played, setting
temporary high and low edges for the pitch spectrum, and
establishing a tonal focus or
perspective therein; 4) the promise or forecast of the scope of
the whole composition, its
accentual weight, tonal quality, and energy level; 5) the onset
of the listeners train of
expectations, predictions, and retrodictions, moving from
ambiguity to certainty; and 6)
the establishment of the feeling of motion.34 Among these
functions, I consider the fifth
and the sixth of greater significance for the understanding of
Takemitsus music. The
fifth function describes well the process of the forming of
structural units in
Takemitsus pieces, and the sixth the function of continuity.
The analyst can articulate the emergence or building of form by
addressing the
sequence of expectations, predictions, and retrodictions, which
is a temporal succession
of units and events. This way of conceptualizing the creation of
form-building represents
34Lewis Rowell, The Creation of Audible Time, in The Study of
Time IV: Papers from the FourthConference of the International
Society for the Study of Time, Alpbach-Austria, ed. J. T. Fraser,
N.Lawrence, and D. Park (New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc.,
1981), 199-200.
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25
enunciation of time as process. The Oxford English Dictionary
defines process as the
fact of going on or being carried on, as an action, or a series
of actions or events,35 and
the Random House Dictionary of the English Language defines
process as a series of
progressive and interdependent steps by which an end is
attained.36 Judy Lochhead
suggests that much contemporary discussion about form fails to
address its forming
aspect, that is, discussions of form in general and analyses of
specific forms often do not
account for the building-up of a whole by the accumulation of
parts. She believes there
is a discomfort among scholars who approach the topic, and that
it is this failure to
capture the forming of a temporal shape that is the source of
unease about form, an
unease born from the change from thing-oriented thought to
process-oriented thought.37
Lochhead bases her discussion on Roger Sessionss argument that
the conceptualization
of thing-oriented form has a rigidifying or spatializing effect;
the things that
comprise it are, for example, motives, themes, phrases, and
sections. Thing-oriented form
is something to be filled like a bottle in three-dimensional
space. Emphasizing
process instead of thing, Sessions prefers to think of form in
terms of relationships
and functions as they occur during the temporal presentation of
musical events.38 This
kind of process-oriented analysis addresses the arising of
formal meanings during the
temporal succession of units and events that eventually will
constitute a musical whole;
35 Oxford English Dictionary, 2nd ed., s.v. process.36 Random
House Dictionary of the English Language, 2nd ed., s.v. process.37
Judy Lochhead, Joan Towers Wings and Breakfast Rhythms I and II:
Some Thoughts on Form andRepetition, Perspectives of New Music 30,
no.1 (1992): 134-35.38 Judy Lochhead, Temporal Process of Form:
Sessionss Third Piano Sonata, Contemporary MusicReview 7 (1993):
165-66.
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26
that is, it is concerned with the strategy of form-building, not
solely with the built
form.39
Among the principles that underlie musical form, the principle
of association is
emphasized by Sessions in his second book Questions about
Music.40 He writes in his
first book The Musical Experience of Composer, Performer, and
Listener that the
function of association is to give significance to a musical
idea and unity to musical
forms, and he adds in his second book that association is a
back-reference to an
important element that has been already stated. Temporally,
Sessionss association is a
past-oriented principle involving references by later events to
earlier ones.41
The process-oriented concept of form does not imply the musical
action of a
future-directed movement through an a priori structure (such as
the dominant chord
progressing to a tonic). Forms are defined by the constant
updating of formal meaning
as events occur during the time of a piece. In this conception,
form is best described not
by its constitutive elements or as something to be filled in by
substantive things (such as
motives and themes), but rather by temporally-directed relations
that shape the passing,
the retaining, and the expecting of musical events.42 While
events unfold through time in
39 Judy Lochhead, Joan Towers Wings and Breakfast Rhythms I and
II: Some Thoughts on Form andRepetition, Perspectives of New Music
30, no.1 (1992): 135.40 Roger Sessions discusses three fundamental
principles underlying musical form in his two books, TheMusical
Experience of Composer, Performer, and Listener (1950) and
Questions about Music (1970).These are: 1) progression or
cumulation, which refers to the nature of successive events in a
musicalpresentation; 2) association, in which repetition in the
broadest sense of its meaning, associates occurrencesthrough
musical similarities; and 3) contrast. In the latter book, he adds
the principle of balance (orproportion). See Judy Lochhead Temporal
Process of Form: Sessionss Third Piano Sonata,Contemporary Music
Review 7 (1993): 163-83.41 Ibid., 164-65.42 Ibid., 178.
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27
the piece, Sessions conceives continuity as the variable nature
of relationships among
earlier and later events that give rise to the formal design.43
In the following analyses of
Takemitsus music, I make use of the Lochhead/Sessions concept of
process-oriented
formation of structure, and I also use the term continuity as
defined by Sessions.
Jonathan Kramer, although not consistently, uses the terms
continuity and
discontinuity in conjunction with the terms linearity and
nonlinearity in his
discussion of temporality in music.44 He uses the word
continuity, for example, when
the music has consistent temporality throughout the piece, that
is, the piece has
continuity when it does not disrupt the goal-directed linearity
or nonlinear
consistency.
Linearity and nonlinearity are the key words Kramer uses to
categorize
temporality in music. He categorizes five kinds of temporality
in music according to the
degree of linearity or nonlinearity, in conjunction with the
degree of continuity or
discontinuity between musical events, and the directedness of
events. He defines
linearity as: the determination of some characteristic(s) of
music in accordance with
implications that arise from earlier events of the piece.45 Thus
linearity is processive. He
also defines linear time as the temporal continuum created by
successive events in which
earlier events imply later ones, and later ones are consequences
of earlier ones.
Nonlinearity is nonprocessive. Kramer defines nonlinearity as:
the determination of
43 Ibid., 165.44 Jonathan D. Kramer, The Time of Music: New
Meanings, New Temporalities, New Listening Strategies(New York:
Schirmer Books, 1988).45 Ibid., 20. Italics by Kramer.
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28
some characteristic(s) of music in accordance with implications
that arise from
principles or tendencies governing an entire piece or section.46
Nonlinear time is the
temporal continuum that results from principles permanently
governing a section or a
piece. According to Kramer, the five categories of time in music
(directed linear time,
nondirected linear time, multiply-directed linear time, moment
time, and vertical time)
arise from different degrees and kinds of interaction between
linearity and nonlinearity.
He contrasts linear with nonlinear time: linear principles are
constantly in flux, nonlinear
principles do not grow or change. In linear time, phrases group
into periods, subsections,
sections, movements, and so forth, in a usually well ordered
hierarchy. Some cadences
are stronger than others, and the stronger ones close off larger
portions of the piece.47
Nonlinear principles may be revealed gradually, but they do not
develop from earlier
events or tendencies.
Before summarizing Kramers five categories of temporality in
music, I need to
discuss the two concepts of directedness (or directionality) and
goal-oriented (terms
interchangeable with goal-directed or goal-defining) that Kramer
and other writers
describe. The degree of discontinuity and/or the lack of
directedness of events determine
Kramers three types of linear time, which he calls directed
linear time, nondirected
linear time, and multiply-directed linear time.
George Rochberg writes; Direction in music derives from a clear
perception of,
and therefore corresponds to, the clear presentation of temporal
and spatial points of
46 Ibid. Italics by Kramer.47 Ibid., 55.
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29
departure and movement or passage en route to points of arrival
or destination.48 There
are two essential conditions on which direction in music
depends: periodicity of rhythmic
activity and tonality.49 However, as seen in certain atonal
music, rhythmic periodicity can
itself manifest the sense of directedness, without the support
of a tonic harmony as a
point of arrival. In this case, if the pitches in an atonal
context form a horizontal line that
has shape, it is possible to perceive a sense of phrase similar
to that in tonal music,
although the sense of directedness is weak.50 Directedness is
one of the two conditions
necessary for music to have a goal-oriented nature.51 However,
during the twentieth
century, through a disintegration of these traditional features,
composers have found new
types of structural order, which are essentially
nondirectional.52 The best example is
total serialism, a pre-determined serialization of pitch (space)
and rhythm (time), which
can negate traditional features such as shape and periodicity.
Serial music can arrive at
non-directionality in terms of both an integrated structural
order and audibility, meaning
that the musics form, as a whole, no longer relies merely upon
relationships among
musical events.53
Kramer uses the term directedness in a more specific sense, as
in directedness
towards a certain goal that is known in advance. He also uses
the term goal-oriented
48 George Rochberg, The Aesthetics of Survival (Ann Arbor: The
University of Michigan Press, 1984), 100.49 Ibid.50 Ibid., 107.51
Ibid., 142. The other condition is causality, which can be seen in
pitch relation through the response ofmelodic antecedents and
consequences, harmonic progressions toward the point of cadence,
and in thetendency of metric/rhythmic forces to accumulate and
drive to climactic points in phrases, sections, andmovements.52
Ibid., 104.53 Ibid., 113.
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30
with a more specific meaning, always associating it with
tonality. Since the tonic is
endowed with ultimate stability, tonal relationships conspire
toward one goal: the return
of tonic, finally victorious and no longer challenged by other
keys. Thus, tonal motion is
always goal-directed,54 which Kramer calls directed linear time.
For Leonard B. Meyer,
tonal music is teleological. Despite the obvious differences in
structure and pattern that
exist in music of the common practice era, tonal music in
general is perceived as having a
purposeful direction and goal.55 Teleology directs musical
continuity to the purpose or
goal (tonic harmony), creating tension and repose, with the
cause and effect relationship
in a one-dimensional flow of musical events.
In the absence of a tonic as the systems a priori goal,
post-tonal compositions
often create the sense of cadence contextually by using
contrasting texture, timbre,
figuration, or register to define phrases. These cadences do not
become cadences by
themselves, but rather they are entirely contextual. They are
defined by factors such as
non-pitch parameters of rhythmic activities, texture, timbre,
figuration, or register, which
are made to act more structurally, more independently, more
prominently since they
happen in the context of previous reiteration and emphasis.56 In
the example Kramer
provides, the non-pitch parameters promote stepwise pitch motion
to the status of goal-
defining motion. These include an incremental slowing of the
tempo, a lengthening note
54 Jonathan D. Kramer, The Time of Music: New Meanings, New
Temporalities, New Listening Strategies(New York: Schirmer Books,
1988), 25.55 Leonard B. Meyer, Music, the Arts, and Ideas: Patterns
and Predictions in Twentieth-Century Culture(Chicago: University of
Chicago Press, 1967), 72.56 Jonathan D. Kramer, The Time of Music:
New Meanings, New Temporalities, New Listening Strategies(New York:
Schirmer Books, 1988), 33.
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31
durations, a thinning texture, decreasing dynamics, a downward
motion after an
overabundance of rising figures, less frequent change of
instrumental colors, and a
freshness of the subsequent music. The cadence thus grows from
the preceding music in
both its pitch and non-pitch features. It is the conspiring
toward a common goal in all
these parameters that creates the linear motion toward the
cadence.57 Kramer argues that
this type of a high degree of linearity is exhibited in much
post-tonal music of the
twentieth century.58 He calls it nondirected linearity, which is
nondirected to an a
priori goal at a background level and is different from the
directed linearity in tonal
music.59
Kramer calls musical time multiply-directed when the implication
in every
section of the music is continually frustrated by the subsequent
section, but nonetheless is
often realized later on. Multiply-directed time is discontinuous
time; its discontinuities
segment and reorder linear time. A piece that has
multiply-directed linear time has a clear
beginning (or several unmistakable beginnings), which may or may
not occur at the start
of the piece. Similarly, it can have one or several final
cadences, not necessarily at the
end of the piece. The multiplicity resides in the conflict
between implied linearity in the
foreground and realized nonlinearity in the middleground.60
57 Ibid., 38.58 Only some of the post-tonal linearity is
goal-directed. Kramer provides examples from SchoenbergsQuartet
no.4 and Violin Concerto, and from Weberns Cantata no. 1 where a
four-note chord becomes astable sonority. Schoenberg tries to make
certain transpositional levels of the combinatorial row
structuremore stable than others, thus creating transposition
levels as goals.59 Ibid., 39.60 Ibid., 50.
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Kramer calls the extreme case of nonlinear time moment time.
According to
Kramer, a nonlinear composition in moment time does not really
begin, but rather it
simply starts, as if it had already been going on, and we merely
happened to tune in on it.
Similarly, the ending of music in moment time ceases rather than
gives closure.61
Moments can be self-contained sections of a composition set off
by discontinuities,
which may be related, but not connected by transitions, and are
heard more for
themselves, rather than as participants in a larger plan of a
composition. For instance,
each moment could be characterized by an underlying static
harmony, by a constant
tempo, or by consistency of melodic cells, which generally
unfold by means of
permutation rather than goal-directed development. These are the
characteristics of
nonlinearity.62 Furthermore, when the moment becomes the piece,
Kramer calls the
time sense invoked vertical time.63 As I have discussed above,
the aesthetics of
Kramers moment time are very much in accord with the aesthetics
of traditional
Japanese art.
Lewis Rowell and George Rochberg also recognize music in a
similar way to
Kramers concept of vertical time. Rowell describes the
stabilized processes in music that
suggest the illusion of stasis and suggest being more than
becoming.64 He suggests the
types of music, somewhat roughly, that imply stasis: music with
extensive repetition,
61 Ibid.62 Ibid., 282.63 Ibid., 55.64 Lewis Rowell, The Creation
of Audible Time, in The Study of Time IV: Papers from the
FourthConference of the International Society for the Study of
Time, Alpbach-Austria, ed. J. T. Fraser, N.Lawrence, and D. Park
(New York: Springer-Verlag New York, Inc., 1981), 201.
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33
trance music and pieces that employ continuous sound loops,
sound mass pieces, music
that is nonhierarchical, music that is randomly ordered,
minimalist pieces, extremely
ambiguous music, extended climax, and stream-of-consciousness
music with extensive
use of citation and allusion to other pieces.65
Rochberg identifies music influenced by Eastern Zen Buddhism,
which regards
the present moment (being) as supreme reality. He argues that
composers of chance
music in particular are drawn to Zen, and that they imply in
their attitude toward music
an existential tendency; that is, they see music as the
occurrence of unpredictable events,
each moment of sound or silence freed of formal connection with
the moment before or
after, audible only as a present sensation, an ensemble of
musical happening of
undetermined form or length.66 This type of music is
non-teleological, exercising the role
of aborting, frustrating, or circumventing direction and
continuity; here, the lack of
purpose and internal causal relationships represent the avowed
premise on which
aleatoric music rests.67 Rochberg also considers highly
serialized music as planned
indeterminacy, and regards it as non-teleological or
discontinuous as well. He categorizes
aleatoric music and total serialism as space-form, in which all
events occur as
completed present actions; and while occurring in succession,
they require no
continuation between events. In contrast to the linear or
teleological music that he calls
speech-form, which is always becoming and never completes action
in the present
65 Lewis Rowell, Thinking About Music: An Introduction to the
Philosophy of Music (Amherst: Universityof Massachusetts Press,
1983), 172.66 George Rochberg, The Aesthetics of Survival (Ann
Arbor: The University of Michigan Press, 1984), 74.67 Ibid.,
143.
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34
moment, Rochberg presents space-form as a new mode of
consciousness in musical
experience. He writes;
By subordinating duration to space, music no longer exists in
its former state ofanticipation of the future. It projects itself
as a series of present moments, holdingup to aural perception each
spatial image as the self-sufficient object of perceptionas it
occurs, not as it will realize itself in some future event.68
For Rochberg, this new musical perception of space-form seeks to
attain the pure
presence, the present event freed from its connection with past
and future events; and
within this succession of the consciousness of the present,
without any perception of past
and future, the listener experiences timelessness.
Christopher Hasty objects to the notion that extreme contrast or
the absence of
predictability can negate temporal succession and thereby
becomes timelessness. Hasty
argues that we cannot negate the continuous temporal succession
of musical events from
before and after, and they will not have any meaning by
isolating one from another. He
suggests that we may understand music without tendency or
direction as openness to the
possibility of relating events. Once heard, musical events allow
the listener to reinterpret
what was previously given and at the same time to provide
reference to interpret future
events. Hasty writes, In this way the temporal phases of
present, past, and future are
necessarily implicated in one another in a progressive
development toward completion
and wholeness.69
68 Ibid., 132. Other writers who discuss spatialization of time
are Gyrgy Ligeti, Metamorphoses ofMusical Form, Die Reihe 7,
Form-Space, trans. Cornelius Cardew (Bryn Mawr: Theodore Presser,
1965),and Barney Childs, Time and Music: A Composers View,
Perspective of New Music 15, no. 2 (1977).69 Christopher Hasty, On
the Problem of Succession and Continuity in Twentieth-Century
Music, MusicTheory Spectrum 8 (1986): 62. The argument of the
spatialization of time is further discussed in ChapterSixteen in
his book Meter as Rhythm (New York: Oxford University Press, 1997),
296-303.
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35
I adopt Hastys perspective of the continuous temporal succession
of musical
events that necessarily provide meaning to one another. I argue
that Takemitsus music is
not goal-directed, but is linear in the way that musical events
have causal relationships.
My study of Takemitsus music seeks to better understand how the
composer structures
time when musical events arise in relation to the temporal past,
present, and future. I find
most useful Hastys concept of the motion of tones and their
continuation, as well as his
discussion of how we perceive phrase formation in post-tonal
composition. These
concepts are summarized below.
For many writers, motion describes a relationship between
musical entities in a
temporal succession.70 The perception of the continuation of a
line or a phrase is actually
a process of mind, which could be highly subjective. Hasty
discusses this difficult
concept of musical motion and its relation to the concept of
meter in further detail in his
article Rhythm in Post-Tonal Music: Preliminary Questions of
Duration and Motion.
He points out that the term motion is difficult to detach from
the metaphor of spatial
phenomena. He quotes Errol Harriss study of temporal
relationships in dealing with the
problem of musical motion. First, he shows that the form or
structure of temporal
relations is necessarily that of continuous succession. For
Harris, succession implies
70 Rochberg writes, Since pitch is that aspect of music whose
source is the physical universe and cannotmove by itself, but
depends entirely on being moved by the action of the intuitive time
sense, i.e., on beingrhythmatized, pitch assumes new properties
and, presumably, a new independence. (Rochberg 1984, 144).Rowell
writes, Motion includes the ideas of continuity, the rate of
regular recurrence, the identity of atheme, the apparent rate of
passage through time, direction toward a future goal, our own
temporal agingduring a piece of music, and the difference in rate
between our own changes of state and those perceived inthe music.
He suggests that musical motion is a kind of vehicular motion, as
the listener perceives acontinuous musical identity moving past our
field of hearing (Rowell 1983, 170-71). Epstein saysrhythmic-metric
structure is the mechanism of motion, which engenders motion that
creates continuity.(Epstein 1981, 194).
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36
continuity, and both succession and continuity require change or
a difference of some
sort.71 Hasty points out that since it is our mode of cognition
that creates temporal
relations, we need to locate continuous change in the activity
of our attention. The more
important issue, however, is how do we cognize the organization
or structuring of this
change. He writes;
If there are two tones in succession, and if these two tones are
unified as a whole,rather than to conceive as two separate events,
the relationship between the twotones (in this case, an interval)
gives to each other a particular quality whichneither member
exhibits as an individual. Since it is only in the union of the
twotones that these qualities arise, the durations of both tones
cannot be excludedfrom participating in those qualities. In another
words, if we are able to perceivethe two tones as a unit (that is,
as a duration) the immediate qualitative changeintroduced by the
second tone must be thought of as permeating the two events asa
mutual conditioning or relationship, imparting to both tones an
order. Thecontinuous change of the first tone becomes a particular
qualitative change as itapproaches the second tone. The duration of
the second tone likewise receives anorder to its continuity as it
recedes from the first (and progresses to the third). It isin this
sense I believe that we can legitimately speak of musical motion.
What isrequired for motion to take place is the formation of a
structure or whole betweenor among events.72
It is important to note that in post-tonal music, the motion
between two pitches is not
isolated from the same two pitches if they become a structure as
part of the unifying
whole. In contrast to tonal music, where there is a presupposed
implication of some tone
motions (the strongest case is the tendency tone), in post-tonal
music, the tone motion is
constantly updating the interpretation of the present moment,
reflecting the structure of
the past events, and anticipating the future events.
71 Christopher Hasty, Rhythm in Post-Tonal Music: Preliminary
Questions of Duration and Motion,Journal of Music Theory 25 (1981):
189.72 Ibid., 191.
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37
A musical work is a whole, composed of interrelated parts
presented successively
in time. Hasty asks how we can perceive a temporal whole as a
unity of parts in a
musical work.73 As each sound is given in time, the past event
is no longer sounding,
which means the whole does not exist at any given moment of
time.74 Since our
perception exists in the present moment, he continues that the
unitary awareness might be
brought by the past event, which provides context for or
conditions the present event.75
When a tone does not have an association with a particular tone
(as opposed to the
relationships between tones within tonal function, or the
succession of tones within a pre-
determined row form), then we associate certain sound events
with other events that we
have retained in our memory. F. Bartlett observes the role of
memory in perceiving the
sense of phrase formation as follows:
A new phrase may be constructed on the basis of a prior act of
construction. Theprior phrase will not then be recalled but may be
used in the creation of the newstructure. What is retained is not
the content of the perceived present but theconstructive act which
led to its formation.76
He shows that memory can be understood better as an act of
construction rather than of
reproduction. Another fact we should keep in mind is how
researchers have shown that
aural memories are more secure in the beginning and in the end
of a certain event, and
that it is the memory of middle elements that exhibit the most
inaccuracy.77
73 See Christopher Hasty, Phrase Formation in Post-Tonal Music,
Journal of Music Theory 28 (1984):167-190.74 Ibid., 169.75 Ibid.76
Quoted from Ibid., 187.77 For experimental accounts, Hasty cites
Carl Iver Hovland, Experimental Studies in Rote-LearningTheory.
VII. Distributions of Practice with Varying Lengths of List,
Journal of Experimental Psychology27 (1940): 271-84 and Nancy C.
Waugh, Serial Position and the Memory-Span, American Journal
ofPsychology 73 (1960): 68-79.
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38
To form a phrase, associations must be structured between one
sound event to
another sound event, and they also must project an aural sense
of closure. This feeling of
closure can be attained by certain gestures or rests, or by a
long silence. Previous
experiments show that silence or a long pause is one of the
strongest characteristics
contributing to the perception of boundaries that divide music
into sections.78 This
characteristic corresponds to Lerdahl and Jackendoffs grouping
preference rule 2
(temporal gaps in the music induce boundaries).79
As a phrase is being formed, musical events are open to future
interpretation and
may hold considerable ambiguities, particularly in its initial
stages. In order to perceive
musical events as structural units, questions arise regarding
segmentation. Generally,
segmentation is the division of a musical work into structural
components.80 In tonal
music, segmentation correlates with harmony through the
understanding of consonances
and dissonances. Thus we understand an arpeggiated chord as a
single unit of harmony.
For non-tonal music, there is nothing that is comparable to the
tertian relationship of
tones and its progression in tonal music. Thus, for non-tonal
music, we cannot segment
and associate certain tones based on any pre-existing premise.
According to Hasty, a
structure has two aspects. First, it must have a unitary value
in domain that would not
break it up into subcomponents.81 By domain, he means discrete
musical properties that
78 Eric F. Clarke and Carol L. Krumhansl, Perceiving Musical
Time, Music Perception 7, no.3 (1990),213-252.79 Fred Lerdahl and
Ray Jackendoff, A Generative Theory of Tonal Music (Cambridge: MIT
Press, 1983).80 Christopher Hasty, Segmentation and Process in
Post-Tonal Music, Music Theory Spectrum 3 (1981),54.81 Ibid.,
58.
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39
include such features as timbre, dynamics, intervallic
associations, register, and
contour.82 The second aspect of a structure is that it must be
distinguished as an object of
our attention by possessing a difference of value in the same
domain compared with
another object.83 One simple example would be a group of notes
played arco compared to
a group of notes played pizzicato. These two groups of tones are
differentiated as
distinctive objects in the domain of timbre. On the basis of
this concept of structure,
Hasty defines segmentation as the process of structural
formation, the action of
structures producing formal articulations.84 He also states that
segmentation may be
regarded as the formation of boundaries of continuity and
discontinuity which result from
the structures of various domains.85
In the analyses of Takemitsus music, I follow the concepts of
phrase formation
and segmentation discussed by Hasty to determine the
associations of structurally
significant sound events. I adopt Hastys perspective of the
continuous temporal
succession of musical events that provide meaning to one
another. Lochhead and
Sessionss process-oriented formation of structure deals with
larger formal units, but the
underlying point of view is largely the same. I consider that
Takemitsus music is not
goal-directed, but that it is linear in the way that the
structure of musical events has
causal relationships. In this way of thinking, I argue against
the viewpoint that
Takemitsus music reflects the Eastern concept of time in its
nonlinear and discontinuous
82 Ibid., 57.83 Ibid., 58.84 Ibid., 59.85 Ibid.
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structure. As a result of my analyses, I conclude that
temporality in Takemitsus music is
primarily Western in that it embraces a definite beginning,
continuity, and linearity, even
though it may not necessarily progress towards a climax. My
study of Takemitsus music
seeks to better understand how the composer structures time when
musical events arise in
relation to the temporal past, present, and future. Once heard,
musical events allow the
listener to reinterpret what was previously heard, and at the
same time, to create reference
points for interpreting future events.
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CHAPTER II
REQUIEM FOR STRINGS (1957): CYCLIC-TIME FORM
Requiem for Strings, commissioned by Tokyo Symphony Orchestra,
is an early
piece that brought Takemitsu widespread recognition. The
premiere, however, was not
received well by the critics, until Stravinsky, visiting Japan
for the first time in 1959,
having heard the Requiem gave it highest praise. The Japanese
conductor Hiroyuki Iwaki
writes that without Stravinskys praise, Takemitsus compositional
path might have been
quite different.1 Takemitsu was critically ill while composing
the Requiem for Strings,
and Fumio Hayasaka, who was both Takemitsus mentor and a friend,
had just passed
away.2 Both events deeply affected Takemitsu, prompting him to
compose a work titled
Requiem.
When describing the Requiem, Takemitsu asserts that the work has
no clearly
differentiated beginning or end, thereby lacking the kind of
articulations necessary to our
usual definition of musical form. Using a favorite metaphor, he
states that he simply
sliced off a piece of stream of sound that flows eternally and
pierces through the world
that surrounds human beings.3 In spite of Takemitsus claims, I
argue that we hear a
precise beginning in the Requiem, one that influences and
provides relationships and
1 Hiroyuki Iwaki, Sakkyokuka Takemitsu Toru to Ningen Mayuzumi
Toshiro (The composer ToruTakemitsu and the human being Toshiro
Mayuzumi) (Okayama: Sakuyo Gakuen, 1999), 27.2 Toru Takemitsu, Toi
Yobigoeno Kanatani (Beyond the Far Calls) (Tokyo: Shinchousha,
1992), 45. Mytranslation.3 Ibid, 46.
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42
references to later events in the music. However, on first
hearing the formal structure of
the Requiem is not immediately apparent.
In this chapter, I propose that there are three attributes that
contribute to the sense
of indistinctness in the structure of the Requiem: harmonic
ambiguity, metric ambiguity
and above all, formal ambiguity that results from cyclic
repetition of patterns. The
elusiveness of the perception of pulse and meter at many moments
of the piece, as well as
the obscurity of the origin of pitch mat