Definition of StressStressmay be defined as "a state of
psychological and / or physiological imbalance resulting from the
disparity between situational demand and the individual's ability
and / or motivation to meet those demands."Dr. Hans Selye, one of
the leading authorities on the concept of stress, described stress
as "the rate of all wear and tear caused by life."Stress can be
positive or negative. Stress can be positive when the situation
offers an opportunity for a person to gain something. It acts as a
motivator for peak performance. Stress can be negative when a
person faces social, physical, organisational and emotional
problems.
Causes of StressFactors that cause stress are called
"Stressors." The following are the sources or causes of an
organisational and non-organisational stress.1. Causes of an
Organisational StressThe mainsourcesor causes of an organisational
stress are :-1. Career Concern: If an employee feels that he is
very much behind in corporate ladder, then he may experience stress
and if he feels that there are no opportunities for self-growth he
may experience stress. Hence unfulfilled career expectations are a
major source of stress.2. Role Ambiguity: It occurs when the person
does not known what he is supposed to do on the job. His tasks and
responsibilities are not clear. The employee is not sure what he is
expected to do. This creates confusion in the minds of the worker
and results in stress.3. Rotating Shifts: Stress may occur to those
individuals who work in different shifts. Employees may be expected
to work in day shift for some days and then in the night shift.
This may create problems in adjusting to the shift timings, and it
can affect not only personal life but also family life of the
employee.4. Role Conflict: It takes place when different people
have different expectations from a person performing a particular
role. It can also occur if the job is not as per the expectation or
when a job demands a certain type of behaviour that is against the
person's moral values.5. Occupational Demands: Some jobs are more
stressful than others. Jobs that involve risk and danger are more
stressful. Research findings indicate that jobs that are more
stressful usually requires constant monitoring of equipments and
devices, unpleasant physical conditions, making decisions, etc.6.
Lack of Participation in Decision Making: Many experienced
employees feel that management should consult them on matters
affecting their jobs. In reality, the superiors hardly consult the
concerned employees before taking a decision. This develops a
feeling of being neglected, which may lead to stress.7. Work
Overload: Excessive work load leads to stress as it puts a person
under tremendous pressure. Work overload may take two different
forms :-i. Qualitative work overload implies performing a job that
is complicated or beyond the employee's capacity.ii. Quantitative
work overload arises when number of activities to be performed in
the prescribed time are many.8. Work Underload: In this case, very
little work or too simple work is expected on the part of the
employee. Doing less work or jobs of routine and simple nature
would lead to monotony and boredom, which can lead to stress.9.
Working Conditions: Employees may be subject to poor working
conditions. It would include poor lighting and ventilations,
unhygienic sanitation facilities, excessive noise and dust,
presence of toxic gases and fumes, inadequate safety measures, etc.
All these unpleasant conditions create physiological and
psychological imbalance in humans thereby causing stress.10. Lack
of Group Cohesiveness: Every group is characterised by its
cohesiveness although they differ widely in degree of cohesiveness.
Individuals experience stress when there is no unity among the
members of work group. There is mistrust, jealously, frequent
quarrels, etc., in groups and this lead to stress to employees.11.
Interpersonal and Intergroup Conflict: Interpersonal and intergroup
conflict takes place due to differences in perceptions, attitudes,
values and beliefs between two or more individuals and groups. Such
conflicts can be a source of stress to group members.12.
Organisational Changes: When changes occur, people have to adapt to
those changes and this may cause stress. Stress is higher when
changes are major or unusual like transfer or adaption of new
technology.13. Lack of Social Support: When individuals believe
that they have the friendship and support of others at work, their
ability to cope with the effects of stress increases. If this kind
of social support is not available then an employee experiences
more stress.2. Causes of Non-Organisational StressCertain factors
outside the scope of an organisation also cause stress.These main
sources or causes of non-organisational stress are :-1. Civic
Amenities: Poor civic amenities in the area in which one lives can
be a cause of stress. Inadequate or lack of civic facilities like
improper water supply, excessive noise or air pollution, lack of
proper transport facility can be quite stressful.2. Life Changes:
Life changes can bring stress to a person. Life changes can be slow
or sudden. Slow life changes include getting older and sudden life
changes include death or accident of a loved one. Sudden life
changes are highly stressful and very difficult to cope.3.
Frustration:Frustrationis another cause of stress. Frustration
arises when goal directed behaviour is blocked. Management should
attempt to remove barriers and help the employees to reach their
goals.4. Caste and Religion Conflicts: Employees living in areas
which are subject to caste and religious conflicts do suffer from
stress. In case of religion, the minorities and lower-caste people
(seen especially in India) are subject to more stress.5.
Personality: People are broadly classified as 'Type A' and 'Type
B'.i. Feels guilty while relaxing.ii. Gets irritated by minor
mistakes of self and others.iii. Feels impatient and dislikes
waiting.iv. Does several things at one time.While the 'Type B'
people are exactly opposite and hence are less affected by stress
due to above mentioned factors.6. Technological Changes: When there
are any changes in technological field, employees are under the
constant stress of fear of losing jobs, or need to adjust to new
technologies. This can be a source of stress.7. Career Changes:
When a person suddenly switches over a new job, he is under stress
to shoulder new responsibilities properly. Under promotion, over
promotion, demotion and transfers can also cause stress.
Occupational stressisstressinvolvingwork. According to the
current World Health Organization's (WHO) definition, occupational
or work-related stress "is the response people may have when
presented with work demands and pressures that are not matched to
their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their ability to
cope."[1]Contents[hide] 1Models 2Categories 3Prevalence 4Related
disorders 5Gender 5.1Factors 6Health and healthcare utilization
7Causes 7.1Sexual harassment 8Effects 9Prevention 10See also
11References 12Further readingModels[edit]Stress can be factored in
by a number of different variables, but results from the complex
interactions between a large system of interrelated
variables.[2][3](1998). Thediathesis-stress modelis apsychological
theorythat aims to make clear of behaviors as a susceptibility
burden together with stress from life experiences.[4]Theories of
organizational stress. New York: Oxford.[5]It is useful to
distinguish stressful job conditions or stressors from an
individual's reactions or strains.[6]Strains can be mental,
physical or emotional. Occupational stress can occur when there is
a discrepancy between the demands of the environment/workplace and
an individuals ability to carry out and complete these
demands.[7][8]Often a stressor can lead the body to have a
physiological reaction that can strain a person physically as well
as mentally. A variety of factors contribute to workplace stress
such as excessive workload, isolation, extensive hours worked,
toxic work environments, lack of autonomy, difficult relationships
among coworkers and management, management bullying, harassment and
lack of opportunities or motivation to advancement in ones skill
level.[9]A concern with stress research is that studies often
neglect to consider the broader organizational
context.[10]Categories[edit]Categories associated with occupational
stress are[9] factors unique to the job, role in the organization,
career development, interpersonal work relationships,
organizational Structure/climate.These individual categories
demonstrate that stress can occur specifically when a conflict
arises from the job demands of the employee and the employee
itself. If not handled properly, the stress can becomeDistress
(medicine).[11]The first category concerns with the ability of the
employee coping with the specific hours worked, the level of
productive rate expected, the physical environment, as well as the
expectancy of the work desired bymanagement. For instance, research
shows that night shifts in particular has a high possibility of
negative impact towards the health of the employee. In relation to
this, approximately 20 percent of night shift workers have
experienced psycho-physiological dysfunctions, including heart
diseases. Extreme factors can affect the competence levels of
employees.The second category, role in the organization, is
associated with the hierarchical ranking of that particular
employee within the organization. Upper management is entitled to
oversee the overall functioning of the organization. This causes
potential distress as the employee must be able to perform
simultaneous tasks.With the third category, career development,
other factors come into play. Security of their occupation,
promotion levels, etc. are all sources of stress, as this business
market in terms of technology of economic dominance is
ever-changing.The fourth category of workplace stress pertains to
the interpersonal relationships within the workplace. The workplace
is a communication and interaction based industry. These
relationships (either developed or developing) can be problematic
or positive. Common stressors include harassment, discrimination,
biased opinions, hearsay, and other derogatory remarks.Finally, the
last category of workplace stress is theorganizational climateor
structure. The overall communication, management style, and
participation among groups of employees are variables to be
considered. In essence, the resultant influence of the high
participation rate, collaborative planning, and equally dispersed
responsibilities provides a positive effect on stress reduction,
improved work performance, job satisfaction, and
decreasedpsychosomatic disorders.Prevalence[edit]Distress is a
prevalent and costly problem in today's workplace. About one-third
of workers report high levels of stress.[7]One-quarter of employees
view their jobs as the number one stressor in their
lives.[12]Three-quarters of employees believe the worker has more
on-the-job stress than a generation ago.[13]Evidence also suggests
that distress is the major cause ofturnoverin organizations.[7]With
continued distress at the workplace, workers will develop
psychological and physiological dysfunctions and decreased
motivation in excelling in their position.[9]Increased levels of
job stress are determined by the awareness of having little control
but lots of demands in the work area.[14]The Kenexa Research
Institute released a global survey of almost 30,000 workers which
showed that females suffered more workplace distress than their
male counterparts. According to the survey, women's stress level
were 10% higher for those in supervisory positions, 8% higher
stress in service and production jobs than men, and 6% higher in
middle and upper management than men in the same
position.[15]Related disorders[edit]Stress-related disorders
encompass a broad array of conditions, includingpsychological
disorders(e.g.,depression,anxiety,post-traumatic stress disorder)
and other types of emotional strain (e.g.,
dissatisfaction,fatigue,tension, etc.), maladaptive behaviors
(e.g.,aggression,substance abuse), and cognitive impairment (e.g.,
concentration and memory problems). In turn, these conditions may
lead to poor work performance, higherabsenteeism, less work
productivity or eveninjury.[9]Job stress is also associated with
various biological reactions that may lead ultimately to
compromised health, such ascardiovascular disease,[16]or in extreme
casesdeath. Due to the high pressure and demands in the work place
the demands have been shown to be correlated with increased rates
of heart attack, hypertension and other disorders. In New York, Los
Angels and other municipalities, the relationship between job
stress and heart attacks is so well
acknowledged.[17]Gender[edit]
Frustrated man at a desk (cropped)Men and women are exposed to
many of the same stressors.[18]However, women may be more sensitive
to interpersonal conflict whereas men might be more sensitive to
things that waste time and effort. Furthermore, although men and
women might not differ in overall strains, women are more likely to
experience psychological distress, whereas men experience more
physical strain. Desmarais and Alksnis suggest two explanations for
the greater psychological distress of women. First, the genders
differ in their awareness of negative feelings, leading women to
express and report strains, whereas men deny and inhibit such
feelings. Second, the demands to balance work and family result in
more overall stressors for women that leads to increased
strain.[18]Factors[edit]Combining housework, childcare, shopping
and cooking with an outside job and trying to do everything on time
is one of the biggest factors of women being more stressed at work,
characterized mainly by feelings of guilt and hostility. 60% of
women who have children under age six have an outside job and cope
with family problems; single or married most of duties at home fall
on shoulders of a woman.[19]Health and healthcare
utilization[edit]Problems at work are more strongly associated with
health complaints than are any other life stressor-more so than
even financial problems or family problems.[20]Many studies suggest
that psychologically demanding jobs that allow employees little
control over the work process increase the risk ofcardiovascular
disease.[21]Research indicates that job stress increases the risk
for development of back and upper-extremitymusculoskeletal
disorders.[21]High levels of stress are associated with substantial
increases in health service utilization.[7]Workers who report
experiencing stress at work also show excessive health care
utilization. In a 1998 study of 46,000 workers, health care costs
were nearly 50% greater for workers reporting high levels of stress
in comparison to low risk workers. The increment rose to nearly
150%, an increase of more than $1,700 per person annually, for
workers reporting high levels of both stress and
depression.[22]Additionally, periods ofdisabilitydue to job stress
tend to be much longer than disability periods for other
occupational injuries and illnesses.[23]Physiological reactions to
stress can have consequences for health over time. Researchers have
been studying how stress affects the cardiovascular system, as well
as how work stress can lead tohypertensionandcoronary artery
disease. These diseases, along with other stress-induced illnesses
tend to be quite common in American work-places.[24]There are four
main physiological reactions to stress:[25] Blood is shunted to the
brain and large muscle groups, and away from extremities, skin, and
organs that are not currently serving the body. An area near the
brain stem, known as the reticular activating system, goes to work,
causing a state of keen alertness as well as sharpening of hearing
and vision. Energy-providing compounds of glucose and fatty acids
are released into the bloodstream. The immune and digestive systems
are temporarily shut down.Causes[edit]This articlehas an unclear
citation style.The references used may be made clearer with a
different or consistent style ofcitation,footnoting, orexternal
linking.(September 2011)
Job stress results from various interactions of the worker and
the environment of the work they perform their duties. Location,
gender, environment, and many other factors contribute to the build
up of stress. Job stress results from the interaction of the worker
and the conditions of work. Views differ on the importance of
worker characteristics versus working conditions as the primary
cause of job stress. The differing viewpoints suggest different
ways to prevent stress at work. Differences in individual
characteristics such aspersonalityandcoping skillscan be very
important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result
in stress. In other words, what is stressful for one person may not
be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint underlies prevention
strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with
demanding job conditions.[7]Although the importance of individual
differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that
certain working conditions are stressful to most people. Such
evidence argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the
key source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary
prevention strategy.[7]Large surveys of working conditions,
including conditions recognized as risk factors for job stress,
were conducted in member states of theEuropean Unionin 1990, 1995,
and 2000. Results showed a time trend suggesting an increase in
work intensity. In 1990, the percentage of workers reporting that
they worked at high speeds at least one-quarter of their working
time was 48%, increasing to 54% in 1995 and to 56% in 2000.
Similarly, 50% of workers reported they work against tight
deadlines at least one-fourth of their working time in 1990,
increasing to 56% in 1995 and 60% in 2000. However, no change was
noted in the period 19952000 (data not collected in 1990) in the
percentage of workers reporting sufficient time to complete
tasks.[26]A substantial percentage of Americans work very long
hours. By one estimate, more than 26% of men and more than 11% of
women worked 50 hours per week or more in 2000. These figures
represent a considerable increase over the previous three decades,
especially for women. According to theDepartment of Labor, there
have been a rise in increasing amount of hours in the work place by
employed women, an increase in extended work weeks (>40 hours)
by men, and a considerable increase in combined working hours among
working couples, particularly couples with young
children.[27][28]
Evidence of occupational stress due to an individual's status in
the workplaceA person's status in the workplace can also affect
levels of stress. While workplace stress has the potential to
affect employees of all categories; those who have very little
influence to those who make major decisions for the company.
However, less powerful employees (that is, those who have less
control over their jobs) are more likely to suffer stress than
powerful workers. Managers as well as other kinds of workers are
vulnerable to work overload.[29]Economic factors that employees are
facing in the 21st century have been linked to increased stress
levels. Researchers and social commentators have pointed out that
the computer and communications revolutions have made companies
more efficient and productive than ever before. This boon in
productivity however, has caused higher expectations and greater
competition, putting more stress on the employee(Primm, 2005).The
following economic factors may lead to workplace stress: Pressure
from investors, who can quickly withdraw their money from company
stocks. The lack of trade and professional unions in the workplace.
Inter-company rivalries caused by the efforts of companies to
compete globally The willingness of companies to swiftly lay off
workers to cope with changing business environments.Bullying in the
workplace can also contribute to stress. This can be broken down
into five different categories:[9] Threat to profession status
Threat to personal status Isolation Excess Work Destabilization
i.e. lack of credit for work, meaningless tasks etc.[9]This in
effect can create a hostile work environment for the employees
that, which in turn, can affect their work ethic and contribution
to the organization.[30]
Sexual harassment[edit]Women are more likely than men to
experiencesexual harassment, especially for those working in
traditionally masculine occupations. In addition, a study indicated
that sexual harassment negatively affects workers' psychological
well-being.[17][31]Another study found that level of harassment at
workplaces lead to differences in performance of work related
tasks. High levels of harassment were related to the worst
outcomes, and no harassment was related to least negative outcomes.
In other words, women who had experienced a higher level of
harassment were more likely to perform poorly at
workplaces.[31]
Effects[edit]Stressful working conditions can lead to three
types of strains: Behavioral (e.g., absenteeism or poor
performance), physical (e.g., headaches or coronary heart disease),
and psychological (e.g., anxiety or depressed mood).[32]Physical
symptoms that may occur because of occupational stress
includefatigue,headache,upset stomach, muscular aches and pains,
chronic mild illness,sleep disturbances, andeating disorders.
Psychological and behavioral problems that may develop
includeanxiety, irritability, alcohol and drug use, feeling
powerless and low morale.[33]The spectrum of effects caused by
occupational stress includes absenteeism, poor decision making,
lack of creativity, accidents, organizational breakdown or even
sabotage.[34]If exposure to stressors in the workplace is
prolonged, then chronic health problems can occur includingstroke.
An examination was of physical and psychological effects of
workplace stress was conducted with a sample of 552 female blue
collar employees of a microelectronics facility. It was found that
job-related conflicts were associated with depressive symptoms,
severe headaches, fatigue, rashes, and other multiple
symptoms.[35]Studies among theJapanesepopulation specifically
showed a more than 2-fold increase in the risk of total stroke
among men with job strain (combination of high job demand and low
job control).[36]Along with the risk of stroke comeshigh blood
pressureandimmune systemdysfunction. Prolonged occupational stress
can lead tooccupational burnout.The effects of job stress onchronic
diseasesare more difficult to ascertain because chronic diseases
develop over relatively long periods of time and are influenced by
many factors other than stress. Nonetheless, there is some evidence
that stress plays a role in the development of several types of
chronic health problemsincludingcardiovascular
disease,musculoskeletal disorders, andpsychological
disorders.[7]
Prevention[edit]A combination of organizational change and
stress management is often the most useful approach for preventing
stress at work.[7]Both organizations and employees can employ
strategies at organizational and individual levels. Generally,
organizational level strategies include job procedure modification
and employee assistance programs (EPA). Individual level strategies
include taking vacation. Getting a realistic job preview to
understand the normal workload and schedules of the job will also
help people to identify whether or not the job fit them.How to
Change the Organization to Prevent Job Stress[37] Ensure that the
workload is in line with workers' capabilities and resources.
Design jobs to provide meaning, stimulation, and opportunities for
workers to use their skills. Clearly define workers' roles and
responsibilities. To reduce workplace stress, managers may monitor
the workload given out to the employees. Also while they are being
trained they should let employees understand and be notified of
stress awareness.[38] Give workers opportunities to participate in
decisions and actions affecting their jobs. Improve
communications-reduce uncertainty about career development and
future employment prospects. Provide opportunities for social
interaction among workers. Establish work schedules that are
compatible with demands and responsibilities outside the job.
Combat workplacediscrimination(based on race, gender, national
origin, religion or language). Bringing in an objective outsider
such as a consultant to suggest a fresh approach to persistent
problems.[39] Introducing a participative leadership style to
involve as many subordinates as possible to resolve
stress-producing problems.[39] Encourage work-life balance through
family-friendly benefits and policiesAn insurance company conducted
several studies on the effects of stress prevention programs in
hospital settings. Program activities included (1) employee and
management education on job stress, (2) changes in hospital
policies and procedures to reduce organizational sources of stress,
and (3) the establishment of employee assistance programs. In one
study, the frequency ofmedication errorsdeclined by 50% after
prevention activities were implemented in a 700-bed hospital. In a
second study, there was a 70% reduction inmalpracticeclaims in 22
hospitals that implemented stress prevention activities. In
contrast, there was no reduction in claims in a matched group of 22
hospitals that did not implement stress prevention
activities.[40]Telecommutingis another way organizations can help
reduce stress for their workers. Employees defined telecommuting as
"an alternative work arrangement in which employees perform tasks
elsewhere that are normally done in a primary or central workplace,
for at least some portion of their work schedule, using electronic
media to interact with others inside and outside the organization."
One reason that telecommuting gets such high marks is that it
allows employees more control over how they do their work.
Telecommuters reported more job satisfaction and less desire to
find a new job. Employees that worked from home also had less
stress, improved work/life balance and higher performance rating by
their managers.[41]What is a healthy job?A healthy job is likely to
be one where the pressures on employees are appropriate in relation
to their abilities and resources, to the amount of control they
have over their work, and to the support they receive from people
who matter to them. As health is not merely the absence of disease
or infirmity but a positive state of complete physical, mental and
social well-being (WHO, 1986), a healthy working environment is one
in which there is not only an absence of harmful conditions but an
abundance of health-promoting ones.These may include continuous
assessment of risks to health, the provision of appropriate
information and training on health issues and the availability of
health promoting organisational support practices and structures. A
healthy work environment is one in which staff have made health and
health promotion a priority and part of their working lives.What is
work-related stress? Work-related stress is the response people may
have when presented with work demands and pressures that are not
matched to their knowledge and abilities and which challenge their
ability to cope. Stress occurs in a wide range of work
circumstances but is often made worse when employees feel they have
little support from supervisors and colleagues, as well as little
control over work processes. There is often confusion between
pressure or challenge and stress and sometimes it is used to excuse
bad management practice.Pressure at the workplace is unavoidable
due to the demands of the contemporary work environment. Pressure
perceived as acceptable by an individual, may even keep workers
alert, motivated, able to work and learn, depending on the
available resources and personal characteristics. However, when
that pressure becomes excessive or otherwise unmanageable it leads
to stress. Stress can damage an employees' health and the business
performance.Work-related stress can be caused by poor work
organisation (the way we design jobs and work systems, and the way
we manage them), by poor work design (for example, lack of control
over work processes), poor management, unsatisfactory working
conditions, and lack of support from colleagues and
supervisors.Research findings show that the most stressful type of
work is that which values excessive demands and pressures that are
not matched to workers knowledge and abilities, where there is
little opportunity to exercise any choice or control, and where
there is little support from others.Employees are less likely to
experience work-related stress when - demands and pressures of work
are matched to their knowledge and abilities - control can be
exercised over their work and the way they do it - support is
received from supervisors and colleagues - participation in
decisions that concern their jobs is provided.What are
stress-related hazards at work?Stress related hazards at work can
be divided into work content and work context.Work contentsincludes
- job content (monotony, under-stimulation, meaningless of tasks,
lack of variety, etc) - work load and work pace (too much or too
little to do, work under time pressure, etc.) - working hours
(strict or inflexible, long and unsocial, unpredictable, badly
designed shift systems) - Participation and control (lack of
participation in decision-making, lack of control over work
processes, pace, hours, methods, and the work environment)Work
contextincludes - career development, status and pay (job
insecurity, lack of promotion opportunities, under- or
over-promotion, work of 'low social value', piece rate payment
schemes, unclear or unfair performance evaluation systems, being
over- or under-skilled for a job) - role in the organization
(unclear role, conflicting roles) - interpersonal relationships
(inadequate, inconsiderate or unsupportive supervision, poor
relationships with colleagues, bullying/harassment and violence,
isolated or solitary work, etc) -organizational culture (poor
communication, poor leadership, lack of behavioural rule, lack of
clarity about organizational objectives, structures and strategies)
- work-life balance (conflicting demands of work and home, lack of
support for domestic problems at work, lack of support for work
problems at home, lack of organizational rules and policies to
support work-life balance)Workplace StressNumerous studies show
that job stress is far and away the major source of stress for
American adults and that it has escalated progressively over the
past few decades. Increased levels of job stress as assessed by the
perception of having little control but lots of demands have been
demonstrated to be associated with increased rates of heart attack,
hypertension and other disorders. In New York, Los Angels and other
municipalities, the relationship between job stress and heart
attacks is so well acknowledged, that any police officer who
suffers a coronary event on or off the job is assumed to have a
work related injury and is compensated accordingly (including heart
attack sustained while fishing on vacation or gambling in Las
Vegas).Although the Institute is often asked to construct lists of
the most and least stressful occupations, such rankings have little
importance for several reasons. It is not the job but the
person-environment fit that matters. Some individuals thrive in the
time urgent pressure cooker of life in the fast lane, having to
perform several duties at the same time and a list of things to do
that would overwhelm most of us provided they perceive that they
are in control. They would be severely stressed by dull, dead end
assembly line work enjoyed by others who shun responsibility and
simply want to perform a task that is well within their
capabilities. The stresses that a policeman or high school teacher
working in an inner city ghetto are subjected to are quite
different than those experienced by their counterparts in rural
Iowa. It is necessary to keep this in mind when sweeping statements
are made about the degree of stress in teachers, police personnel,
physicians and other occupations. Stress levels can vary widely
even in identical situations for different reasons.Stress is a
highly personalized phenomenon and can vary widely even in
identical situations for different reasons. One survey showed that
having to complete paper work was more stressful for many police
officers than the dangers associated with pursuing criminals. The
severity of job stress depends on the magnitude of the demands that
are being made and the individuals sense of control or
decision-making latitude he or she has in dealing with them.
Scientific studies based on this model confirm that workers who
perceive they are subjected to high demands but have little control
are at increased risk for cardiovascular disease.
What Is Job Stress?Job stress can be defined as the harmful
physical and emotional responses that occur when the requirements
of the job do not match the capabilities, resources, or needs of
the worker. Job stress can lead to poor health and even injury.The
concept of job stress is often confused with challenge, but these
concepts are not the same. Challenge energizes us psychologically
and physically, and it motivates us to learn new skills and master
our jobs. When a challenge is met, we feel relaxed and satisfied.
Thus, challenge is an important ingredient for healthy and
productive work. The importance of challenge in our work lives is
probably what people are referring to when they say "a little bit
of stress is good for you.But for David and Theresa, the situation
is different-the challenge has turned into job demands that cannot
be met, relaxation has turned to exhaustion, and a sense of
satisfaction has turned into feelings of stress. In short, the
stage is set for illness, injury, and job failure.
What are the Causes of Job Stress?Nearly everyone agrees that
job stress results from the interaction of the worker and the
conditions of work. Views differ, however, on the importance
ofworker characteristicsversusworking conditionsas the primary
cause of job stress. These differing viewpoints are important
because they suggest different ways to prevent stress at
work.According to one school of thought, differences in individual
characteristics such as personality and coping style are most
important in predicting whether certain job conditions will result
in stress-in other words, what is stressful for one person may not
be a problem for someone else. This viewpoint leads to prevention
strategies that focus on workers and ways to help them cope with
demanding job conditions.Although the importance of individual
differences cannot be ignored, scientific evidence suggests that
certain working conditions are stressful to most people. The
excessive workload demands and conflicting expectations described
in David's and Theresa's stories are good examples. Such evidence
argues for a greater emphasis on working conditions as the key
source of job stress, and for job redesign as a primary prevention
strategy.In 1960, a Michigan court upheld a compensation claim by
an automotive assemblyline worker who had difficulty keeping up
with the pressures of the production line. To avoid falling behind,
he tried to work on several assemblies at the same time and often
got parts mixed up. As a result, he was subjected to repeated
criticism from the foreman. Eventually he suffered a psychological
breakdown.By 1995, nearly one-half of the States allowed worker
compensation claims for emotional disorders and disability due to
stress on the job [note, however, that courts are reluctant to
uphold claims for what can be considered ordinary working
conditions or just hard work].-1995 Workers Compensation
YearbookNIOSH Approach to Job StressOn the basis of experience and
research, NIOSH favors the view that working conditions play a
primary role in causing job stress. However, the role of individual
factors is not ignored. According to the NIOSH view, exposure to
stressful working conditions (called job stressors) can have a
direct influence on worker safety and health. But as shown below,
individual and other situational factors can intervene to
strengthen or weaken this influence. Theresa's need to care for her
ill mother is an increasingly common example of an individual or
situational factor that may intensify the effects of stressful
working conditions. Examples of individual and situational factors
that can help to reduce the effects of stressful working conditions
include the following: Balance between work and family or personal
life A support network of friends and coworkers A relaxed and
positive outlookNIOSH Model of Job Stress
Job Conditions That May Lead to StressThe Design of Tasks. Heavy
workload, infrequent rest breaks, long work hours and shiftwork;
hectic and routine tasks that have little inherent meaning, do not
utilize workers' skills, and provide little sense of
control.Example:David works to the point of exhaustion. Theresa is
tied to the computer, allowing little room for flexibility,
self-initiative, or rest.Management Style.Lack of participation by
workers in decision- making, poor communication in the
organization, lack of family-friendly policies.Example:Theresa
needs to get the boss's approval for everything, and the company is
insensitive to her family needs.Interpersonal Relationships.Poor
social environment and lack of support or help from coworkers and
supervisors.Example:Theresa's physical isolation reduces her
opportunities to interact with other workers or receive help from
them.Work Roles.Conflicting or uncertain job expectations, too much
responsibility, too many "hats to wear."Example:Theresa is often
caught in a difficult situation trying to satisfy both the
customer's needs and the company's expectations.Career Concerns.Job
insecurity and lack of opportunity for growth, advancement, or
promotion; rapid changes for which workers are
unprepared.Example:Since the reorganization at David's plant,
everyone is worried about their future with the company and what
will happen next.Environmental Conditions.Unpleasant or dangerous
physical conditions such as crowding, noise, air pollution, or
ergonomic problems.Example:David is exposed to constant noise at
work.Job Stress and HealthStress sets off an alarm in the brain,
which responds by preparing the body for defensive action. The
nervous system is aroused and hormones are released to sharpen the
senses, quicken the pulse, deepen respiration, and tense the
muscles. This response (sometimes called the fight or flight
response) is important because it helps us defend against
threatening situations. The response is preprogrammed biologically.
Everyone responds in much the same way, regardless of whether the
stressful situation is at work or home.Short-lived or infrequent
episodes of stress pose little risk. But when stressful situations
go unresolved, the body is kept in a constant state of activation,
which increases the rate of wear and tear to biological systems.
Ultimately, fatigue or damage results, and the ability of the body
to repair and defend itself can become seriously compromised. As a
result, the risk of injury or disease escalates.In the past 20
years, many studies have looked at the relationship between job
stress and a variety of ailments. Mood and sleep disturbances,
upset stomach and headache, and disturbed relationships with family
and friends are examples of stress-related problems that are quick
to develop and are commonly seen in these studies. These early
signs of job stress are usually easy to recognize. But the effects
of job stress on chronic diseases are more difficult to see because
chronic diseases take a long time to develop and can be influenced
by many factors other than stress. Nonetheless, evidence is rapidly
accumulating to suggest that stress plays an important role in
several types of chronic health problems-especially cardiovascular
disease, musculoskeletal disorders, and psychological
disorders.Health care expenditures are nearly 50% greater for
workers who report high levels of stress.-Journal of Occupational
and Environmental MedicineEarly Warning Signs of Job Stress
Job Stress and Health:What the Research Tells UsCardiovascular
DiseaseMany studies suggest that psychologically demanding jobs
that allow employees little control over the work process increase
the risk of cardiovascular disease.Musculoskeletal DisordersOn the
basis of research by NIOSH and many other organizations, it is
widely believed that job stress increases the risk for development
of back and upper- extremity musculoskeletal
disorders.Psychological DisordersSeveral studies suggest that
differences in rates of mental health problems (such as depression
and burnout) for various occupations are due partly to differences
in job stress levels. (Economic and lifestyle differences between
occupations may also contribute to some of these
problems.)Workplace InjuryAlthough more study is needed, there is a
growing concern that stressful working conditions interfere with
safe work practices and set the stage for injuries at work.Suicide,
Cancer, Ulcers, and Impaired Immune FunctionSome studies suggest a
relationship between stressful working conditions and these health
problems. However, more research is needed before firm conclusions
can be drawn.-Encyclopaedia of Occupational Safety and
HealthStress, Health, and ProductivitySome employers assume that
stressful working conditions are a necessary evil-that companies
must turn up the pressure on workers and set aside health concerns
to remain productive and profitable in today's economy. But
research findings challenge this belief. Studies show that
stressful working conditions are actually associated with increased
absenteeism, tardiness, and intentions by workers to quit their
jobs-all of which have a negative effect on the bottom line.Recent
studies of so-called healthy organizations suggest that policies
benefiting worker health also benefit the bottom line. A healthy
organization is defined as one that has low rates of illness,
injury, and disability in its workforce and is also competitive in
the marketplace. NIOSH research has identified organizational
characteristics associated with both healthy, low-stress work and
high levels of productivity. Examples of these characteristics
include the following: Recognition of employees for good work
performance Opportunities for career development An organizational
culture that values the individual worker Management actions that
are consistent with organizational valuesStress Prevention and Job
PerformanceSt. Paul Fire and Marine Insurance Company conducted
several studies on the effects of stress prevention programs in
hospital settings. Program activities included (1) employee and
management education on job stress, (2) changes in hospital
policies and procedures to reduce organizational sources of stress,
and (3) establishment of employee assistance programs.In one study,
the frequency of medication errors declined by 50% after prevention
activities were implemented in a 700-bed hospital. In a second
study, there was a 70% reduction in malpractice claims in 22
hospitals that implemented stress prevention activities. In
contrast, there was no reduction in claims in a matched group of 22
hospitals that did not implement stress prevention
activities.-Journal of Applied PsychologyAccording to data from the
Bureau of Labor Statistics, workers who must take time off work
because of stress, anxiety, or a related disorder will be off the
job for about 20 days.-Bureau of Labor Statistics
What Can Be Done About Job Stress?The examples of Theresa and
David illustrate two different approaches for dealing with stress
at work.Stress Management.Theresa's company is providing stress
management training and an employee assistance program (EAP) to
improve the ability of workers to cope with difficult work
situations. Nearly one-half of large companies in the United States
provide some type of stress management training for their
workforces. Stress management programs teach workers about the
nature and sources of stress, the effects of stress on health, and
personal skills to reduce stress-for example, time management or
relaxation exercises. (EAPs provide individual counseling for
employees with both work and personal problems.) Stress management
training may rapidly reduce stress symptoms such as anxiety and
sleep disturbances; it also has the advantage of being inexpensive
and easy to implement. However, stress management programs have two
major disadvantages: The beneficial effects on stress symptoms are
often short-lived. They often ignore important root causes of
stress because they focus on the worker and not the
environment.Organizational Change. In contrast to stress management
training and EAP programs, David's company is trying to reduce job
stress by bringing in a consultant to recommend ways to improve
working conditions. This approach is the most direct way to reduce
stress at work. It involves the identification of stressful aspects
of work (e.g., excessive workload, conflicting expectations) and
the design of strategies to reduce or eliminate the identified
stressors. The advantage of this approach is that it deals directly
with the root causes of stress at work. However, managers are
sometimes uncomfortable with this approach because it can involve
changes in work routines or production schedules, or changes in the
organizational structure.As a general rule, actions to reduce job
stress should give top priority to organizational change to improve
working conditions. But even the most conscientious efforts to
improve working conditions are unlikely to eliminate stress
completely for all workers. For this reason, a combination of
organizational change and stress management is often the most
useful approach for preventing stress at work.Preventing Stress at
Work: A Comprehensive Approach
How to Change the Organization to Prevent Job Stress Ensure that
the workload is in line with workers' capabilities and resources.
Design jobs to provide meaning, stimulation, and opportunities for
workers to use their skills. Clearly define workers' roles and
responsibilities. Give workers opportunities to participate in
decisions and actions affecting their jobs. Improve
communications-reduce uncertainty about career development and
future employment prospects. Provide opportunities for social
interaction among workers. Establish work schedules that are
compatible with demands and responsibilities outside the job.