Definition

LEARNING

Definition “The term learning covers every modification in

behavior to meet environmental requirements”. (Gardner Murphy, 1968)

Learning is the acquisition of new behavior or the strengthening or weakening of old behavior as the result of experience.

(Henry P Smith, 1962)

Learning can be defined as any relatively permanent change in behavior which occurs as a result of practice or experience.

Learning is a change in behavior- change- better or worse

It’s a change that take place through practice or experience; changes due to growth and maturation are not learning.

The change must be relatively permanent, it must last for a fairly long period.

Characteristics

Process Experience and training Bring changes in the behavior Prepares an individual for necessary

adjustment and adaptation. Goal- oriented Universal and continuous

Types of Learning Verbal learning-acquisition of verbal behavior Motor learning-motor skills Concept learning- mental image. Problem solving- higher learning; reasoning,

thinking, power of observation, discrimination, generalization, imagination, ability to infer and draw conclusions etc.

Serial learning- alphabet, numbers, tables etc. Paired- associate learning- based on the

association.

CONDITIONING

It’s a form of associative learning. Two types of conditioning

- Classical/pavlovian conditioning.

- Instrumental/operant conditioning.

Classical Conditioning Ivan P Pavlov (1927)

Components of classical conditioning1.The unconditional stimulus (UCS)- unconditioned means

that the stimulus in question need not require prior training to produce the desired response.

2. The unconditional response (UCR)- -It is the response that elicited by the UCS.-UCS reliably elicits the UCR- UCR is often referred to as a highly reflexive response, one which happens quickly and quite automatically when the UCS occurs.

3. The conditioned stimulus (CS) The CS is that stimulus which comes to elicit a

response by being paired properly in time with the UCS (Bell).

4. The Conditioned Response (CR)The CR is learned reflex which arises when the CS is paired properly in time with the UCS. The CR is referred to as a conditioned reflex for it becomes conditional upon the presentation of the CS.

Learning is a habit formation and based on the principle of association and substitution.

Principles of Conditioning

1.Extinction- The process related with the gradual disappearance of the conditioned response on connecting the S-R association is called extinction.

If conditioned stimulus present alone- decrease the CR and disappear

2.Spontaneous Recovery- after extinction reappearance of CR spontaneously but pairing of CS and US

Cont…3.Stimulus Generalization- Pavlov’s dog

provided response (salivation) not at the sight of the food but to every stimulus like ringing of the bell, appearance of light, sound of the foot steps of the feeder etc. associated with its getting of the food.

Stimulus Discrimination- Stimulus discrimination is the opposite of stimulus generalization

Sharp contrast to response in a usual fashion the subject learns to react differently in different situation.

Cont..

This may help us learning to react only to a single specific stimulus out of the multiplicity of stimuli and enabling us to distinguish and discriminate among a variety of stimuli present in our environment.

Application of Classical Conditioning

Fear, Love and Hatred towards an object phenomenon or environment are created through classical conditioning.

Example: If a father punishing continuously

Teachers misbehavior and improper teaching may leads to distaste towards the subject

OPERANT(INSTRUMENTAL) CONDITIONING

BF Skinner Basis of operant conditioning is trial and

error theory of Thorndike Operant is a set of acts which constitutes

an organism’s doing something. Ex: raising head, walking etc.

Operant conditioning refers to a kind of learning process whereby a response is made more probable or more frequent by reinforcement.

Reinforcer and Reinforcement Reinforcement is an identical to the

presentation of reward. Reinforcer is the stimulus whose

presentation or removal increase the probability of a response re-occuring.

Reinforcement1.Positive- presentation2.Negative – removal/withdrawBoth are leads to favorable consequence

Schedules of Reinforcement

1.Continuous reinforcement schedule2.Fixed interval reinforcement schedule3.Fixed ratio reinforcement schedule4.Variable reinforcement schedule Reinforcement and its schedule play a

key role in the conditioning or operant behavior and acquisition of learning

Cont… Continuous reinforcement schedule

increase the response rate, thus least resistance to extinction and lowest response rate during learning.

Escape Learning- an organism acquires a response that decrease or ends some aversive stimulation

Avoidance Learning- an organism acquires a response that prevents some aversive stimulation from occurring.

Two- process theory of avoidance given by Mowrer.

Punishment

It occurs when an event following a response decrease the tendency to make that response

Presentation of aversive stimulus-weakening response.

Mechanism of operant conditioning Once a response occurs, its reinforced

through a suitable reinforcer In due course response gets conditioned by

constantly reinforcing. Shaping

Implication of the operant conditioning

Behavior modification Development of human personality. Development of teaching and

programmed learning.

Trial and Error Learning Edward L Thorndike (1874-1949) Experiment on hunger cat in a puzzle

box and its components are:1.Drive- hunger which was intensified

with the sight of food.2.Goal- to get the food by getting out of

the box3.Block- the cat was confined in the box

with a closed door.

Cont..

4.Chance success- as a result of this striving and random movement the cat by chance succeeded in opening the door.

5.Selection- gradually the recognized the correct manipulation of latch.

6.Fixation- the cat learned the proper way of opening the door by eliminating all the incorrect response and fixing only the right response

Laws of Learning

1. Law of Readiness: Readiness is preparation for action. If the child is ready to learn, he learns more quickly, effectively and with greater satisfaction than if he is unwilling to learn.

It warns us not make the child learn till he is ready to learn and also not to miss any opportunity of providing learning experience if the child is already prepared to learn.

State of mind should be very well and organized and maximum use of this knowledge should be made by the teacher.

2.Law of effect The learning takes place properly when it

results in satisfaction and the learner derives pleasure out of it.

In a situation where the child meets with failure or gets no satisfaction, the progress on the path of learning is blocked.

All the pleasant experience have a lasting influence and are remembered for a long time, while the unpleasant ones are soon forgotten.

Satisfaction/Dissatisfaction leads to effectiveness of learning

3. Law of exercise Law of use- strengthening of

connection with practice. Law of disuse- weakening

4.Law of multiple responseWhen individual is confronted with a new situation he responds in a variety of ways before arriving at the correct response

5. Law of attitude

The learner performs the task properly if he/she has developed healthy attitude/

6.Law of analogy An individual responds new situation on the

basis of the responses made by him in similar situation

7. Law of associative shifting Any response which is possible can be

linked with any stimulus

Theory of Insightful Learning Wolfgang Kohler- gestalt psychologist The process of learning as a gestalt- an

organized whole. A thing cannot be understood by study of its constituent parts but only by study of it as a totality is the basic idea behind this theory.

Learning as a purposive, exploratory and creative enterprise

Gestalt psychology used the term “insight” to describe the perception of the whole situation by the learner and his/her intelligence in responding to the proper relationship

Cont.. Chimpanzee experiment Insightful learning- sudden “aha” or bolt of

lightening. Its bound to depend upon the factors given below

Experience Intelligence Learning situation Initial efforts Repetition and Generalisation

Transfer of Learning

The carry over of habits of thinking, feeling or working of knowledge or skills from one learning area to another usually is referred to as the transfer of learning (Crow & Crow, 1973)

Transfer refers to the transfer of knowledge, training, and habits acquired in one situation to another situation.

Types of transfer Positive Transfer- when something

previously learned benefits performance or learning in a new situation

Negative Transfer- when something previously learned hinders performance or learning in a new situation.

Zero Transfer- previous learning makes no difference at all to the performance or learning in a new situation.