Defining and Denouncing Racism through Socio-Cultural Repertoires: Boundary-work, Morality and Ordinary Anti-Racism in France

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TSI WORKING PAPER NO 9 / MARCH 2015

THE TRANSNATIONAL STUDIES INITIATIVE

Defining and Denouncing Racism through Socio-cultural Repertoires:

Boundary-Work, Morality and Ordinary Anti-Racism in France!

MATTHIEU MAZZEGA!

WORKING PAPER SERIES Pushing the Boundaries of Migration Studies:

Perspectives from the U.S. and France

The Transnational Studies Initiative is a Weatherhead Center for International Affairs Seminar at Harvard University.

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NO 9 / MARCH 2015

TSI WORKING PAPER SERIES PUSHING THE BOUNDARIES OF MIGRATION STUDIES:

PERSPECTIVES FROM THE U.S. AND FRANCE


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DEFINING AND DENOUNCING RACISM THROUGH SOCIO-CULTURAL REPERTOIRES:

BOUNDARY-WORK, MORALITY AND ORDINARY ANTI-RACISM IN FRANCE

MATTHIEU MAZZEGA

UNIVERSITE DE GRENOBLE, FRANCE


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TSI WORKING PAPER SERIES / MARCH 2015

PUSHING THE BOUNDARIES OF MIGRATION STUDIES: PERSPECTIVES FROM THE U.S. AND FRANCE


Series Editors: Amandine Desille (PhD Student, Poitiers University & Tel Aviv University) [email protected]; Thomas Lacroix, CNRS Research Fellow (University of Poitiers), Associate Researcher (Oxford University), [email protected]; Guillaume Ma Mung (PhD Candidate, Université Paris Ouest Nanterre La Défense, LAVUE-Mosaïques), [email protected]; Kathleen Sexsmith (PhD Candidate, Cornell University, [email protected]); Sadio Soukouna (PhD Candidate, University Paris 1 Pantheon Sorbonne), [email protected]; Evren Yalaz (Visiting researcher, Institut Barcelona d´Estudis Internacionals), [email protected].

Series: Papers discussed at the Conference “Pushing the Boundaries of Migration Studies: Perspectives from the U.S. and France” hosted by the Transnational Studies Initiative at the Weatherhead Center, Harvard University (organized by Thomas LaCroix, Peggy Levitt, Nancy Khalil, Kathleen Sexsmith, Sadio Soukouna, and Evren Yalaz). The conference was sponsored by the Social Science Research Council; and by Harvard University’s Transnational Studies Initiative, Center for European Studies, Center for American Political Studies, and Department of Anthropology. The organizers sincerely thank Josh DeWind, Marika Dunn, Peggy Levitt, Thomas LaCroix, the many conference student presenters and faculty participants, and their DPDF program faculty field leaders and cohort mates for their ongoing support.

NO 1 EVREN YALAZ Immigrant Political Activism: Political Opportunities, Group Resources, and Inter-Ethnic Context

NO 2 JOSEPHA MILAZZO Foreign Migrant Workers in Mediterranean Intensive Farming: Labour Relations in a Quality Labelled Commodity Production (Haute-Corse, France)

NO 3 CLARA RACHEL EYBALIN CASSEUS Cross-border Mobility and Haitian Entrepreneurial Dynamism Between French Guiana, Suriname and Brazil

NO 4 ILKA VARI-LAVOISIER Social Remittances as Mimetic Diffusion Processes: From Homophily to Imitation in Transnational Networks

NO 5 SIHÉ NÉYA From Diaspora to Diaspo (ra): An “Unwelcome” Reverse Transnationalism among Burkinabè Return Migrants from Côte d’Ivoire to their Country of Origin

NO 6 CYNTHIA SALLOUM Diasporas and Statecraft: The Salient Relevance of a Concept

NO 7 GUILLAUME MA MUNG Situations of Ethnic Trade and Arrangements of Space in Château Rouge and Brixton

NO 8 ANNE BOUHALI The Effects of Transnational Trade on Urban Settings: The case of the al-Muski Market, Cairo, Egypt

NO 9 MATTHIEU MAZZEGA Defining and Denouncing Racism through Socio-Cultural Repertoires: Boundary-work, Morality and Ordinary Anti-Racism in France


Defining'and'Denouncing'Racism'through'Socio4cultural' Repertoires:' Boundary4Work,'Morality'and'Ordinary'Anti4Racism'in'France1''

Matthieu'Mazzega'Université*de*Grenoble,*France!

How'do'people'define'and'denounce'racism' in' their'ordinary' interactions?'While' ordinary' racism' is' largely' documented' since' a' decade,' its' opposite,'ordinary' anti4racism,' or' the' ways' ordinary' people' conceptualize' and'denounce' the'phenomenon'of' racism,'have'been'very' little' studied.'Online'discussions'about'racism'provide'interesting'cases'in'which'to'observe'such'ordinary' knowledge' in' action.' This' article' deals' with' the' issue' of'contemporary' ‘ordinary' anti4racism’' through' the' study' of' a' collection' of'online'comments'published'on'French'press'websites.'Drawing'on'cultural'and' phenomenological' sociology,' the' study' reveals' that,' among' various'processes,'individuals'often'use'social'categorizations,'in'different'forms,'to'define'and'denounce'what/who'they'perceive'as'racism/racist.'This'article'explores'two'ordinary'repertoires'relying'on'this,'one'focusing'on'the'social'distribution'of'racism'and'the'other'on'the'usage'of' two'social' figures'(the'‘bobo’' and' the' ‘beauf’).' The' empirical' exploration' of' those' enlighten' that'references' to' social' stratification' and' its' boundaries' look' central' for'participants' to' discuss' and' oppose' racism,' and' even' more' to' build' and'justify' racist' accusations.' From' this' analysis,' a' discussion' is' opened' about'morality,' anti4racism' and' references' to' social' classes' and' furthermore' on'the'ways'social'categorizations'built'by'individuals'in'such'discussions'rely'on' similar' processes' of' those' supporting' the' phenomenon' of' racism,'enlightening'a'major'paradox'within'French'ordinary'anti4racism.'

INTRODUCTION'

The'phenomenon'of'racism'and'its'derivate'represent'a'historical'field'of'research'for'social'sciences,' while' the' ethical' and' moral' dimensions' embedded' in' this' topic' also' became' a'particular' challenge' for' researchers.' Both' in' the' ordinary' and' academic' spheres,' the'

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''1'Mazzega' Matthieu.' Laboratoire' PACTE' (Politiques' publiques,' Action' politique,' Territoires),' Université' de'Grenoble/Institut' d’Etudes' Politiques' BP' 48' 38040' Grenoble' cedex' 9' –' France' .' Contact':'[email protected]'

TSI'WORKING'PAPER'4'Defining'and'Denouncing'Racism'through'Socio4cultural'Repertoires'

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frequency'and'the'mediatisation'of'this'issue'in'French'society'seems'to'have'an'impact'on'the'ways'in'which'individuals'appropriate'and'discuss'these'issues.'Some'often'assume'that'the'traditional'French'color4blind'context,'as'a'cultural'frame,'could'explain'the'difficulties'and'constraints'within'those'discussions'(Fassin'2006).'Unfortunately,'facing'this'large'and'transnational'problematic'of'the'social'and'cultural'conditions'of'expression'about'racism,'seldom'have'studies'focused'on'the'ways'in'which'the'phenomenon'of'racism'is'understood'and'publicly'expressed'by'ordinary'people.'Based'on'the'concept'of'“ordinary”'anti4racism,'differentiating' from' activist' and/or' political' anti4racism,' this' paper' aims' to' describe' the'ways'in'which'the'individual,'participating'in'a'discussion'on'this'issue'in'France,'explains'and' denounces' what' s/he' perceives' as' racism.' For' this,' we' analyse' a' large' corpus' of'comments' from' Internet' users' responding' to' related' French' online' press' articles,' in' one'way'or'another,'to'the'issue'of'racism.'Drawing'on'frameworks'from'phenomenological'and'cultural' sociology,' in' this' paper' we' more' specifically' look' at' the' different' processes' by'which'commentators'legitimate'and'justify'their'own'explanations'and/or'denunciations'of'racism'through'mechanisms'of'social'categorizations'and'boundary4work'as'conceptualized'by'Lamont'(1995,'2000).''

We'begin'the'article'by'situating'our'research'within'the'different'approaches'of'racism'and'anti4racism' in'France.'Then,'we'discuss' its' empirical' anchoring'on' the'particular' space'of'online' comments' on' the' websites' of' French' newspapers' Libération' and' Le* Figaro.'Afterwards,' we' specifically' focus' on' the' analysis' of' arguments' where' the' references' to'social'position'or'its'avatars'come'to'objectify'specific'explanations'and/or'denunciations'of'racism.'From'these'different'ordinary'theorizations'of'racism'through'social'categorization,'we' will' try' to' understand' the' function' and' specificity' of' social' categorizations' used' by'commentators'regarding'the'whole'issue'of'racism'and'anti4racism.'Finally,'this'discussion'will' lead'us' to'point'out'an' important'paradox'within'French'ordinary'anti4racism'and' its'specific'uses'of'social'assignations.'

ANTI4RACISM'AS'A'SOCIAL'STOCK'OF'KNOWLEDGE'

Sociology'of'Racism:'Identify'and'Bind'the'Phenomenon'

Claude' Levi4Strauss' and' his' work' “Race' and' History”,' followed' in' 1971' by' “Race' and'culture”2,'represent'the'groundwork'for'research'on'racism,'with'a'response'to'the'central'question:'"What'is'racism?”.'In'his'writings,'Lévi4'Strauss'circumscribed'the'phenomenon'to'the' concept' of' “active' hostility",' differentiating' racism' from' ethnocentrism,' the' latter'understood' as' universal' and,' to' a' certain' extent,' legitimate.' For' him,' racism' therefore'appears' where' the' destruction' or' oppression' of' a' particular' culture' is' advocated' and'implemented'in'the'name'of'a'doctrine'that'differentiates'groups'on'the'basis'of'genetically4based'traits'and'abilities,'and'thus'establishes'a'hierarchy'between'said'groups.'Facing'this'conceptualization,' Lévi4Strauss' lays' the' foundation' for' an' intellectual' refutation' of' these'doctrines' based' on' a' strong' cultural' relativism,' pointing' to' the' universal' impossibility' to'measure,' and' thus' to' compare,' the' criteria' specific' to' a' particular' culture.' Later,' Pierre4

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''2'We' deliberately' simplify' here' the' Levi4Strauss' argument' as' coherent' and' fluid' however' there'were' a' lot' of'discussion' about' the' evolution,' some' talked' about' inversion,' between' those' two' works.' For' an' in4depth'exploration'of'this'controversy,'see'Stoczkowski'(2007).''


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André' Taguieff' defined' the' approach' of' Lévi4Strauss' as' a' "strong* definition* of* the*phenomenon,* whose* first* consequence* was* to* restrict* the* extension* of* the* term”' (Taguieff'1995:'10).'

Following' Levi4Strauss,' Albert' Memmi' supports' a' different' view' on' the' phenomenon.'

Indeed,' if' racism' is' limited' to'violent'phenomena' in' the' first' case,' the'analysis'of'Memmi,'framed' by' the' colonial' context,' focuses' more' on' the' deconstruction' of' the' "attitudes"'

produced'by'racism.'Racism'is'then'defined'as'"a*valorisation,*generalized*and*definitive,*of*differences,* real*or* imaginary,* in* favour*of* the*accuser*and* to* the*detriment*of* the*victim* in*order* to* justify* its* privileges* or* aggression"' (Memmi' 1994:14).' Surpassing' the' vision' of'racism'as'a'violent'act,'Memmi'included'a'cognitive'dimension'in'the'definition,'establishing'

racism'as'a'system'of'domination.'Using'Mannheim’s'distinction,'while'Lévi4Strauss'tends'to'

define' racism' as' a' particular' ideology,' a' "specific' doctrine”,' the' definition' of' Memmi' is'closer' to' what' Mannheim' (2006)' called' total' ideology' and' its' implications' in' terms' of'

collective'unconscious.'Colette'Guillaumin'(1972)'followed'this'direction'in'deconstructing'

“racist' ideology”' through' a' study' focused' on' the' analysis' of' language.' Her' analytical'

framework,' organized' around' the' nexus' majority' /' minority' and' their' power' relations,'seeks' to' deconstruct' the' idea' of' "race"' and' its' variants' in' the' establishment' and'

maintenance' of' this' unequal' system.' As' for' Memmi,' mechanisms' of' differentiation' and'

essentialisation' are' understood' as' the' core' of' racist' ideology,' as' they' categorize,' in' a'

permanent'way,' the'members'of'minorities.'Deeply,' the'analysis' shows' that' the' linguistic'framework' is' centered' on' the' majority,' which' sits' outside' of' assignment' and/or'

categorizations.'This'major'study'about'racism'has'contributed'to'both'highlight'the'roots'

of'racist'ideology'in'socio4cognitive'structures,'mainly'through'categorization'mechanisms,'

and'open'the'way'for'a'systematic'deconstruction'of'“the*idea*of*nature”'within'discourses'concerning'the'difference.'In'fact,'according'to'Guillaumin,'racism,'in'an'extended'definition,'

resides' in' the' "somatoCbiological* essentialisation* of* the* different"* and* in* a* "segregation*process* relying* the* sign* of* permanence"' (Guillaumin' 1972:298).' Therefore,' Guillaumin'extended' her' framework' across' various' phenomena' based' on' essentialization' and'

hierarchization,'starting'with'gender'and'sexism.'

The'definition'and'redefinition'of' the'phenomenon'of'racism'in'the'French'social'sciences'can'be'structured'around'these'three'figures.'While'the'analysis'of'Lévi4Strauss'has'helped'

distinguish'racism'from'a'simple'"human'drive"'in'replacing'the'issue'in'a'comprehensive'

intellectual' framework,' it' has' also' limited' the' phenomenon' to' its' violent'manifestations.'

Later,'Memmi'and'Guillaumin'have'tried'to'understand'the'phenomenon'from'its'cognitive'and' ideological' backgrounds.' Since' these' pioneering' works,' the' sociological' research' on'

racism' evolves' in' various' directions.' From' issues' of' discrimination,' segregation' or' even'

integration,' the' phenomenon' and' its' contemporary' forms' tend' to' nest' in' related'phenomena,'which' explains' its' fragmentation' (Wieviorka,' 1998)' and,' to' some' extent,' the'

growing'difficulty'in'isolating'its'ideological'core.'

Sociology'of'Anti4racism:'From'Philosophy'to'Ordinary'Knowledge'

Facing' this' conceptualization' of' racism,' the' second' half' of' the' twentieth' century' also'

represents' the' creation' and' the' institutionalization' of' another' movement' called' “anti4racism".' While' social' sciences' have' captured' discourses' produced' by' activist' actors,' the'


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political'responses'to'the'phenomenon'of'racism'and'its'related'issues'have'opened'the'way'for'the'analysis'of'the'anti4racist'policy'implications.'

Taguieff’s'pioneering'works'pointed'the'different'registers'underlying'anti4racism'activism'in' France.'His' approach'undertakes' a' reformulation'of' existing' academic'work'on' racism'and' a' systematic' deconstruction' of' discourses' expressed' by' anti4racism' activists.' More'broadly,' we' could' argue' that' Taguieff' creates' and' formalizes' anti4racism' as' an' object' of'study,' through' a' philosophical' approach' of' its' foundations.' We' will' present' two' major'points' of' his' work' that' seem' capital' for' our' own' approach.' On' the' first' hand,' Taguieff'identifies' and' deconstructs' the' “differentialist' racism”' based' on' culture,' understood' as'cohabiting'with'the'old'"scientific"'racism'based'on'the'idea'of'race.'Relying'on'Guillaumin’s'framework'about'categorization'and'essentialization,'he'highlights'the'contemporary'trend'of' racism' to' naturalize' and' essentialize' cultural' belonging' or' what' is' defined' as' such.'Therefore,' it' is' not'necessarily' a' question'of' inferiority' of' a' group'but' rather' its' absolute'difference'and'its'"incompatible"'nature.'As'a'result'of'this'double'identification'of'racism,'differentialist'and'scientific,'the'exploration'of'the'“mirror'game”'between'racism'and'anti4racism' becomes' necessary.' Drawing' upon' the' split' of' racist' ideology' and' the' loss' of' an'"unprocessed"' racism' (Wieviorka'1998),'Taguieff’s' analysis' illustrates'how'different' anti4racist' orientations' come' to' overlap'with' types' of' racism.' For' example,' confronting' racist'ideology' based' on' race,' anti4racism' argumentations' could' emphasize' the' importance' and'role'of'culture'and,'sometimes,'fall'into'a'vision'close'to'so4called'differentialist'racism.'This'ambiguous' opposition,' calling' upon' the' traditional' opposition' between' universalism' and'particularism,'thus'appears'as'the'major'limit'of'anti4racist'philosophy.'On'the'other'hand,'from'our'perspective,'the'work'of'Taguieff'remains'crucial'to'lay'the'foundations'for'a'study'on' the' social' construction' of' racism.' Indeed,' if' the' pioneer' authors' have'wondered'what'racism'is,'Taguieff'extended'their'researches'by'opening'the'issue'of'anti4racism'and'taking'into' account' the' moral' and' symbolic' place' of' racism' in' contemporary' society,' in' other'words,' what' racism' signifies.' Studying' the' demonization' of' racism,' Taguieff' takes' into'account'its'meaning'as'"absolute'evil"'or'"archaic'survival".'In'parallel,'he'also'highlights'the'"total"'disqualification'that'is'implied'in'the'accusation'of'racism'in'contemporary'societies.'Through'this'set'of'elements'related'to'the'symbolic'status'of'racism,'Taguieff'shapes'this'original'study'of'“anti4racist'ideologies"'and'their'philosophical'fundaments.'

From' our' side,' we' postulate' that' the' inclusion' of' the' "moral"' dimension' of' racism' also'enables' an' approach' on' anti4racism' in' its' ordinary' and' everyday' dimension.' Thus,' some'studies' have' shown' the' "taboo"' character' of' racism' within' daily' discussions,' and' more'specifically' the' avoidance' behaviours' adopted' by' individuals' facing' the' issue' of' racism'(Eliasoph'1999;'Van'Dijk'1992;'Bonilla4Silva'2009,'1997).'Étienne'Balibar'also'highlighted'the' consequences' of' the' symbolic' rejection' of' racism'both' in' terms' of' constraints' on' the'debate'about'this'issue'and'on'the'universalizing'tendency'of'the'category'"racism",'i.e.'its'propensity'to'define'and'be'applied'to'more'and'more'related'phenomena'(Balibar'2005).'Taking' into' account' these' various' reflections,'we'postulate' that' at' the' ordinary' level,' the'issue' of' racism' is' a' hazardous' topic' within' interpersonal' discussions,' as' the' possible'accusation' of' racism' is' morally' and' personally' costly' and,' moreover,' different' 4' and'sometimes' opposite' 4' registers' coexist' to' define' the' issue.' In' the' same'way,'we' can' also'stress' that' the' current' period' 4' marked' by' an' increased' problematization' of' issues' of'cultural' belonging' and/or' immigration' 4' make' this' issue' more' and' more' frequent' in'


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everyday'discussions.'Considering'this'tension'between'individuals'and'the'polysemy'of'the'

topic,'we' assume' that' the' individual' experiencing' an' inter4subjective' situation'where' the'

issue'of'racism'is'involved'adopts'a'posture'of*“wideCawakeness”*described'as'"full*attention*to*life*and*its*requirements”'(Schütz'2008:110).'

Regarding'the'analysis'of'the'moral'and'symbolic'dimensions'of'racism'and'anti4racism,'the'

approach'of'Michèle'Lamont'(2000,'1995),'pertaining'to'cultural'sociology,' is'a'promising'

entry.'Furthermore,' it' is'a'rare'contribution'addressing'simultaneously'the'problematic'of'

racism'with'social'membership'in'a'symbolic'and'systematic'point'of'view,'in'opposition'to'

recent' approaches' that' tend' to' associate' racist/anti4racist' behaviours' on' specific' class,'

whether' working' class' or' elites,' using' respectively' deterministic' and/or' domination'

paradigms3.' Indeed,' her' approach' focuses' on' everyday' anti4racist' rhetoric' to' analyse' and'

compare' some' French' and' American' "cultural' repertoires”' used' to' categorize' the' other,'

whether'socially'or'racially.'From'this'perspective,'anti4racist'rhetoric'is'understood'as'the'

set' of' arguments' and' evidence' used' to' demonstrate' that' racial' groups' stand' on' equal'

footing'(Lamont'2000:'86).'The'exploration'of'workers’'anti4racist'rhetoric'on'both'sides'of'

the' Atlantic' leads' her' to' highlight' the' operations' of' building,'maintenance' or' removal' of'

symbolic' boundaries' between' groups.' This' contribution' has' greatly' inspired' our' study,'

including' the' framing' of' anti4racism' in' the' national' context' through' sociology' of' the'

"meaning4making"' 4' understood' as' the' study' of' the' social' construction' of' knowledge'

deployed'by'ordinary'individuals.'In'this'regard,'we'will'rely'on'the'transversal'concept'of'

symbolic' boundaries' understood' as' "types* of* lines* that* individuals* draw* when* they*categorize*people"'(Lamont'1995:'24).'

At'the'intersection'of'these'approaches,'we'seek'to'understand'how'people'generally'"talk"'

racism' using' arguments' and' knowledge' considered' legitimate' which' a*priori' protect' the'person' from' possible' accusations' of' racism.' We' have' built' our' analytical' framework'

through'a'sociology'of'ordinary'knowledge'that'aims'at'identifying'the'"stock'of'knowledge"'

(Berger' and' Luckmann' 1986)' and' “the' criteria' of' relevance”' (Schütz' 2008)' used' by'

individuals'who'are'experiencing'such'a'situation.'From'there,'the'analysis'seeks'to'identify'

the' individuals'' interpretations' that' are' taken' for' granted,' and' understand' how' certain'

argumentative' structures' may' conflict.' In' other' words,' we' are' talking' about'

institutionalized'patterns'(therefore'societally'‘normal’'and'legitimised'ways'of'thinking)'on'

one'side'and'those'that'still' require'a' legitimation'(contested)'on'the'other.' In' that'sense,'

our'approach'differs'from'Lamont’s'as'we'seek'to'identify'and'understand'the'use'and'the'

confrontation'of' available' repertoires' "in' situation”,' that' is' to' say' in' the' inter4individual' 4'

intersubjective'4'dimension.'Concretely,'we'aim'at'modelling'the'arguments'of'individuals'in'

a'particular'situation'4'where'the'issue'of'racism'is'discussed'in'an'intersubjective'way'4'and'

to' understand' the' various' structures' and' relevant' typifications' used' to' interpret' and'

categorize' the' situation' and' its' various' elements.' In' sum,' the' constituted' stock' of'

knowledge'represents,'in'an'ideal4typical'form,'what'we'call'ordinary'anti4racism.'

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''3'In'particular,'we'think'about'different'papers'written'in'the'last'decade'that'tried'to'enlighten'a'specific'racism'

of'the'elites,'whether'this'‘racism’'was'defined'racially'or'socially,'to'counterbalance'political,'or'common4sense,'

discourses'targeting'the'popular,'or'ordinary,'racism.'


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APPROACHING' ANTI4RACISM' 2.0:' EPISTEMOLOGICAL' AND' METHODOLOGICAL'

ISSUES'

A'Corpus'of'Internet'Users'Comments'Framing'Ordinary'Anti4racism'

Regarding'our'remarks'on'the'contemporary'difficulties'for'individuals'in'discussing'racism,'

the'empirical'dimension'of'our'study'is'obviously'problematic,'and'especially'since'we'seek'

to'study'the'object'in'its'inter4subjective'dimension.'From'there,'we'have'chosen'to'observe'

and'analyse'our'object'in'a'particular'social'area:'the'online'comments'on'two'French'press'

websites,'liberation.fr'and'lefigaro.fr,'created'respectively'in'1997'and'1996.'Through'their'

progressive'integration'into'a'so4called'web'2.0,'implying'better'interactions'and'exchange'

between'users,'both'sites'implemented'a'system'of'on4line'comments'in'2006.'This'type'of'

social' interface' has' been' the' subject' of' studies' on' the' link' between' producers' and'

consumers' of' information,' and' to' some' extent,' the' "co4production"' of' information'

(Falguères'2008).'In'this'article,'we'will'leave'these'issues'aside'to'focus'specifically'on'the'

conditions'of'construction'and'expression'of'our'research.'We'will'then'justify'the'selected'

corpus'and'discuss'the'opportunity'it'represents'for'an'analysis'of'ordinary'anti4racism.'

Several' reasons' explain' the' choice' of' these' two' newspapers.' On' the' one' hand,' both' are'

among'the'most'visited'press'websites'where'participation'through'posting'is'free'of'charge.'

On'the'other'hand,'despite'of'the'lack'of'studies'about'the'transposition'of'traditional'media'

political'cleavages'into'the'digital'space,'this'choice'allows'to'take'into'account'the'possible'

effect' of' the' left' /' right' political' divide.' A' posteriori,' our' study' does' not' show' major'

differences' in' the' arguments' identified' on' the' two' platforms.' Concerning' the' choice' of'

articles'and'comments'studied,'we'mentioned'earlier'Taguieff's'remark'on'the'splitting'of'

racist' ideologies' and' Wieviorka's' stating' of' the' imbrication' of' racism' into' related'

phenomenon' (Wieviorka' 1998).' We' therefore' choose' to' include' in' our' analysis' a' large'

number'of'cases'relevant'to'particular'phenomena'which,'in'one'way'or'another,'feature'the'

issue'of'racism,'because'they'address,'individually'or'collectively,'the'question'of'“the'other”'

and' their' differences,' real' or' imagined.' Then,'we'decided' to' take' in' account' five' types' of'

events,'from'particular'to'more'general,'that'involve'either'racist'violence,'racist'speeches,'

national'debates'on'identity'and'cultural'issues,'foreign'affairs'about'immigration'or'French'

extreme'right.'For'each'types,'we'spotted'two'cases'that'happened'between'2009'and'2011'

and'extracted'all' the'comments'related'to'those'cases.'At'the'end,'we'therefore'produce'a'

corpus' made' by' 12’000' comments' from' both' websites' more' or' less' equally' distributed'

among' 10' specific' cases' (see' Appendix' A).' ' This' broad' selection' of' the' corpus' aims' at'

identifying' the' ordinary' knowledge' and' common' constructions' across' comments,'

addressing' all' selected' cases.'More' specifically,' to' quote' Schütz,' in' rebuilding' the' criteria'

and'argumentations'used'by'the'users'to'interpret'these'situations'indistinctly,'we'will'then'

be'able'to'argue'that'these'types'of'events'–'i.e.'the'situations'accounted'by'the'cases'4'are'

objectified'and'thus'typified'under'a'single'"horizon*of*meaning*"'(Schütz'2007,'2008).'The'ordinary'anti4racism'that'we'seek'to'reveal'here'is'the'stock'of'knowledge'4'in'other'words,'

the'frame'of'reference'–'available'for'individuals'to'cope'with'this'general'type'of'situation,'

namely'"speaking'racism"'during'on4line'discussions.'

Defining'Users’'Comments:'Pattern'and'Assumptions'


' 7'

Within' this' particular' fieldwork,'we' assume' that' anti4racism' first' takes' a' linguistic' form.'The'written' form'of'discussions' refers' to' "a*system*of*signs*of*second*degree"' (Berger'and'Luckmann' 1986:' 93)' which' takes' its' origin' in' specific' relationships' face4to4face.' The'interactive'dimension'of'the'comments'should'also'be'taken'into'account,'notably'through'an' interactionist' framework' (Goffman' 1979,' 1984).' Thus,' observing' all' the' comments'related'to'an'article,'we'are'dealing'with'a'collective'written'production.'Firstly,'the'action'of'commenting'an'article' is' to'give'an'opinion'on'the'events'narrated'by'the'article;'more'specifically,'the'comments'are'expressing'an'opinion'on'the'issue'raised'by'the'event.'It'may'also' augment' the' commented' article' 4' and' the' related' topic' –' through' a' biographical'testimony'or'by'reference'to'additional'sources,'notably'via'links.'Parallel'to'this'first'type'of' relationship' “article4comment”,' the' production' of' a' comment'may' also' seek' to' give' an'opinion' about' another' comment' or' group' of' comments.' Broadly,'we' can' postulate' that' a'comment' is' produced' by' and' for' a' relationship' between' the' author,' the' content' of' the'article' commented' and' other' published' comments.' The' individual' experience' of'commenting'on'an'on4line'article'consists'of'writing'to'express'one’s'own'identification'and'interpretation'of' the' issue' raised'by' the'article' commented.'The'author' can'build'his/her'argumentation' through' addressing' the' article' itself' or' in' challenging' or' supporting' the'position'of' one'or'more' commentators.' In' return,' the' comment'being'published'and' thus'belonging'to'the'group'discussion,'can'itself'become'the'target'or'focus'of'other'users.'The'cumulative' production' is' organized' in' a' main' thread' where' comments' coexist,' which'combine' general' interpretations' of' various' issues' raised' by' the' article' and' meta4interpretations' 4' that' is' to' say,' interpretations'of' interpretations'of'other' commentators' 4'and'in'secondary'discussions'where'a'partial'subset'of'users'discuss'amongst'one'another.'

Moreover,' this' social' space' and' the' exchanges' produced,' as' virtual' as' they' are,' remain'primarily' inter4subjective'and'therefore'rely'on'a'specific'cultural' frame'as'some'research'cases'have'already'point'out'(Attifi'and'Marcoccia'2005,'Dupret'2010).'To'put'it'differently,'objects' 4' that' is' to' say' the'argumentative' structures' that'make' sense' for' the'actors' 4' that'guide' the' discussion' generated' by' comments,' are' in' one' way' or' another' relevant' to' a'particular'cultural'context,'here'the'French'context'4'although'this'is'a'complex'entity.'From'there,'we'can'assume'that'the'individual'participating'in'this'experience,'especially'when'it'is'related'typically'to'"racism'talk",'has'a'stock'of'knowledge'available'to'both'interpret'the'question' raised' by' section' but' also' to' understand' and' assess' the' contributions' of' others.'However,' unlike' everyday' reality,' understood' as' a' continuous' and' spontaneous' flow,' the'intermittent'temporality'of'comments'and'the'absence'of' face4to4face'relationship'a*priori'authorize'a'larger'4'and'riskier'4'horizon'of'choices'for'the'individual'and'a'particular'use'of'the' stock' of' knowledge' available.' In' the' words' of' Luc' Boltanski,' we' would' define' the'comments'as'constructions'inherited'from'a'meta4pragmatic'register'that'is'to'say'that'"the*relationship* between* symbolic* forms* and* states* of* affairs* and,* consequently,* the* space*between* them* or* separated,* the* possible* deviations,* and* their* possible* distance* ,* is* at* the*centre* of* common* concerns* "(Boltanski,' 2009:' 111' )' .' Thus' within' this' corpus,' we' focus'particularly'on'comments'that'justify'their'arguments'using'operations'of'generalization'or'singularization'(Boltanski'and'Thévenot'1991),'i.e.'argumentations'that'perform,'explicitly'or'not,' feedback'between'a'singular'situation'and'more'general'symbolic' forms.'Note'that'the'arguments'can'proceed'in'one'direction'or'the'other,'that'is'to'say,'on'the'one'hand'take'the'event'reported'as'an'object'belonging'to'a'particular'type,'and'on'the'other'hand'use'a'particular' situation,' biographical' for' example,' to' express' an' interpretation' of' a' more'


' 8'

general'issue.'In'all'cases,'the'analysis'of'user'comments'aim'at'revealing'the'justifications'and' registers' individuals' use' to' express' their' explanation' of' an' event,' that' is' to' say,' in'phenomenological'terms,'how'they'objectify'the'situation.''

As'a'last'discussion,'we'need'to'define'the'comments'sections'in'terms'of'their'social'rules,'especially' about' the' problematic' issue' of' racism.' First,' from' an' official' point' of' view,' the'comments' interfaces' are' subject' to' a' moderation' system.' Embedded' in' a' participation'charter' accessible' to' all' on' both'websites,' the' conditions' of'moderation'mention' a' set' of'rules' that' participants' must' respect' if' they' want' to' see' their' comment' published.' The'charter' prohibits' “incitement' to' discrimination,' hatred' or' violence”' (Le' Figaro)' and'alternatively' “defamatory,' racist,' pornographic,' paedophile,' inciting' crimes,' crimes' or'suicide'discourses'"(Libération).'Indeed,'the'moderation'relies'on'a'legal'definition'4'which'is'therefore'quite'wide'–'of'racism.'Note'that'this'choice'refers'to'the'fact'that'in'case'of'the'publication' of' comments' labelled' as' "racist"' in' the' eyes' of' the' law,' the' site' can' be'prosecuted.'This'activity'of'moderation'is'then'performed'using'the'automatic'identification'of' keywords' but' also' through' human'moderators' who' judge' comments' in' regard' to' the'charter.'Thus,'in'the'context'of'discussions'concerning'the'issue'of'racism,'if'the'activity'of'moderation,' performed' automatically' and' /' or' manually,' censors' comments' defined' as'"racist"'legally'speaking,'the'participants'still'have'the'opportunity'to'identify'and'sanction'messages' that' they*label'as' racist.'Moreover,' if'one' looks'at' the'difficulties' in'defining' the'phenomenon,' both' scientifically' and' legally,' comments' passing' moderation' filters' can'obviously'meet,'near'or'far,'criteria'for'being'judged'as'being'‘racist’.'Following'our'analysis'in' terms' of' common' knowledge,' our' work' will' then' consist' in' precisely' identifying' and'modelling' the' reasons' and' ways' in' which' commentators' label,' denounce' or' defend'positions'as'"racist".'

To'conclude'about'this'specific'fieldwork,'within'this'fully'textual'space'where'nothing'is'a*priori' known' about' the' interlocutors,' only' the' symbolic' language' produced' 4' through'writing' 4' and' the' commentators' abstract' constructions' untied' from' the' local' context' of'production' (Berger' and' Luckmann' 1986:' 89)' are' available' to' characterize' the' issue' of'racism'on'the'one'hand'and'the'other'participants'on'the'other'hand.'Therefore,'basically'our' corpus' represents' a' set' of' common' sense' constructions,' connecting' singular' and'general,' from' which' we' will' seek' to' rebuild' the' stock' of' knowledge' available' when' an'individual' has' to' simultaneously' characterize' the' issue' of' racism' and' interpret' other'people’s'positions'on'the'same'issue.'

Three' “Natural”' Registers' to' Discuss' Racism' within' Internet' Comments:' Class,'Nation'and'Race'

We' start' the' analysis' with' the' coding' of' a' sub4corpus' composed' by' three' cases' and'approximately'3000'comments.'Relying'on'our'previous'remark'on'the'symbolic'language,'a' first'pass'consisted' in' identifying'and'keeping'only' the'comments'containing'arguments'that'make'a' link'between'the'story'of'a'case'and/or' the'content'of'another'comment' to'a'general'register.'Conversely,'we'did'not'take'into'account'comments'who'stay'at'a'low'level'of' generality,' e.g.' simple' expression' of' (dis)agreement' with' a' character/participants' or'expression' of' a' general' statement'without' explicit' link'with' the' commented' case.' Among'the'remaining'comments,'we'rigorously'read'all'and,'following'an'initially'open'but'iterative'process' inspired' form'the'grounded' theory' (Glaser'and'Strauss'1967),'build'categories' to'


' 9'

classify,' as'much'as'possible,' the'different' argumentation' that,' from'more' to' less' explicit,'concern' the' issue' of' racism.' At' the' same' time' we' also' give' attributes' to' the' comments'regarding'whether'they'address'the'case'story'itself,'the'whole'issue'raised'by'the'latter'or'another'commentator’s'post.'At'the'end'of'the'codification,'after'a'reduction'and'linkage'of'categories,'we' have' singled' out' three' registers,' or' repertoires,' appearing' as' independent'foundations'to'a'majority'of'argumentations'dealing'with'the'issue'of'racism:'socio4cultural'membership,' nationhood' and' race.' Drawing' upon' this' analysis' of' a' part' of' the' general'corpus,'we'have'extended'our' categorization' to' the' complete' corpus' in' a'more'deductive'way,' partially' using' lexicometric' tools.' We' have' identified' multiple' keywords4'from' the'preliminary'cases,'which'reflect' these' three'different'registers'within' the'sub4corpus,'and'then'automatically'extracted'comments'using'these'keywords'from'the'rest'of'the'corpus'in'order'to'assess'their'validity'among'our'general'coding'pattern.'By'way'of'this'process,'we'aimed' first' at' verifying' and' documenting' in' a' more' detailed' way' the' variations' of'arguments'within'each'register'and,'measuring'the'importance'and'fair'repartition'of'those'repertoires'in'the'different'types'of'cases'we'have'in'the'corpus.'

We' hereby' propose' to' explore' the' first' register5'addressing' the' ways' in' which' ordinary'references' to' social' categorizations' appear' in' the' corpus.' Comments' pertaining' to' this'group' are' referring' directly' or' indirectly,' to' social' position' or' structure' using' socio4economic' qualifications' (poor,' rich,' bourgeois,' professional' and' so' on' (or' etc.))' or'qualifications'based'on'more'symbolic'forms'(dominated'/'dominant','elites,'masses'and'so'on'(or'etc.)').' ...').'It'must'be'noted/put'to'the'fore'that'within'this'new'corpus,'focused'on'social' categorization,' the'comments'end'up'separated' from'their'original'article/event.' In'other'words,'we'deliberately'disconnect' selected'comments' from'their'original' context' to'obtain'a'homogenous'group'of'objectified'and'anonymous'arguments.'After'the'reduction'of'the' categories,'we'were' then' able' to' identify' two' specific' types' of' uses' of' social' class' in'ordinary' definitions' and' accusations' of' racism' highly' present' in' comments.' One' is'explaining' racism' through' argumentations' based' on' the' social' structure' and' its' symbolic'implications,' and' the'other' is'denouncing' racism' through' references' to' two'French'social'figures,'mixing'economic'and'cultural'traits,'the'“beauf”'and'the'“bobo”.'

TALKING'AND'DENOUNCING'RACISM'THROUGH'SOCIAL'CLASS'AND'ITS'AVATARS'

The'Perceived'Social'Distribution'of'Racism:'Popular'Racism'versus'Elites'Racism''

The'first'type'of'construction'refers'to'the'comments'that'explain'racism'by'way'of'the're4appropriation' of' knowledge' related' to' social' stratification.'We' can' directly' note' that' the'representation' of' the' latter' is' largely' polarized' by' commentators' around' the' "working'class"'and'"elites”.'Therefore,'the'theorizations'of'racism'made'by'commentators'are'mainly'based' on' categorizations' related' to' one' or' the' other' of' these' polarities.'We'will' present'these'two'types'of'theories'of'racism'illustrated'by'the'typical'comments.'

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''4'Regarding'references'to'social'class,'from'the'pre4analysis,'we'identified'several'keywords'along'different'level'of' arguments.' It' started' from' simple' categorizations' (“rich”,' “poor”,' “working' class”,' “elites”,' “dominants”,'“domined”,' “workers”,' “boss”..)' to' more' general' concepts' (“domination”,' “economic/social' system”,'“inequality”,..).'5'For'our'analysis'of'the'register'about'nationhood,'see'Mazzega'(2012)'


' 10'

The' first' register' refers' to' reasoning,' more' or' less' explicit,' that' discuss' the' relationship'

between' racism' and' popular' class.' The' core' argument' here' consists' of' explaining' why'

individuals' belonging' to' this' supposed' social' class' show' more' reactions' or' thoughts'

considered'as' "racist".'This' initial'question' is' indeed'based'on'a' taken*for*granted'notion4'that'the'working'class'has'the'largest'propensity'to'manifest'racism'4'and'comments'related'

to' this' orientation' seek' to' justify' such' a' position' by' employing' this' idea' as' “general'

knowledge”' considered' as' objective' and' justified.' In' other'words,' this' type' of' comments'

looks' to' "theorize"' the' link' between' racism' and' belonging' to' the' working' class,' using'

symbolic'and'moral'constructions'on'social' stratification'and' its'operations.'A'majority'of'

comments'support'this'interpretation'of'the'racism'/'popular'class'link'through'references'

to' a' contemporary' "economic' fear”.' The' evocation' of' the' financial' and' economic' crisis' of'

2009' is' therefore' a' typical' reference' in' this' type' of' contributions' as' in' the' following'

comment:'

The'truth'that'appears'to'me'is'that'the'crisis'is'a'factor'to'the'weakening'of'spirits;'

facing'that,'as'the'change'of'the'economic'system'is'impossible,'we'begin'to'blame'a'

community' its' inhumanity' ,' and' we' feel' the' same' coming' disaster' as' in' 1939.'

(“Debate'about'the'Roma”'–'Figaro)6'

In' this' comment,' the' underlying' argument' about' the' crisis' and' "weaker' minds"' refers'

symbolically'to'the'working'class,'which'would'logically'be'the'most'affected'by'the'crisis.'

The'mechanism'of'a'"rise'in'generality"'(Boltanski'and'Thévenot'1991)'through'the'global'

"economic'system"'is'a'key'characteristic'of'this'register.' 'Looking'for'an'objectification'of'

the' link'between'racism'and' the'working'class,' the' rise' in'generality' seems' to'be'used' to'

distinguish'an'explanation'that'makes'racism'/'the'popular'class' link'a'"natural"' factor'as'

shown'in'the'next'comment.'

If'you'do'not'take'this'into'account'[the'crisis],'we'will'try'to'explain'a'situation'of'

confusion'where'the'popular'[populo]'is'guided'by'irrational'impulses'as'he'is'not'in'

a' position' to' make' decisions' because' he' is' too' afraid' of' the' future...' There' will'

always' be' people' who' will' be' afraid' of' each' other,' but' the' generalization' of' this'

feeling'is'mainly'due'to'the'precarious'situation'in'which'the'society'is.'Muslims'are'

no'more'than'a'safety'valve'to'vent'this' fear.' If' they'were'not' there,'people'would'

have'found'something'else...'(“Hortefeux'declarations”'–'Liberation)'

Comments' in' this' category' explain' the' causal' relationship' between' the' phenomenon' of'

racism'and' the'popular'class' in' the'mode'of' "because*of"' (Schütz'2007:'74),' that' is' to' say'based'on'the'situation'and'the'biographical'experience'projected'onto'the'actors'belonging'

to' this' class.' However,' the' justification' for' this' link' cannot' be' sufficient' with' the' single'

reference'to'the'economic'and'social'situation.'Such'argumentations'also'highlight'why'the'

members' of' the' working' class' would' be' better' disposed,' individually,' to' develop' racist'

views.' Therefore,' the' identified' ordinary' theories' recall' the' theory' of' the' authoritarian'

personality:' "ignorance' of' the' complexities' of' contemporary' society' causes' a' state' of'

uncertainty' and' general' anxiety,' which' are' ideal' terrain' for' the' modern' type' of' mass'

movement' reactionary”' (Adorno' 2007:' 231).' Commentators’' arguments' therefore' expose'

explanations'in'terms'of'cultural'values'or'capital:'

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''6'As'for'the'next'quotations,'the'references'to'the'case'and'the'website'appears'at'the'end'of'each'comment.'


' 11'

The'problem'is'not'racism,'it'is'ultimately'the'consequence'of'the'decline'due'to'the'economic' crisis' and' the' brainwashing' media.' [' ...' ]' This' is' the' individualism' and'materialism' of' our' societies,' coupled' with' abuses' by' elites' that' makes' losing'confidence' in' the' future'and'encourages' the' rejection'of' the'other' in'all' its' forms.'(“Murder'in'Bobigny”–'Liberation)'How'can'one'express'in'such'a'context'xenophobic'impulses,'which'even'in'minority,'are' not' less' than' a' universal' component' of' traditional' resentment' of' people'politically' uneducated' and' unhappy' of' their' own' sort,' especially' in' times' of'economic' crisis?' Simply' by' exploiting' the' republican' values' of' equality' and'secularism' [...]' it' is' not' an' insult,' but' the' simple' fact' of' being' trapped' in' archaic'impulses,'such'as'xenophobia,'without'being'aware'of'the'causes'of'this'resentment.'(“Merkel'&'multiculturalism”'–'Figaro)'

Within'both'comments,' the'raises' in'generality,'built'on'a'“global”'criticism'of' the'system,'come'with'categorizations'in'terms'of'morality'and'culture.'This'is'not'only'the'single'socio4economic'position,'which'explains'the'propensity'towards'racism'but'also'towards'suspect'moral' values.' In' other'words,' initially' establishing' a' link' between' the'working' class' and'racist' reactions' from' a' neutral' and' objective' frame' 4' economic' and' socio4economic'boundaries' and' categories' 4' comments' then' reinforce' this' link,' by' categorizing' "people"'belonging' to' the'supposed'class' through'moral'and'symbolic' terms.'Whether'precipitated'by' “non4education",' “materialism”' or' the' lack' of' perspective' –' regarding' the' Media,' for'example' 4,' important' “boundary4work”' (Lamont),' i.e.' tracing' symbolic' and' moral'boundaries'between'groups,'is'developed'in'comments.'Thus,'from'the'denunciation'of'the'system'in'general,'and'economics'in'particular,'and'its'impact'on'individuals'in'terms'of'the'rejection' of' different' people,' the' developed' arguments' supported' by' this' group' of'comments' refer'ultimately' to' a' series'of'moral' 4' and' subjective' –' criteria' to'describe' and'categorize' people' belonging' to' this' class,' and' by' analogy,' to' designate' them' as' typically'responsible'for'racism.'

If' the'previously' identified'repertoire' took'as' its' starting'point' the' implicit' idea'of' racism'inherent'to'the'working'class,'in'opposition,'the'second'will'further'focus'their'remarks'on'“popular”' pragmatism' and' realism' and' the' working' class’' practical' knowledge' about'immigrant' populations.' The' delinquency' of' minorities,' highlighted' through' biographical'experiences,'then'becomes'a'central'point'of'these'contributions.'

When'you'live'in'the'suburbs,'it'should'not'be'the'case'that'at'11pm,'you'see'eight4years'children'playing'ball'in'your'lobby,'young'people'at'2am,'sitting'on'the'hood'of'your' car' listening' to' loud'music,' you' can' understand' that' people' are' tired' of' the'situation,'and'they'move'from'these'neighborhoods'at'the'first'opportunity,'leaving'these'people'together.'Apart' from'that,'actually'my'doctor' is'of'Vietnamese'origin;'my'cardiologist'and'my'dentist'are'of'Algerian'origin.'One'doesn't'rule'out'the'other.'(“Hortefeux'declarations”'–'Figaro)'

This'message'immediately'highlights'the'author’s'proximity'to'the'behaviour'he'describes.'We'can'remark'that'the'reference'to'minorities'is'implicit'and'that'the'message,'implicitly'too,'addresses'and'criticizes'only'individual'behaviours,'not'the'collective.'


' 12'

The'argument' therefore' seeks' to' refute' the' link'between' racism'and' the'popular' class' as'

theorized'by'the'first'group.'Through'a'"rise'in'singularity"'('Boltanski'and'Thévenot:'1991)'

insisting' on' one’s' own' experience,' the' author' exposes' and' criticizes' certain' behaviours,'

without'subscribing'to'racist'opinions,'proved'by'their'other'relations'with'foreign'people','

"one' does' not' prevent' the' other."' Then,'more' broadly,' this' is' the' realism' of' the'working'

class' which' is' highlighted' and' placed' in' opposition' to' the' "blindness"' of' elites' or' other'

upper'classes,'which'is'denounced.'

We'would'like'that'our'French'elites'who'live'in'Paris'could'see'France'beyond'the'

beltway.'A' journalist'dropped:'“We'are'afraid'to'go'to'the'suburbs."'And'these'are'

the' same'people'who'give'us' lessons'about' life' in' the' suburbs'and' the'benefits'of'

multiculturalism...' If' these' elites' had' a' ride' in' Aulnay,' Villiers' le' Bel,' Bondy,' they'

would' see' the' reality' of'multiculturalism,' encouraged' by' the' local' elected' official.'

These'stores'where'we'do'not'speak'French,'decorated'in'the'colors'of'the'country'

"over'there”'(“Cameron'&'multiculturalism”'–'Liberation)'

Bobos'are'the'«'bourgeois'»'who'live'in'Paris'and'who'never'go'to'the'suburbs.'The'

bobos' think' that' the' French' people' is' the' Parisian.' (“Debate' about' Rom”' –'

Liberation)'

Particularly' in' this' last' comment,' the' blindness' of' elites,' illustrated'by' their' geographical'

distance'of'places'where'working'class'and'immigrant'populations'live,'is'accompanied'by'a'

denunciation'of'their'"preachy”'attitude.'Unlike'the'first'analysed'register,'the'second'tends'

to'theorize'the'link'between'racism'and'the'popular'class'in'highlighting'the'experience'of'

its'members,'who'attend'unacceptable'behaviour'from'individuals'belonging'to'minorities.'

At' the'same'time,'commentators'here'are'refuting'the' link'between'the'act'of'denouncing'

such' behaviour' and' subscription' to' racist' views.' From' there,' as' observed' in' the' first'

register,'we'witness'the'transformation'of'a'particular'and'objective'theorization'–'even'if'

the' definition' of' denounced' behaviour' is' subjective' –' to' the' creation' and' expression' of'

boundaries'between'popular'and'elite'classes.'Using'references'to'moral'criteria,'including'

realism'versus'blindness'to'trace'these'boundaries,'comments'also'address'the'question'of'

honesty.'

I'am'always'surprised'at'the'uses'of'this'loop'analysis'by'these'great'thinkers'who'

have' no' other' explanation' than' inner' natural' aversion' of' the' French,' which' is'

inherently' evil' ,' intolerant,' hateful,' racist' ,' [' ...]' [.' ..]' They' judge'unforgivablely' the'

assault' of' some'and' ignore'other' assaults,' force'French' [de' souche]' to' shut'up'by'

being'accused'of'being'racist'in'case'he'opens'his'mouth.'[...]'but'therefore'continue'

to' consider' the' French' as' you' do,' to' have' a' one4sided' view' of' things,' with' the'

cowardice'that'characterizes,'you'are'not''able'to'make'sense'of'things'except'from'

generalizing'(“Murder'in'Bobigny”'–'Liberation)'

If' indirect'reference'to'"popular'realism",'recalling'also'the'expression'of'Richard'Hoggart'

(1991),'is'used,'even'more'this'is'the'honesty'of'elites'or'at'least'their'ability'to'"make'part'

of' things”' that' is' criticized.'Contrary' to' the' first' register,' the' link'between'racism'and' the'

elite'is'then'defined'in'an'“inCorderCto”'(Schütz'2007:'74)','that'is'to'say,'used'to'disqualify'the'working'class.'Then'the'previous'comment'is'placing'the'honesty'and'frankness'of'the'

working'class' in'opposition'with' the'cowardice'of' the'dominant'classes.'We' thus'see' that'

the'comments'also'refer'to'a'set'of'moral'criteria,'which'draw'a'separation'between'popular'


' 13'

and'elite'class.'The'same'criteria'are'used'to'justify'the'link'4'minimized'4'between'racism'and'working'class,'underlying'its'particular'experience'of'the'phenomenon.'

This' first' part' of' the' analysis' illustrates' one' of' the' ways' in' which' references' to' social'position' overlap' in' ordinary' theorizations' of' racism.' In' a' sense,' the' comments' described'here'are'fighting'each'other'about'the'social'distribution'of'racism.'The'core'elements'of'the'controversy' are' about' the' ways' in' which' social' position' determines' the' use' of' racist'patterns.'Then,'both'registers'respond'to'each'other.'If'the'first'starts'from'a'link'between'racism'and' the'popular' class' as' taken' for' granted,' the' second' expresses' a' reasoning' that'tend' to' refute' 4' or' relativize' 4' this' assumption.' Particularly' visible' in' the' second' register,'arguments' are' also' related' to' the' negotiation' of' what' is' 4' and'what' is' not' 4' racism.' The'opposition'is'also'visible'in'the'criteria*of*relevance'(Schütz'2008,'2007)'used'by'both'camp'to'construct'the'explanation:'rationalism'/'empiricism,'because4of/in4order4to'motives,'rise'in'generality/singularity.'However,' in'both'cases,'the'analysis'shows'a'common'pattern'of'objectification' of' the' phenomenon' of' racism' through' the' reference' to' a' particular' social'position'using'socio4economic'and'moral'boundary'work.'

Denouncing'Racism'through'Social'“Figures”:'the'“Beauf”'and'the'“Bobo”'

While'ordinary'theorizations'identified'above'lead'individuals'to'(re)build'various'symbolic'boundaries'between'groups'4'especially'by'highlighting'moral'criteria'considered'legitimate'or' not' 4,' we' can' also' identify' constructions' that' directly' use' these' symbolic' boundaries'through' two' categorizations' 4' or' rather' assignments' 4' appearing' in' the' comments:' the'"beauf"7'and'the'"bobo8".'References'to'these'two'expressions'are'transversal'to'the'corpus.'As' for' the' categories' mentioned' above,' we' approach' them' as' ordinary' and' exogenous'categorizations,' therefore'not'analytical.'Our'objective'then' is' to' follow'the'ways' in'which'participants' build' and' use' these' categories.' First' of' all,' these' terms' appear' almost'exclusively' in' the' comments' criticizing' either' the' event' reported' by' the' article' or' other'comments.'They'are'used' to'be'more'accusatory'and'disqualifying' for' the'recipient.'More'broadly,' these' social' “types”' or' “denominations”' act' primarily' as' mechanisms' of' moral'denunciation.' A' first' example' could' be' found' in' the' two' following' comments,' using'respectively'the'figure'of'the'bobo'and'the'beauf:'

Why'“out'of'control”?'This'man'has'just'expressed,'in'an'exaggerated'way,'of'course,'what' the'majority' of' the'people' think!!' There' is' only' the'well4meaning'politicians'and'the'caviar'bobos,'privileged'in'their'comfortable'house'that'are'not'able'to'see'and' tell' the' truth' ...' It's' so' much' easier' to' do' idealism' and' stay' in' illusions!'(“Langlade'declarations”'4'Liberation)'How'to'say'...'your'words'and'your'common4sense'platitudes,'we'are'tired'of'that'...'your' bar' jokes' ...' your' beauf’s' principles...' you'make'me' puke…Incitement' to' hate'comes' from' you' and' all' sheeps' who' vote' for' anyone.' (“Debate' about' Burqa”' –'Figaro)'

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''7"Redneck,'un4cultured,'crude.'8'Bourgeois4bohemian'(“right4on”'liberal'professional).'


' 14'

These' two' contributions,' which' target' articles' about' a' "racist' declaration”' in' the' first'instance' and' another' comment' in' the' second,' give' an' interesting' view' over' the' moral'contents'of' the' two' figures.' 'The' "bobo”' is' characterized'by'a'high'socio4economic' status.'References' to' "caviar' "' and' "' comfortable' house' '' are' indeed' pointing' an' euphemistic'categorization'of'economic'capital.'It'also'has'a'strong'geographical'dimension,'city'centres'or' comfy'neighbourhood.'On' the' other' hand,' the' “beauf' "'was' originally' built' around' the'idea' of' ignorance' and' narrowness.' Unlike' the' bobo,' the' figure' of' the' beauf' looks' un4territorialized' as' one' of' the' few' contributions' on' the' subject' has' advanced' (Guénif' 4'Soulamas'2003:'65)'and' it' is'not'explicitly' related' to'a'particular'economic'condition.'We'can'already'see'the'proximity'between'the'contents'of'those'figures'and'the'various'moral'and' symbolic' criteria' described' in' the' previous' part.' However,' in' these' comments,'theorizations' of' racism' are' not' present' as' such:' it' is' the' use' of' these' figures' and' their'inherent' symbolic' boundaries' that' suggest' some' explanations' of' racism.' Moral' criteria'explicitly'arise'by'way'of'words'and'echo'to'those'observed'in'the'previous'part,'implicitly'supposing'a'link'between'racism'and'those'moral'criteria.'Regarding'the'bobo,'the'criteria'for'denouncement' refers' in'particular' to' the' lack'of'honesty'and'distance'or' ignorance'of'the'“real"'problems'and'thus'solutions:'

It'is'the'TRUTH'that'sneaky'bobos'do'not'like,'you'know'this'false'left'bourgeoisie,'benevolent'with'delinquents'and'far'away'from'real'concerns'of'the'working'class!'(“Trial'of'Fofana”'–'Figaro)'

Because'“maybe'it'is'not'a'problem”,'but'you'live'on'the'moon?'Have'you'just'seen'a'Roma' camp,' did' you' just'meet' some?' Obviously' not!' The' bobo’s' blablabla' is'well'protected'in'his'good'conscience'bunker...(“Debate'about'Rom”'–'Figaro)'

For'the'figure'of'the'beauf,'the'ideas'of'narrow4mindedness'and'lack'of'critical'thinking'are'addressed:'

I' have'not' talked' about' the' “middle' French”,' I' spoke' about' the' French'beauf.' The'middle'French'have'my'respect.'The'French'beauf,'means'one'who'is'unable'to'open'a' book' to' know' the'best'way' (French'or' not)' to' beat' his'wife,' I' have'nothing'but'contempt'for'him...'(“Front'national'tracts”'–'Figaro)'

When'I'see'the'quality'of'the'interventions,'on'this'forum'of'Liberation,'of'activists'and' other' scrapings' Frontists,' yes,' racist' speech' is' the' natural' expression' of' the'beauf'of'the'right....'They'unveil'through'Sarko.'Normal,'when'the'example'is'given'above...'(“Murder'in'Bobigny”'4'Liberation)'

The'proximity' is'clear'between'the'symbolic'boundaries'used'by' the'participants' through'the' uses' of' these' two' figures' and' those' described' in' the' previous' section.' We' can' thus'enumerate'the'most'used'categories'used'to'trace'boundaries:'realism'/'idealism,'honesty'/'dishonesty,'open'/'closed,'critical'/'non4'critical,'culture'/'ignorance.'Back'to'our'previous'remarks,' through' these' two' opposite' figures,' we' have' finally' found' the' same' criteria'defining'the'division'between'the'popular'and'the'elite'class.'However,'the'use'of'these'two'figures'seems'to'have'an'impact'on'the'social'denunciation'of'racism.'Indeed,'if'the'previous'described' theorizations' are' based' on' arguments' or' terms' 4' working' class' versus' Elites' 4'referring'to'more'institutional'and'stabilized'themes'and'configurations'4' the'general' idea'


' 15'

of' a' social' structure' and' domination' 4' the' use' of' these' two' figures,' and' their' symbolic'

contents,'allow'one'to'contest'some'institutionalized'schemes9.'In'this'way,'some'arguments'

seek' to' challenge' and' reverse' conventional' repertoires' and' social' categorizations.' For'

instance,'the'couple'reactionary'/'progressive'played'between'these'two'figures:'

It's' like' all' the'bobos'of' this' site'who' repeat,' just' to' give'us' some'bad' conscience,'

that'all' scavengers'are'black' ...'obsessed'with'skin'color' they'are' (moreover'a' few'

years'late'on'the'realities'of'things)'4'(“Langlade'declarations”'–'Liberation)'

Large'racist'and'xenophobic'badgers’'reaction'find'a'way'to'open'their'mouths,'but'

to'explain'that'this'is'not'a'bad'man,'understand'it!'[...]'Big'beauf'like'you'[...]'you're'

not' my' France,' you' are' a' residue,' which' if' the' country' eventually' turned' better,'

should'disappear'like'the'dinosaurs'(“Hortefeux'declarations”'–'Figaro)'

From'these'comments,'we'can'partially'see'the'role'these'two'figures'play' in'the'people’s'

ability' to' question' certain' taken4for4granted' conceptualizations.' This' is' the' case'with' the'

"reactionary"'position,'which'is'subsequently'attached'to'the'figure'of'bobo,'"non4realistic"'

and' “obsessed' by' skin' colour”,' and' that' of' beauf,' coupled' with' his' “stupidity"' and'

“archaism”.'

This'modelling'of'the'uses'and'components'of'both'the'beauf'and'bobo'figures'has'shown'

that'they'are'reproducing'metaphorically'and'/'or'in'a'euphemistic'way'the'elite'/'popular'

class' opposition.' However,' the' regular'work' of' categorization' and' boundary' seems' to' us'

more'"open”' through' these' figures'and' therefore' it'offers'greater'possibilities'of' criticism'

and'denunciation.'Thus,'from'these'figures'and'their'moral'and'symbolic'constituents,'just'

assigning' one' or' the' other' seems' to' be' enough' to' address' the' responsibility' of' one’s'

interlocutor' in' the'phenomenon'of' racism'and' this'without'having' to' explicitly' link' 4' and'

therefore'justify'–'the'accusation'with'a'specific'theorization.'

DISCUSSION:' RACISM,' ANTI4RACISM' AND' MORALITY' ALONG' THE' SOCIO'

CULTURAL'LINES'

The'study'of'the'processes'by'which'the'idea'of'social'class'is'mobilized'in'argumentations'

addressing' racism' appears' appropriate' to' discuss' the' symbolic' properties' of' these'

arguments.'First,'we'argue' that' the' transversal'nature'of' these'categorizations'among' the'

corpus' highlights' the' typical' dimension' of' the' events' related' by' on4line' articles.' For'

individuals,' the' events' described' in' the' articles' of' the' corpus' seem' to' concern' the'

phenomenon'of'racism'in'a'general'way'and'the'use'of'social'class'and' its'mechanisms'of'

objectification' appear' as' legitimate,' i.e.' “natural”,' registers' to' interpret' and' collectively'

discuss'this'issue.'This'idea'of'‘collective'frame’'indirectly'supports'Balibar's'remarks'about'

the'universalizing'tendency'of'racism,'which'ends'up'being'present,'or'at'least'perceived,'in'

more' and' more' situations' (Balibar' 2005).' The' importance' of' that' regular' use' of' social'

categorization'also'leads'us'to'argue'that'for'the'individual,'the'definition'and'denunciation'

of' racism'via' social' position' tends' to' be' taken' for' granted.'However,' different' arguments'

confront' their'modes' of' reasoning,' the' forms' and' contents' of' social' categorizations' used,'

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''9''To' take'a' crude'example,' it' is'possible' for' someone' to' say'he/she'do'not' like' “beauf”'but' it' is' clearly'more'

problematic'and'non4legitimate'to'publicly'say'that'he/she'don’t'like'popular'class.'


' 16'

and'their'structures'of'relevance'to'discuss'the'social'distribution'of'racism.'Therefore,'the'moral'and'exogenous'dimensions'of'the'categories'used'by'individuals'are'fundamental'to'understand'the'relationship'between'social'categorizations,'moral'boundaries'and'ordinary'anti4racism.'

Michèle'Lamont,'who'recently'elaborated' this'concept'of'boundaries' in' the'perspective'of'cultural' sociology,' has' also' questioned' the' link' between' racism' and' morality.' Indeed,'through'the'processes'by'which'moral'boundaries'maintain'the'barriers'between'black'and'white,' the' boundary' work' is' understood' as' a' core' element' of' racism.' In' this' article,' we'rather'sought'to'discuss'the'ways'in'which'morality'4'that'is'to'say,'the'moral'boundaries'4'interfere'with'the'categorizations'made'by'individuals'to'define'those'who'are'being'racist.'Although'different,'these'two'approaches'seem'like'complementary'means'by'which'we'can'embrace' a' little' more' precisely' the' phenomenon' of' racism' and' its' contemporaneous'implications.'The'processes'of'categorization'described'here'are'in'the'end'similar'to'those'described' by' Lamont:' discussing' the' issue' of' racism,' a' phenomenon' that' establishes'boundaries'4'including'moral'ones'4'between'persons'belonging'to'different'ethnic'groups,'individuals'rebuild'the'same'moral'boundaries'to'discuss'and'denounce'this'phenomenon.'Lamont' emphasized' the' role' of' symbolic' boundaries' within' racism' as' "criteria* used* to*evaluate* the"* other"* (in* racial* terms),* these* symbolic* boundaries* are* often* an* extension* of*those*used*to*assess*"Others"*in*general”.*Then,*"*racist*sentiments*are*often*seen*as*justified*as*based* on* universal* [criteria]* rather* than* perceived* as* an* expression* of* personal* prejudice' "'(' Lamont' 2000:' 86).' These' remarks' apply' to' the' repertoires' observed' in' this' analysis' to'some'extent.'In'the'ordinary'explanation'of'racism'as'an'attribute'of'the'working'class,'we'have'seen'for'example'that'the'theorization'is'built'from'arguments'on'the'social'structure'and' hierarchy' on' one' side,' and' economic' situation' on' the' other' side.' However,' the'arguments'are' then'moving' to' considerations'about' the'moral'boundaries'between'social'groups'in'using'criteria'such'as'lack'of'culture,'individualism'and'"narrow4mindedness"'to'define'the'working'class.'References'to'the'economic'situation'are'therefore'more'a'pretext'to' then' specify' the' "natural"' attributes' of' the'working' class' and' these' overlap'with'what'defines' racism.' In' general,' references' to' the' moral' boundaries' used' to' define' both' the'couples' popular' /' elite' class' and' beauf' /' bobo' come' to' objectify' and' thus' justify' some'overlap'between'social'position'and'the'responsibility'for'racism.'

The' other' point' raised' by' this' exploration' of' categorization' within' comments' is' its'exogenous' dimension.' Indeed,' arguments' refer' neither' to' “classes' in' themselves”' nor' to'“classes' for' themselves”,' but' rather' to' social' assignment' processes.' Mobilizing' ordinary'theories' and' "social' figures",' commentators' categorize' behaviours' or' people' from' their'social'origin,'never'including'themselves'in'either'of'these'categories.'Moreover,'the'social'distribution' of' racism' as' perceived' by' the' participants' is' largely' polarized' between' the'popular'and'elite'class,'and'respectively'between'beauf'and'bobo.'And'these'categories'are'always'used'by'assignation'and'not'by'self4definition.'This'trait'can'a*priori'be'explained'by'the' absence' of' face4' to4face' encounters:' In' this' space,' the' social' position' identity' is'exclusively'determined'from'a'virtual*social*identity'(Goffman'1979)'and'thus'represents'an'available'and'legitimate'resource'to'interpret,'categorize'and'objectify'the'position'of'others.'However,'commentators'using'this'assignation'process'never'let'appear'the'social'origin'of'their'own'point'of'view.'For'instance,'commentators'denouncing'racism'of'elites'through'a'process'of'a'rise'in'singularity,'i.e.'reporting'a'biographical'experience,'do'not'anchor'their'


' 17'

own'experiences' in'a'particular'constitutive'class.'Furthermore,' they'might'not'pertain' to'

the'popular'class'per*se.'Conversely,'their'arguments'aim'at'criticizing'the'elites,'understood'as'an'objective'class.'Facing'such'a'paradox,'we'argue'that'social'class,'in'its'ordinary'use'in'

relation'to'the'issue'of'racism,'has'as'its'main'function'to'qualify'and'evaluate'the'positions'

of'others'without'analysing'the'position'of'the'locutor.'In'other'words,'not'mentioning'their'

own'social'position,' commentators'place' themselves' in'a'position'of'exteriority' regarding'

the'social'structure,'assessing'in'the'same'way'the'apparent'objectivity'of'their'discourses.''

Back'on'Lamont's'remark'on'the'apparent'universality'of'criteria'used'to'define'the'others,'

the'exogenous'dimension'of'these'ordinary'references'to'social'class'also'allow'individual'

who'use'this'mechanism'to'lay'outside'of'any'socio4cultural'membership'and,'by'extension,'

of'any'relation'to'racism.'

Finally,' this' process' of' objectification,' resulting' from' the' expression' of'moral' boundaries'

and'the'uses'of'exogenous'categories,'makes'references'to'social'class'and'its'derivatives'a'

taken'for'granted'method'to'explain'and'denounce'racism.'The'processes'of'categorization'

identified'within' comments,' the'use'of' analogies'between'moral'boundaries'and'between'

class' and' moral' criteria' defining' racism,' allows' for' the' explanation' and' denouncing' of'

racism'and'those'responsible'for'it'but'also'to'prevent'one'from'being'accused.'Therefore,'

we'could'argue'a'criticism'of'a'so4called'ordinary'anti4racism'in'pointing'to'its'tendency'of'

“debunking”' (Mannheim).' Indeed,' in' the' ordinary' arguments' we' have' analysed,' we' can'observe'an'impossibility'in'thinking'of'racism'as'a'total'ideology'–'for'instance'through'the'

idea'of'structural'racism'(Bonilla'4Silva,'1997)'4'and,'conversely,'can'point'to'a'general'trend'

to' refer' to' the' phenomenon' through' individual' properties' 4' mainly' through' moral'

boundaries' work10.' Therefore,' the' "racist"' is' understood' as' an' individual,' prisoner' of' a'

specific' ideology' inherent' to' their'social'position.'Paradoxically,' this'essentialist'character'

of'the'social'categorisation'is'close'to'some'typical'processes'of'the'phenomenon'of'racism'

as'described'by'Memmi'(1994)'and'Guillaumin'(1972).'

In' other' words,' if' racism' is' the' construction' and' essentialization' of' moral' boundaries'

between'racially'defined'groups,'ordinary'anti4racism'also'seeks'to'build'moral'boundaries'

between'people'to'categorize'those'who'are'racist.'In'a'way,'discussions'on'racism'become'

a'place'for'social'demarcation11.'Through'such'processes,'comments'end'up'reiterating'the'

criteria'that'support'some'of'the'boundaries'that'define'racism.'Moreover,'even'though'the'

issue'of'exclusion'is'the'central'point'of'these'ordinary'controversies,'the'person'from'the'

minority,' i.e.' the' individual' who' is' actually' affected' by' racism,' seems' excluded' from'

categorizations'and'social'types'used'by'commentators.'In'fact,'within'comments,'he/she'is'

never' considered' either' as' a' member' of' working' or' elite' class' or' a' beauf' or' a' bobo.' In'

conclusion,'here'is'another'paradoxical'trend'of'French'ordinary'anti4racism,'constituted'in'

a'so4called'color4blind'context:'an'apparent'impossibility'for'oneself'to'categorize'members'

of'minorities'through'frames'other'than'their'supposed'cultural'or'racial'differences.'

'''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''''' '''''''''''''''''''''10'This'tendency'to'the'individualization'of'racism'has'also'been'identified'in'a'different'settings,'e.g.'the'social'

relations'at'the'desk'of'public'administration,'by'Mireille'Eberhard'(2010).'

11'Note' that' the' idea' of' social' distinction' here' is' understood' in' a' cultural' sociology' acceptation,' not' in' the'

Bourdieusian'one.'Indeed,'during'discussions'about'this'paper,'as'explained'in'introduction,'number'of'readers'

(due'to'a'sociologist’s'habitus?)'seem'to'focus'more'on'the'way'comments,'apparently'from'elite,'make'popular'

classes'responsible'of'the'racism'and'not'on'a'the'general'mirror'between'accusations.'


' 18'

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''BIOGRAPHY'

Matthieu' Mazzega' is' currently' a' PhD' candidate' in' sociology' at' University' of' Grenoble'(France)'and'he'is'also'an'ethnographer'at'Work*Practice*Technology'department'at''Xerox'Research' Center' Europe' (XRCE).' His' PhD,' expected' in' 2015,' is' addressing' the' ordinary'definitions'and'accusations'of'racism'within'on4line'discussions'on'French'Press'websites.'His'research'interests'include'citizenship,'(anti)4racism,'cultural'sociology,'phenomenology,'and'virtual'ethnography.'! !


' 20'

APPENDIX'A'COMMENTS’'REPARTITION'AMONG'TYPE/CASES/WEBSITES'

'

' #!of!comments!

Type! Liberation! Figaro! Total!

Violence* 1822' 852' 2674'

Trial'of'Fofana'(2010)' 843' 534' 1377'

Murder'in'Bobigny'(2010)' 979' 318' 1297'

Discourses* 1119' 1874' 2993'

Hortefeux'declarations'(2009)' 263' 1264' 1527'

Langlade'declarations'(2009)' 856' 610' 1466'

Debates* 1100' 1173' 2273'

Debate'about'burqa'(2010)' 549' 492' 1041'

Debate'about'the'Roma'(2010)' 551' 681' 1232'

European*issue* 1014' 746' 1760'

Merkel'and'multiculturalism'(2010)' 527' 406' 933'

Cameron'about'multiculturalism'(2011)' 487' 340' 827'

Far*right* 1121' 1431' 2552'

Tracts'of'FN'(2010)' 594' 560' 1154'

Nazi'gesture'from'FN'candidate'(2010)' 527' 871' 1398'

TOTAL' 6176' 6076' 12252'' '


' 21'

APPENDIX'B'CASES'AND'HYPERLINKS'

•'Murder'in'Bobigny''

http://www.liberation.fr/societe/01016283054said4noye4par4la4violence4et4la4haine''

http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite4france/2010/04/02/01016420100402ARTFIG007264mort4d4un4vigile4a4bobigny4les4circonstances4se4precisent4.php''

•'Trial'of'Youssouf'Fofana'

http://www.liberation.fr/societe/01015646884a4l4ouverture4de4son4proces4fofana4defie4les4juges'

http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite4france/2009/04/29/01016420090429ARTFIG006104fofana4provoque4les4juges4de4la4cour4d4assises4.php'

•'Langlade'declarations':''

http://www.lefigaro.fr/actualite4france/2009/08/14/01016420090814ARTFIG002904un4prefet4sanctionne4pour4injures4racistes4.php'

http://www.liberation.fr/societe/01015855024injures4racistes4le4prefet4suspendu4se4rebiffe'

•'Horetefeux'declarations':'

http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/2009/09/14/un4hortefeux4ca4va4plusieurs4il4y4a4des4problemes_1141'

http://www.lefigaro.fr/politique/2009/09/10/01002420090910ARTFIG005964polemique4apres4une4reflexion4equivoque4d4hortefeux4.php'

•'Debate'about'the'Roma'

http://www.liberation.fr/societe/01016483174sarkozy4accuse4de4stigmatiser4les4roms4et4les4gens4du4voyage''

http://www.lefigaro.fr/politique/2010/07/28/01002420100728ARTFIG005704roms4sarkozy4ne4plie4pas4face4a4la4gauche.php'

•'Debate'about'Burqa''

http://www.liberation.fr/societe/010122949204le4conseil4constitutionnel4valide4l4interdiction4du4voile4integral''

http://www.lefigaro.fr/politique/2010/04/21/01002420100421ARTFIG002524le4port4de4la4burqa4sera4totalement4interdit4.php''

•'Merkel'and'multiculturalism'


' 22'

http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2010/10/17/01003420101017ARTFIG001294angela4merkel4admet4l4echec4du4multiculturalisme4allemand.php'

http://www.liberation.fr/monde/010122967164pour4angela4merkel4le4modele4multiculturel4allemand4a4totalement4echoue''

•'Cameron'and'multiculturalism:'

http://www.liberation.fr/monde/010123182084david4cameron4reconnait4l4echec4du4multiculturalisme4en4grande4bretagne'

http://www.lefigaro.fr/international/2011/02/05/01003420110205ARTFIG005364cameron4denonce4l4echec4du4multiculturalisme.php'

•'Front'national'tracts:''

http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/010123230324affiches4non4a4l4islamisme4peine4de4prison4requise4contre4le4pen'

http://www.lefigaro.fr/politique/2010/02/25/01002420100225ARTFIG006654le4fn4provoque4en4copiant4une4affiche4suisse4antiminarets4.php'

•'Nazi'gesture'of'FN'candidate:''

http://www.lefigaro.fr/politique/2011/03/25/01002420110325ARTFIG005854un4candidat4fn4fait4le4salut4nazi4sur4des4photos.php'

http://www.liberation.fr/politiques/010123278134un4candidat4fn4a4grenoble4photographie4faisant4le4salut4nazi'

Defining and Denouncing Racism through Socio-Cultural Repertoires: Boundary-work, Morality and Ordinary Anti-Racism in France

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