Deductive Reasoning .

• Deductive Reasoning

https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Computer science Philosophy

1 Eden described them as the "rationalist paradigm" (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in

theoretical computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the "technocratic paradigm" (which might be found in engineering

approaches, most prominently in software engineering), and the "scientific paradigm"

(which approaches computer-related artifacts from the empirical perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches of

Artificial Intelligence).


Scientific method

1 Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions, by reasoning including

deductive reasoning. It might predict the outcome of an experiment in a

laboratory setting or the observation of a phenomenon in nature. The

prediction can also be statistical and deal only with probabilities.


Scientific method

1 The ancient Greek philosopher Thales in the 6th century BC refused to accept

supernatural, religious or mythological explanations for natural phenomena,

proclaiming that every event had a natural cause. The development of deductive

reasoning by Plato was an important step towards the scientific method. Empiricism

seems to have been formalized by Aristotle, who believed that universal truths could be

reached via induction.


Philosophy

1 Deductive reasoning is when, given certain statements (called premises), other statements (called conclusions)

are unavoidably implied


Evolutionary psychology - Modularity of mind

1 In contrast, some academics argue that it is unnecessary to posit the existence of highly domain specific modules, and, suggest that the neural anatomy of the brain supports a

model based on more domain general faculties and processes. Moreover, empirical support for the domain-specific theory stems

almost entirely from performance on variations of the Wason selection task which is extremely limited in scope as it only tests

one subtype of deductive reasoning.


Laissez-faire - Critiques

1 The British economist John Maynard Keynes condemned laissez-faire economic policy on

several occasions. In The End of Laissez-faire (1926), one of the most famous of his critiques, Keynes argues that the doctrines

of laissez-faire are dependent to some extent on improper deductive reasoning,

and, Keynes says, the question of whether a market solution or state intervention is

better must be determined on a case-by-case basis.


Mercantilism - Legacy

1 Smith rejected this, arguing that deductive reasoning from base

principles was the proper method to discover economic truths


Semantic Web - Semantic Web solutions

1 In this way, a machine can process knowledge itself, instead of text, using processes similar to human

deductive reasoning and inference, thereby obtaining more meaningful results and helping computers to perform automated information

gathering and research.


Semantic Web - Challenges

1 Inconsistency: These are logical contradictions which will inevitably arise

during the development of large ontologies, and when ontologies from separate sources

are combined. Deductive reasoning fails catastrophically when faced with

inconsistency, because "anything follows from a contradiction". Defeasible reasoning

and paraconsistent reasoning are two techniques which can be employed to deal

with inconsistency.


History of science - Science in the Greek world

1 Their development of deductive reasoning was of particular

importance and usefulness to later scientific inquiry


Empiricism - Pragmatism

1 Among Peirce's major contributions was to place inductive reasoning and

deductive reasoning in a complementary rather than

competitive mode, the latter of which had been the primary trend among

the educated since David Hume wrote a century before


Exploratory testing - Benefits and drawbacks

1 Another major benefit is that testers can use deductive reasoning based on the results of previous results to guide their future testing on the fly.

They do not have to complete a current series of scripted tests before

focusing in on or moving on to exploring a more target rich

environment. This also accelerates bug detection when used

intelligently.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Charles Sanders Peirce -

1 Influences radiate from points on parallel lines of inquiry in Aristotle's work, in such loci as: the

basic terminology of psychology in On the Soul; the founding description of sign relations in On

Interpretation; and the differentiation of inference into three modes that are commonly translated into English as Abductive reasoning|abduction, Deductive reasoning|deduction, and Inductive

reasoning|induction, in the Prior Analytics, as well as inference by analogy (called paradeigma by

Aristotle), which Peirce regarded as involving the other three modes.


Charles Sanders Peirce - Modes of inference

1 Borrowing a brace of concepts from Aristotle, Peirce examined three

basic modes of inference — abductive reasoning|abduction,

deductive reasoning|deduction, and Inductive reasoning|induction — in his critique of arguments or logic

proper


Abductive reasoning

1 In abductive reasoning, unlike in deductive reasoning, the premises do

not guarantee the conclusion. One can understand abductive reasoning

as inference to the best explanation.Sober, Elliot. Core

Questions in Philosophy,5th edition.


Abductive reasoning - Deduction, induction, and abduction

1 ; Deductive reasoning (deduction) : allows deriving b from a only where b is a formal logical consequence of a. In other words,

deduction derives the consequences of the assumed. Given the truth of the

assumptions, a valid deduction guarantees the truth of the conclusion. For example, given that all bachelors are unmarried males, and given that this person is a

bachelor, one can deduce that this person is an unmarried male.


Abductive reasoning - Deduction, induction, and abduction

1 Deductive reasoning and abductive reasoning thus differ in the direction

in which a rule like a entailment|entails b is used for inference


Foundationalism

1 Classically, foundationalism had posited infallibility of basic beliefs and deductive reasoning between beliefs—a strong foundationalism


Foundationalism - Classical foundationalism

1 Classical foundationalism maintains that basic beliefs must be

Infallibility#In philosophy|infallible if they are to justify nonbasic beliefs, and that only deductive reasoning

can be used to transfer justification from one belief to another.Lemos

2007, pp


Falsifiability - Economics

1 Some economists, such as those of the Austrian School, believe that macroeconomics

is Empiricism|empirically unfalsifiable and that thus the only appropriate means to

understand economic events is by deductive reasoning|logically studying Subjective theory

of value|the intentions of methodological individualism|individual economic decision-

makers, Praxeology#Austrian School approach|based on certain fundamental Action axiom|truths.Ludwig von Mises


Empirical evidence

1 In another sense, empirical evidence may be synonymous with the

outcome of an experiment. In this sense, an empirical result is a unified

confirmation. In this context, the term semi-empirical is used for

qualifying theoretical methods which use in part basic axioms or

postulated scientific laws and experimental results. Such methods are opposed to theoretical ab initio

methods which are purely Deductive reasoning|deductive and based on

first principles.


Formal reasoning - Subject-centred reason in early modern philosophy

1 In the late 17th century, through the 18th century, John Locke and David Hume

developed Descartes' line of thought still further. Hume took it in an especially

skepticism|skeptical direction, proposing that there could be no possibility of

deductive reasoning|deducing relationships of cause and effect, and therefore no

knowledge is based on reasoning alone, even if it seems otherwise.


Formal reasoning - Logical reasoning methods and argumentation

1 Looking at logical categorizations of different types of reasoning the

traditional main division made in philosophy is between deductive

reasoning and inductive reasoning. Logic|Formal logic has been described as the science of

deduction.Jeffrey, Richard. 1991. Formal logic: its scope and limits,

(3rd ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill:1. The study of inductive reasoning is

generally carried out within the field known as informal logic or critical

thinking.


Formal reasoning - Reason versus truth, and first principles

1 People use logic, deductive reasoning|deduction, and inductive

reasoning|induction, to reach conclusions they think are true


Computer sciences - Philosophy

1 Eden described them as the rationalist paradigm (which treats computer science as a branch of mathematics, which is prevalent in theoretical

computer science, and mainly employs deductive reasoning), the technocratic paradigm

(which might be found in engineering approaches, most prominently in software

engineering), and the scientific paradigm (which approaches computer-related artifacts from the

empirical perspective of natural sciences, identifiable in some branches of Artificial

Intelligence).


Aristotle - Aristotle's epistemology

1 In a certain sense, Aristotle's method is both Inductive reasoning|inductive and Deductive reasoning|deductive, while Plato's is essentially deductive from A priori and a posteriori|a priori

principles.


A priori and a posteriori

1 Although definitions and use of the terms have varied in the history of philosophy, they have consistently

labelled two separate epistemological notions. See also the

related distinctions: deductive reasoning|deductive/Inductive reasoning|inductive, Analytic-

synthetic distinction|analytic/synthetic,

Contingency (philosophy)|necessary/contingent.


Semantic Web - Semantic Web solutions

1 In this way, a machine can process knowledge itself, instead of text, using processes similar to human

deductive reasoning and inference, thereby obtaining more meaningful results and helping computers to perform automated information

gathering and research.


Semantic Web - Challenges

1 * Inconsistency: These are logical contradictions which will inevitably

arise during the development of large ontologies, and when

ontologies from separate sources are combined. Deductive reasoning fails

catastrophically when faced with inconsistency, because Principle of explosion|anything follows from a

contradiction. Defeasible reasoning and Paraconsistent logic|

paraconsistent reasoning are two techniques which can be employed

to deal with inconsistency.


Psychology of reasoning - Different sorts of reasoning

1 Psychologically, what are the relationships between inductive reasoning|induction, deductive reasoning|deduction, abductive

reasoning|abduction, and analogy?


Psychology of reasoning - Neuroscience of reasoning

1 * What are the neural correlates of reasoning, often investigated using

event-related potentials and functional magnetic resonance

imaging?See, e.g., Goel, V. (2005). Cognitive Neuroscience of Deductive

Reasoning. In Holyoak, K. J. Morrison, R. G. (ed.). The Cambridge

Handbook of Thinking and Reasoning, Cambridge University

Presshttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Confirmation bias - Individual differences

1 Studies have suggested that individual differences such as

deductive reasoning ability, ability to overcome belief bias,

epistemological understanding, and thinking disposition are a significant

predictors of the reasoning and generating arguments,

counterarguments, and rebuttals.


Statistics - Scope

1 Statistics is closely related to probability theory, with which it is often grouped. The

difference is, roughly, that probability theory starts from the given parameters of a total population to deductive reasoning|deduce

probabilities that pertain to samples. Statistical inference, however, moves in the opposite direction—inductive reasoning|inductively

inferring from samples to the parameters of a larger or total population. Statistics has many

ties to machine learning and data mining.


Myers-Briggs Type Indicator - T/F

1 The third continuum reflects the person’s decision preferences.

Thinking types desire objective truth and logical principles and are natural at deductive reasoning. Feeling types

place an emphasis on issues and causes that can be personalized

while they consider other people's motives.


List of thought processes

1 * Deductive reasoning


Reasoning - Deductive reasoning

1 A subdivision of Philosophy is Logic. Logic is the study of reasoning.

Deduction is a form of reasoning in which a conclusion follows

necessarily from the stated premises. Deduction is generally an inference by reasoning from the general to the

specific. A deduction is also the conclusion reached by a deductive

reasoning process. One classic example of deductive reasoning is that found in syllogisms like the

following:


Reasoning - Reason versus truth, and first principles

1 People use logic, deductive reasoning|deduction, and inductive

reasoning|induction, to reach conclusions they think are true


Analysis - Intelligence

1 Intelligence agency|Intelligence agencies may use heuristics,

inductive reasoning|inductive and deductive reasoning, social network analysis, dynamic network analysis,

Social network#Social network analysis|link analysis, and

brainstorming to sort through problems they face


Cambrian - Cambrian dating

1 The rationale for this precise dating is interesting in itself as an example

of Paleontology|paleological deductive reasoning


René Descartes - Philosophical work

1 In this manner, Descartes proceeds to construct a system of knowledge, discarding perception as unreliable

and instead admitting only deductive reasoning|deduction as a method


List of topics related to brain mapping - Higher level functioning

1 * Logic, Deductive reasoning, inductive

reasoning


Experiment - History

1 He disagreed with the method of answering scientific questions by

deductive reasoning|deduction and described it as follows: Having first

determined the question according to his will, man then resorts to

experience, and bending her to conformity with his placets, leads her

about like a captive in a procession.Bacon, Francis


Reverse engineering

1 The purpose is to Deductive reasoning|deduce design decisions from end products with little or no additional knowledge about the

procedures involved in the original production


Batman - Skills and abilities

1 He is efficient with observation skills, deductive reasoning, and forensic

investigation


Inductive reasoning

1 'Inductive reasoning '(as opposed to deductive reasoning|deductive reasoning) is reasoning in

which the premises seek to supply strong evidence for (not absolute proof of) the truth of the conclusion. While the conclusion of a

deductive argument is supposed to be certain, the truth of an inductive argument is supposed

to be probable, based upon the evidence given.Copi, I. M., Cohen, C., Flage, D. E.

(2007). Essentials of logic (2nd ed.). Upper Saddle River, NJ: Pearson Education, Inc.


Inductive reasoning - Description

1 Unlike deductive reasoning, it does not rely on universals holding over a

Closed world assumption|closed domain of discourse to draw

conclusions, so it can be applicable even in cases of Open world

assumption|epistemic uncertainty (technical issues with this may arise

however; for example, the Axioms_of_probability#Second_axiom|second axiom of probability is a

closed-world assumption).Bart Kosko, Fuzziness vs


Inductive reasoning - Inductive vs. deductive reasoning

1 Note that this definition of inductive reasoning excludes mathematical

induction, which is a form of deductive reasoning|deductive

reasoning.


Models of scientific inquiry - Classical model

1 The classical model of scientific inquiry derives from Aristotle, who

distinguished the forms of approximate and exact reasoning,

set out the threefold scheme of abductive reasoning|abductive,

deductive reasoning|deductive, and inductive reasoning|inductive

inference, and also treated the compound forms such as reasoning

by analogy.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Inquiry - Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm

1 Borrowing a brace of concepts from Aristotle, Peirce examined three

fundamental modes of reasoning that play a role in inquiry, commonly known as abductive reasoning|abductive, deductive reasoning|

deductive, and inductive reasoning|inductive inference.


Inquiry - Inquiry in the pragmatic paradigm

1 In rough terms, abductive reasoning|abduction is what we use to generate a

likely hypothesis or an initial diagnosis in response to a phenomenon of interest or a

problem of concern, while deductive reasoning|deduction is used to clarify, to

derive, and to explicate the relevant consequences of the selected hypothesis,

and inductive reasoning|induction is used to test the sum of the predictions against the

sum of the datahttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Pierre Duhem - Philosophy

1 In this work, he opposed Isaac Newton|Newton's statement that the

Philosophiae Naturalis Principia Mathematica|Principia's Newton's

Law of Gravity|law of universal mutual gravitation was Deductive

reasoning|deduced from 'phenomena', including Johannes

Kepler|Kepler's second and third laws


Misnomer - Other

1 * In logic, begging the question is a type of fallacy occurring in deductive reasoning, in which the proposition to

be Logical argument|proved is assumed implicitly or explicitly in one

of the premises. However, more recently, begs the question has been

used as a synonym for raises the question.


Semiotics - Some important semioticians

1 He regarded formal semiotic as logic per se and part of philosophy; as also

encompassing study of arguments (Abductive reasoning|hypothetical, Deductive reasoning|deductive, and Inductive reasoning|inductive) and

inquiry's methods including pragmatism; and as allied to but

distinct from logic's pure mathematics


Adolescence - Hypothetical and abstract thinking

1 One manifestation of the adolescent's increased facility with thinking about possibilities is the improvement of skill in deductive

reasoning, which leads to the development of hypothetical thinking


Applied philosophy - Logic

1 Deductive reasoning is when, given certain statements (called premises), other statements (called conclusions) are logical consequence|unavoidably

implied


Logic

1 Logic is often divided into three parts; inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning.


Logic - Deductive and inductive reasoning, and retroductive inference

1 Deductive reasoning concerns what follows necessarily from given premises (if a, then b)


Euler diagram - Example: Euler- to Venn-diagram and Karnaugh map

1 Given a proposed conclusion such as No X is a Z, one can test whether or

not it is a correct Deductive reasoning|deduction by use of a truth

table


Defeasible reasoning

1 * deductive reasoning|Deductive (from meaning postulate, axiom, or

contingent assertion): if p then q (i.e., q or not-p)


Defeasible reasoning - History

1 Though Aristotle differentiated the forms of reasoning that are valid for logic and philosophy from the more

general ones that are used in everyday life (see dialectics and

rhetoric), 20th century philosophers mainly concentrated on deductive

reasoning


Deductive reasoning

1 'Deductive reasoning', also 'deductive logic' or 'logical deduction' or, informally, 'Top-down and bottom-

up design|top-down logic',[http://www.socialresearchmeth

ods.net/kb/dedind.php Deduction Induction, Research Methods

Knowledge Base] is the process of reasoning from one or more general

argument (logic)|statements (premises) to reach a logically

certain conclusion.


Deductive reasoning

1 Deductive reasoning links premises with Consequent|conclusions. If all premises are true, the terms are

unambiguous|clear, and the rules of deductive logic are followed, then the

conclusion reached is logical necessity|necessarily true.


Deductive reasoning

1 Note, however, that the inductive reasoning mentioned here is not the

same as mathematical induction|induction used in mathematical

proofs – mathematical induction is actually a form of deductive

reasoning.


Deductive reasoning - Law of detachment

1 The law of detachment (also known as 'affirming the antecedent' and

'Modus ponens') is the first form of deductive reasoning. A single

Material conditional|conditional statement is made, and a hypothesis

(P) is stated. The conclusion (Q) is then deduced from the statement

and the hypothesis. The most basic form is listed below:



1 In deductive reasoning, we can conclude Q from P by using the law

of detachment.[http://www.jgsee.kmutt.

ac.th/exell/Logic/Logic12.htm#25 Guide to Logic] However, if the

conclusion (Q) is given instead of the hypothesis (P) then there is no

definitive conclusion.



1 #If an angle satisfies 90° A It is in High School, for example, that

students have an abrupt introduction to mathematical proofs– which rely

heavily on deductive reasoning.


Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Symbolic function substage

1 Unlike Deductive reasoning|deductive or inductive reasoning (general to specific, or specific to general), transductive reasoning

refers to when a child reasons from specific to specific, drawing a

relationship between two separate events that are otherwise unrelated


Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Concrete operational stage

1 In contrast, children struggle with deductive reasoning, which involves using a generalized principle in order

to try to predict the outcome of an event


Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Important processes

1 They use hypothetical-deductive reasoning, which means that they

develop hypotheses or best guesses, and systematically deduce, or

conclude, which is the best path to follow in solving the problem


Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Formal operational stage

1 The final stage is known as the 'formal operational stage'

(adolescence and into adulthood, roughly ages 11 to approximately 15-

20): Intelligence is demonstrated through the logical use of symbols

related to abstract concepts. At this point, the person is capable of

hypothetical and deductive reasoning. During this time, people

develop the ability to think about abstract concepts.


Piaget's theory of cognitive development - Formal operational stage

1 Piaget believed that hypothetical-deductive reasoning becomes important during the formal

operational stage. This type of thinking involves hypothetical

situations and is often required in science and mathematics.


Analogies

1 In a narrower sense, analogy is an inference or an Logical argument|argument from one particular to another particular, as opposed to deductive reasoning|deduction,

inductive reasoning|induction, and abductive reasoning|abduction,

where at least one of the premises or the conclusion is general


Analogies - Hidden deduction

1 The opposite move could also be tried, 'reducing analogy to

deduction'. It is argued that every analogical argument is partially

superfluous and can be rendered as a Deductive reasoning|deduction stating as a premise a (previously

hidden) universal proposition which applied both to the source and the target. In this view, instead of an

argument with the form:https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Truth - Ancient history

1 The ancient Greek language|Greek origins of the words true and truth have some consistent definitions throughout great spans of history that were often associated with

topics of logic, geometry, mathematics, Deductive reasoning|

deduction, inductive reasoning|induction, and natural philosophy.


Postcolonialism - Characteristics

1 Post-colonialism is the Critical theory|critical destabilization of the theories (intellectual and linguistic, social and economic) that support the ways of

Western thought — Deductive reasoning, the Rule of Law, and

Monotheism — by means of which colonialists “perceive”, “understand”,

and “know” the world


Heinrich Hertz

1 Hertz is distinguished from Maxwell and Hughes because he was the first to conclusively prove the existence

of electromagnetic waves by engineering instruments to transmit

and receive radio pulses using Scientific method|experimental

procedures that Deductive reasoning|ruled out all other known

wireless phenomena.Profhttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Geometry - History of geometry

1 He is credited with the first use of deductive reasoning applied to

geometry, by deriving four corollaries to Thales' Theorem


Praxeology

1 'Praxeology' is the Deductive reasoning|deductive study of human Action

(philosophy)|action based on the action axiom.http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard38.html The most common use of the

term is in connection with the Austrian School|Austrian School of

Economics,[http://www.lewrockwell.com/rothbard/rothbard38.html Praxeology: The

Methodology of Austrian Economics] as established by economist Ludwig von Mises.


Hypotheses - Uses

1 Any useful hypothesis will enable predictions by reasoning (including deductive reasoning)


Satanic ritual abuse - False memories

1 The group of psychiatrists who promoted these ideas, whom McHugh terms Mannerism|Mannerist Freudians, consistently followed a deductive reasoning|deductive approach to

diagnosis in which the theory and causal explanation of symptoms was assumed to be

childhood sexual abuse leading to dissociation, followed by a set of unproven and unreliable treatments with a strong confirmation bias

that inevitably produced the allegations and causes that were assumed to be there


Categorical quantum mechanics - Categorical quantum mechanics as logic

1 Categorical quantum mechanics can also be seen as a type theory|type theoretic

form of quantum logic that, in contrast to traditional quantum logic, supports formal

deductive reasoning.R. Duncan (2006) Types for Quantum Computing, DPhil.

thesis. University of Oxford. There exists [http://dream.inf.ed.ac.uk/projects/quanto

matic software] that supports and automates this reasoning.


Toy - Puzzles

1 Puzzles based on the process of inquiry and discovery to complete may be solved faster by those with

good Deductive reasoning|deduction skills


Insight

1 *the power of acute observation and Deductive reasoning|deduction,

penetration, discernment, perception called intellection or noesis


Puzzle

1 Solutions of puzzles often require the recognition of patterns and the creation of a particular kind of order. People with a high level of inductive reasoning aptitude may

be better at solving such puzzles than others. But puzzles based upon inquiry and Discovery (observation)|discovery may be

solved more easily by those with good Deductive reasoning|deduction skills. Deductive reasoning improves with

practice.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Gregory Bateson - Other terms used by Bateson

1 Used by Bateson to refer to a third scientific methodology (along with Inductive reasoning|induction and Deductive reasoning|deduction)

which was central to his own holistic and qualitative approach


Weak anthropic principle - Variants

1 'Strong anthropic principle (SAP)' (Carter): the Universe (and hence the Dimensionless physical constant|fundamental parameters

on which it depends) must be such as to admit the creation of observers within it at

some stage. To paraphrase Descartes, cogito ergo mundus talis est.The Latin tag (I think,

therefore the world is such [as it is]) makes it clear that must indicates a deductive

reasoning|deduction from the fact of our existence; the statement is thus a truism.


Thales

1 In mathematics, Thales used geometry to solve problems such as calculating the

height of pyramids and the distance of ships from the shore. He is credited with the first

use of deductive reasoning applied to geometry, by deriving four corollaries to

Thales' Theorem. As a result, he has been hailed as the first true mathematician and is

the first known individual to whom a mathematical discovery has been

attributed.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Grounded theory - Premise

1 Grounded theory method is a systematic generation of theory from

data that contains both Inductive reasoning|inductive and Deductive

reasoning|deductive thinking


Grounded theory - Strauss Corbin's approach

1 The research principle behind grounded theory method is neither inductive reasoning|inductive nor

deductive reasoning|deductive, but combines both in a way of abductive reasoning (coming from the works of

Charles Sanders Peirce)


Semiotic - Some important semioticians

1 He regarded formal semiotic as logic per se and part of philosophy; as also

encompassing study of arguments (Abductive reasoning|hypothetical, Deductive reasoning|deductive, and Inductive reasoning|inductive) and

inquiry's methods including pragmatism; and as allied to but

distinct from logic's pure mathematics


Fluid and crystallized intelligence

1 Fluid intelligence or fluid reasoning is the capacity to think logically and solve problems in novel situations, independent of acquired knowledge. It is the ability to analyze novel

problems, identify patterns and relationships that underpin these problems and the extrapolation of these using logic. It is

necessary for all logical problem solving, e.g., in scientific, mathematical, and technical problem solving. Fluid reasoning includes

inductive reasoning and deductive reasoning.


Vishishtadvaita - Pramanas

1 Inference refers to knowledge obtained

by deductive reasoning and

analysis.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Analytical feminism - Approach to debate

1 Analytical feminists traditionally use an approach of stylistic aggressiveness; they

use an proactive manner of arguing to advance their views and often use what

has been termed as the adversary method, referring to the outlook of philosophy

where the philosopher's job is to build upon general claims, create counterexamples to

others claims and use only deductive reasoning in their arguments.


Outline of human intelligence - Capacities of intelligence

1 *** Deductive reasoning


Theory of justification

1 If A makes a claim, and B then casts doubt on it, A's next move would

normally be to provide justification. Empiricism (the evidence of the

senses), authoritative testimony (the appeal to criteria and authority), and

logical Deductive reasoning|deduction are often involved in

justification.


Common sense - Epistemology: common sense versus claims of certainty

1 The alternative to induction, deductive reasoning, demanded a mathematical approach, starting

from simple and certain assumptions


Rhetoric - Aristotle

1 pathos (the use of emotional appeals to alter the audience's judgment through metaphor, amplification,

storytelling, or presenting the topic in a way that evokes strong emotions in the audience.); and, logos (the use of

reasoning, either Inductive reasoning|inductive or Deductive

reasoning|deductive, to construct an argument).


Rhetoric - Aristotle

1 Aristotle emphasized Deductive reasoning|enthymematic reasoning as central to the

process of rhetorical invention, though later rhetorical theorists placed much less emphasis on it. An enthymeme would follow today's form of a syllogism; however it would exclude either the major or minor premise. An enthymeme is persuasive because the audience is providing the missing premise. Because the audience is able to provide the missing premise, they are more likely to be persuaded by the message.


Polish philosophy - Scholasticism

1 Witelo's Perspectiva additionally made important contributions to psychology: it held that visual

perception|vision per se apprehends only colors and light while all else,

particularly the distance and size of objects, is established by means of

association (psychology)|association and unconscious deductive

reasoning|deduction.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Islamic philosophy - Avicennian logic

1 While Avicenna (980-1037) often relied on deductive reasoning in philosophy, he used a different

approach in medicine


Avicenna - Philosophy of science

1 Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper methodology for scientific inquiry and the question of How does one acquire the first

principles of a science? He asked how a scientist would arrive at the initial axioms or hypothesis|hypotheses of a deductive reasoning|deductive science without inferring them from some more

basic premises? He explains that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a relation

holds between the terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty


A.E. van Vogt - Post-war philosophy

1 He subsequently wrote three novels merging these overarching themes,

The World of Null-A and The Pawns of Null-A in the late 1940s, and Null-A Three in the early 1980s. Null-A, or non-Aristotelian logic, refers to the capacity for, and practice of, using

Intuition (knowledge)|intuitive, inductive reasoning (compare fuzzy

logic), rather than reflexive, or conditioned, deductive reasoning.


Rationalism - Background

1 Proponents of some varieties of rationalism argue that, starting with foundational basic principles, like the

axioms of geometry, one could deductive reasoning|deductively

derive the rest of all possible knowledge


Management Accounting Principles - Historical Timeline ― Establishing Management Accounting Principles

1 It added a philosophical foundation by using the basic Epistemology of Deductive reasoning and Inductive

reasoning and two of the four laws of logic to show that management accounting's two principles are

causality and analogy and that they are rooted in a bedrock of truth.


Management Accounting Principles - Principles

1 Principle of Analogy governs the user of management accounting

information's ability to apply the knowledge or insights gained from the causal relationships modeled (e.g., in planning, control, what-if

analysis) using inductive and deductive reasoning about past and

future outcomes for continuous optimization efforts.


G factor (psychometrics) - Mental energy or efficiency

1 However, he thought that the best indicators of g were those tests that reflected what he called the eduction

of relations and correlates, which included abilities such as Deductive

reasoning|deduction, Inductive reasoning|induction, problem solving,

grasping relationships, inferring rules, and spotting differences and

similaritieshttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Stoicism - Propositional logic

1 Bobzien also notes that Chrysippus wrote over 300 books on logic, on virtually any topic logic today concerns itself with, including speech act theory, sentence analysis, singular and plural expressions, types of Predicate (mathematical logic)|predicates, Indexicality|indexicals, Existential quantification|

existential propositions, Logical connective|sentential connectives, negations, Logical disjunction|disjunctions,

Conditional proof|conditionals, logical consequence, valid argument forms, Deductive reasoning|theory of deduction, propositional logic, modal logic, tense logic, epistemic logic, Supposition theory|logic of suppositions, Imperative logic|

logic of imperatives, ambiguity and logical paradoxes.[http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/logic-ancient/#St

o] Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy: Susanne Bobzien, Ancient Logic


Laissez faire - Critiques

1 In The End of Laissez-faire (1926), one of the most famous of his

critiques, Keynes argues that the doctrines of laissez-faire are

dependent to some extent on improper deductive reasoning, and,

Keynes says, the question of whether a market solution or state

intervention is better must be determined on a case-by-case

basis.Dostaler 2007, phttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

École nationale de l'aviation civile - New missions

1 The university then feels interest for future engineers to learn research methods: while the method of deductive reasoning, for a

long time favored by teachers in the classe préparatoire aux grandes écoles and

grandes écoles, shows its limitations, the method of inductive reasoning,

characteristic of research, appears increasingly better adapted to highly

scalable nature of functions performed by nowadays engineers


Psychometric Entrance Test - Verbal reasoning

1 Apart from vocabulary questions the verbal reasoning section contains

questions based on deductive reasoning|deductive and inductive

reasoning, analogy|analogies, complex multipart sentence

completion and reading comprehension.


Psychometric Entrance Test - Verbal reasoning

1 Reading comprehension and Inductive/Deductive reasoning items

were found to have a reasonable contribution, with the latter—

generally the most difficult type of item—having a notably high

predictive contribution regarding students of highly selective

undergraduate study programs


Chiropractors - Concept

1 Chiropractors based their work on deductive reasoning|deductions from

the profession's historical dogma|doctrine, which made chiropractic easy to distinguish from medicine


Scientific - Philosophical turn to human things

1 In contrast to modern science, Aristotle's influential emphasis was upon the theoretical steps of

deductive reasoning|deducing universal rules from raw data, and did not treat the gathering of

experience and raw data as part of science itself....[A] man knows a thing scientifically when he

possesses a conviction arrived at in a certain way, and when the first principles on which that

conviction rests are known to him with certainty—for unless he is more certain of his first principles

than of the conclusion drawn from them he will only possess the knowledge in question accidentally.—

Aristotle, Nicomachean Ethics '6' (Hhttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Debate

1 Debate is a broader form of argument than deductive reasoning,

which only examines whether a conclusion is a consequence of

premises, and factual argument, which only examines what is or isn't

the case, or rhetoric, which is a technique of persuasion


Classicism - General term

1 The court of Louis XIV was seen as the center of this form of classicism,

with its references to the gods of Mount Olympus|Olympus as a

symbolic prop for absolutism, its adherence to axiomatic and

deductive reasoning, and its love of order and predictability.


José Ortega y Gasset - Works

1 * La Idea de principio en Leibniz y la evolución de la teoría deductiva (The

Idea of the Beginning in Gottfried Wilhelm Leibniz|Leibniz and the

evolution of deductive reasoning|deductive theory, 1947, published

1958)


Problem of induction - David Hume

1 David Hume described the problem in An Enquiry concerning Human Understanding, §4, based on his epistemology|epistemological

framework. Here, reason refers to deductive reasoning and induction

refers to inductive reasoning.


Mathematically

1 Ziman proposed that science is public knowledge, and thus includes

mathematics.Ziman Mathematics shares much in common with many

fields in the physical sciences, notably the deductive reasoning|

exploration of the logical consequences of assumptions


Mathematics education - Objectives

1 * The teaching of selected areas of mathematics (such as Euclidean geometry) as an example of an

axiomatic system and a model of deductive reasoning


Mathematics education - Methods

1 * 'Classical education': the teaching of mathematics within the

quadrivium, part of the classical education curriculum of the Middle Ages, which was typically based on Euclid's Elements|Euclid's Elements taught as a paradigm of deductive

reasoning.


Eastern Orthodox - Bible

1 It is rational and reasoned, but is not arrived at only by means of deductive reasoning.


Monadic predicate calculus - Relationship with term logic

1 The need to go beyond monadic logic was not appreciated until the work

on the logic of Relation (mathematics)|relations, by Augustus

DeMorgan and Charles Sanders Peirce in the nineteenth century, and by Frege in his 1879 Begriffsschrifft. Prior to the work of these three men,

term logic (syllogistic logic) was widely considered adequate for

formal deductive reasoning.https://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Logical

1 Logic is often divided into three parts: inductive reasoning, abductive reasoning, and deductive reasoning.


World view - Philosophy

1 Mathematical logic showed that fundamental choices of axioms were essential in deductive reasoningNot just in the obvious sense that you

need axioms to prove anything, but the fact that for example the Axiom of choice and Axiom S5, although

widely regarded as correct, were in some sense optional


Falsifiable - Economics

1 Some economists, such as those of the Austrian School, believe that macroeconomics is Empiricism|empirically

unfalsifiable and that thus the only appropriate means to understand economic events is by deductive reasoning|

logically studying Subjective theory of value|the intentions of methodological individualism|individual economic

decision-makers, Praxeology#Austrian School approach|based on certain fundamental Action

axiom|truths.[http://www.econlib.org/library/Enc/AustrianSchoolofEconomics.html Austrian School of Economics: The Concise Encyclopedia of Economics | Library of Economics

and Liberty][http://plato.stanford.edu/entries/methodological-

individualism/ Methodological Individualism at the Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy ]Ludwig von Mises


Paranormal - Psychology

1 A Psychology|psychological study involving 174 members of the Society for Psychical Research

completed a delusional ideation questionnaire and a deductive

reasoning task


Psychological research - Experimental methods

1 The field of psychology commonly uses experimental methods in what

is known as experimental psychology. Researchers design

experiments to test specific Hypothesis|hypotheses (the

deductive reasoning|deductive approach), or to evaluate functional

relationships (the inductive reasoning|inductive approach).


House (TV series) - References to Sherlock Holmes

1 The resemblance is evident in House's reliance on deductive

reasoning and psychology, even where it might not seem obviously applicable, and his reluctance to

accept cases he finds uninteresting


Syllogism

1 A 'syllogism' (– syllogismos – conclusion, inference) is a kind of

logical argument that applies deductive reasoning to arrive at a Logical consequence|conclusion

based on two or more propositions that are asserted or assumed to be

true.


Syllogism - Early history

1 From the Middle Ages onwards, categorical syllogism and syllogism were usually used interchangeably. This article is concerned only with this traditional use. The syllogism

was at the core of traditional deductive reasoning, where facts are

determined by combining existing statements, in contrast to inductive

reasoning where facts are determined by repeated

observations.


Scientific Revolution - Empiricism

1 Bacon's philosophy of using an Induction (philosophy)|inductive approach to nature—to abandon

assumption and to attempt to simply observe with an open mind—was in

strict contrast with the earlier, Aristotelian approach of deductive

reasoning|deduction, by which analysis of known facts produced

further understandinghttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Arguments - Standard argument types

1 A Deductive reasoning|deductive argument asserts that the truth of

the conclusion is a logical consequence of the premises


Fallacy - Deductive fallacy

1 In philosophy, the term formal fallacy for 'logical fallacies' and defined formally as: a flaw in the structure of a deductive reasoning|deductive logical argument|argument which renders the

argument validity|invalid. The term is preferred as logic is the use of valid reasoning and a

fallacy is an argument that uses poor reasoning therefore the term 'logical fallacy' is an

oxymoron. However, the same terms are used in informal discourse to mean an argument

which is problematic for any reason.


Deductive system

1 Such a deductive system is intended to preserve deductive reasoning|deductive qualities in the formula (mathematical logic)|formulas that

are expressed in the system. Usually the quality we are concerned with is

truth as opposed to falsehood. However, other modal logic|modalities, such as Theory of

justification|justification or belief may be preserved instead.


Propositional formula - Usefulness of propositional formulas

1 'Analysis': In deductive reasoning, philosophers, rhetoricians and

mathematicians reduce arguments to formulas and then study them (usually with truth tables) for correctness (soundness). For

example: Is the following argument sound?


Rule of inference - Example: Hilbert systems for two propositional logics

1 There is however a distinction worth emphasizing even in this case: the first notation describes a Deductive

reasoning|deduction, that is an activity of passing from sentences to sentences, whereas A → B is simply a

formula made with a logical connective, implication in this case


Argumentation ethics

1 He describes his argument as a strictly logical, value-free

consequence of sound deductive reasoning


Axiomatic system - Axiomatization

1 In mathematics, 'axiomatization' is the formulation of a system of statements (i.e. axioms) that relate a number of primitive terms in order that a consistency proof|

consistent body of Boolean-valued function | propositions may be derived deductive

reasoning|deductively from these statements. Thereafter, the mathematical proof|proof of any proposition should be, in principle, traceable back to these axioms.


Freedom of choice - Measuring freedom of choice

1 The Axiomatic system|axiomatic-Deductive reasoning|deductive

approach has been used to address the issue of measuring the amount of freedom of choice (FoC) an individual enjoys. In a 1990 paper, Prasanta K.

Pattanaik and Yongsheng Xu presented three conditions that a

measurement of FoC should satisfy:


Natural deduction

1 In logic and proof theory, 'natural deduction' is a kind of proof calculus in which logical reasoning is expressed by inference rules closely

related to the natural way of reasoning. This contrasts with the

axiomatic systems which instead use axioms as much as possible to

express the logical laws of deductive reasoning.


Natural deduction - Motivation

1 Natural deduction grew out of a context of dissatisfaction with the

axiomatizations of deductive reasoning common to the systems of David Hilbert|Hilbert, Gottlob Frege|Frege, and Bertrand Russell|Russell

(see, e.g., Hilbert system)


Non-fiction - Major types of non-fiction

1 Some non-fiction may include elements of unverified supposition, Deductive reasoning|deduction, or

imagination for the purpose of smoothing out a narrative, but the inclusion of open falsehoods would discredit it as a work of non-fiction


Abduction (logic)

1 In abductive reasoning, unlike in deductive reasoning, the premises do not guarantee the

conclusion


Existence of God

1 Anselm, who formulated the first ontological argument; ibn Rushd|Ibn Rushd (Averroes) and Aquinas, who presented their own versions of

the cosmological argument (the Kalam argument|kalam argument and the Quinque viae|first way, respectively); Descartes, who

said that the existence of a benevolent God was logically necessary for the evidence of the

senses to be meaningful; and Immanuel Kant, who argued that the existence of God can be

Deductive reasoning|deduced from the existence of good and evil|good


Existence of God - Epistemology

1 Knowledge in the sense of understanding of a fact or truth can

be divided into a posteriori knowledge, based on experience or deductive reasoning|deduction (see

methodology), and a priori and a posteriori|a priori knowledge from

introspection, axioms, or self-evidence


Existence of God - Deductive arguments

1 Deductive arguments attempt to prove their conclusions by deductive reasoning from true

premises.


Sherlock Holmes - Holmesian deduction

1 Deductive reasoning allows Holmes to impressively reveal a stranger's

occupation, such as a Retired Sergeant of Marines in A Study in Scarlet; a former ship's carpenter

turned pawnbroker in The Red-Headed League; and a billiard-marker

and a retired artillery NCO in The Adventure of the Greek Interpreter


Abundance of the chemical elements - Abundance of elements in the Universe

1 The rest is made up of dark energy (72%) and dark matter (23%).

[http://map.gsfc.nasa.gov/universe/uni_matter.html WMAP- Content of the

Universe] The latter are forms of matter and energy believed to exist

on the basis of scientific theory|theory and observational Deductive

reasoning|deductions, but their details are still the subject of

researchhttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Evi (software) - Core technology premise

1 As these facts are stored in a form that the computer can understand,

the answer engine attempts to produce an answer to what it

comprehends to be the question by logically Deductive reasoning|

deducing from them


History of electromagnetic theory - End of the 19th century

1 Thomson's meaning of the word when they employ mathematics to

assist them, he wrote to find out the connections of known phenomena,

and by deductive reasoning, to obtain a knowledge of

electromagnetic phenomena


Eastern Orthodox Church - Bible

1 It is rational and reasoned, but is not arrived at only by means of deductive reasoning.


Islamic inheritance jurisprudence - Later development

1 Through the use of deductive reasoning (Qiyas), Muslim jurists added three additional heirs: the paternal grandfather, maternal

grandmother, and agnatic granddaughter


Alfred Gell - Thought

1 In this way for Gell works of art, in all cultures, are able to create shared common sense, especially through

reasoning with abductive reasoning|abduction, which already in Aristotle

is a less strong inference than 'inductive reasoning|induction and

deductive reasoning|deduction, more intuitive and concise


Opticks - Overview

1 Opticks is largely a record of experiments and the Deductive

reasoning|deductions made from them, covering a wide range of

topics in what was later to be known as physical optics


Opticks - Reception

1 Newtonian science became a central issue in the assault waged by the philosophes in the Age of Enlightenment against a natural

philosophy based on the authority of ancient Greek or Roman naturalists or on deductive reasoning from first principles

(the method advocated by French philosopher René Descartes), rather than

on the application of mathematical reasoning to experience or experiment


Gnosiology - Eastern Orthodox theology

1 memory (abstract knowledge derived from experimentation being

episteme or teachable knowledge), experience Inductive reasoning|

induction (or empiricism), Deductive reasoning|deduction (or rationalism),

scientific abductive reasoning, contemplation (theoria),

Metaphysics|metaphysical and instinctual or Intuition (knowledge)|

intuitive knowledgehttps://store.theartofservice.com/the-deductive-reasoning-toolkit.html

Cosmological argument - What caused the First Cause?

1 However, as to whether inductive or deductive reasoning is more valuable still remains a matter of debate, with

the general conclusion being that neither is prominent


Crime scene - Reconstruction

1 Crime reconstruction|Crime scene reconstruction is the use of scientific

methods, physical evidence, deductive reasoning, and their

interrelationships to gain explicit knowledge of the series of events that surround the commission of a

crime.


History of scientific method - Early methodology

1 Towards the middle of the 5th century BC, some of the components of a scientific tradition were already

heavily established, even before Plato, who was an important contributor to this emerging

tradition, thanks to the development of deductive reasoning, as

propounded by his student, Aristotle


History of scientific method - Aristotelian science and empiricism

1 It was therefore the work of the philosopher to demonstrate universal truths and to

discover their causes.See Nominalism#The problem of universals for several approaches to this goal. While induction was sufficient for

discovering universals by generalization, it did not succeed in identifying causes. The tool Aristotle used for this was deductive

reasoning in the form of syllogisms. Using the syllogism, scientists could infer new universal

truths from those already established.


History of scientific method - Avicenna

1 Avicenna discussed the issue of a proper procedure for scientific inquiry and the question of How does one acquire the first principles of a science? He asked how a scientist might find the

initial axioms or Hypothesis|hypotheses of a Deductive reasoning|deductive science without inferring them from some more basic premises?

He explained that the ideal situation is when one grasps that a relation holds between the

terms, which would allow for absolute, universal certainty


History of scientific method - Francis Bacon's eliminative induction

1 In Bacon's utopia|utopian novel, The New Atlantis, the ultimate role is given for deductive reasoning:


History of scientific method - Integrating deductive and inductive method

1 When it is not clear under which law of nature an effect or class of effect

belongs, we try to fill this gap by means of a guess. Such guesses

have been given the name conjectures or hypotheses. – Hans

Christian Ørsted(1811) First Introduction to General Physics ¶18.

Selected Scientific Works of Hans Christian Ørsted, ISBN 0-691-04334-5

p. 297 Deductive reasoning|deduction


History of scientific method - Charles Sanders Peirce

1 Peirce examined and articulated the three fundamental modes of

reasoning that play a role in scientific inquiry today, the processes that are

currently known as abductive reasoning|abductive, deductive

reasoning|deductive, and inductive reasoning|inductive inference


History of scientific method - Popper and Kuhn

1 Following Peirce and others, he argued that science would best

progress using deductive reasoning as its primary emphasis, known as

critical rationalism


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