Dedicated design and usability of a context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for developing receptive language skills: a case study

Int. J. Mobile Learning and Organisation, Vol. 9, No. 1, 2015 49

Copyright © 2015 Inderscience Enterprises Ltd.

Dedicated design and usability of a context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for developing receptive language skills: a case study

Gi-Zen Liu* Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan Email: [email protected] *Corresponding author

Fan-Ray Kuo Innovative Digital Content Research Center, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan Email: [email protected]

Yen-Ru Shi Department of Information and Learning Technology, National University of Tainan, Tainan City, Taiwan Email: [email protected]

Yi-Wen Chen Department of Foreign Languages and Literature, National Cheng Kung University, Tainan City, Taiwan Email: [email protected]

Abstract: There has been little informal learning research concerning the issues and learning factors for students who are engaged in receptive language skills (reading and listening) development in a Context-Aware Ubiquitous Language Learning (CAULL) context. Therefore, the researchers first developed a CAULL environment for students to learn the surroundings of Cheng Kung Lake with the use of the handheld PDA, the wireless internet, and RFID readers and tags. There were three sections in the learning content about Cheng Kung Lake, including the reading units, scenario-based conversations, and RFID-generated Q&A in the reading and audio clips. Further, there were 47 intermediate-proficiency-level graduate students participating in this study. The results indicate that most students benefited from using this kind of CAULL and improved their receptive language skills, as well as demonstrate students’ positive attitudes towards the implementation. Finally, design and development issues, affecting learning factors, problems and suggestions in such a CAULL environment were discussed.

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Keywords: human–computer interface; interactive learning environments; context-aware ubiquitous learning; language learning; informal learning.

Reference to this paper should be made as follows: Liu, G-Z., Kuo, F-R., Shi, Y-R. and Chen, Y-W. (2015) ‘Dedicated design and usability of a context-aware ubiquitous learning environment for developing receptive language skills: a case study’, Int. J. Mobile Learning and Organisation, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp.49–65.

Biographical notes: Gi-Zen Liu received his PhD degree in Instructional Systems Technology from Indiana University Bloomington, USA, in 2003. He is a Professor of Foreign Languages and Literature Department and Director of Foreign Language Center at National Cheng Kung University (NCKU) in Taiwan. He has published widely in academic journals such as Computers and Education, British Journal of Educational Technology, Educational Technology and Society, Computer Assisted Language Learning, Digital Creativity, Interactive Learning Environments, Journal of Science Education and Technology, English for Specific Purposes, Digital Scholarship in the Humanities, Research of Developmental Disabilities, Asia-Pacific Education Researcher, RELC Journal, etc.

Fan-Ray Kuo received his master’s degree at Institute of Interactive Multimedia, Middlesex University, England, in 2003 and received PhD in Information and Learning Technology, National University of Tainan, Taiwan. Currently, he serves as a Post-Doctoral Fellow in Innovative Digital Content Research Center (IDCRC), National Cheng Kung University. His research interests are in mobile learning, game-based learning, health self-management issues, etc.

Yen-Ru Shi is a PhD candidate in the Department of Information and Learning Technology at the National University of Tainan, Taiwan. Her current research is about Career Education Games, and she is interested in game-based learning and social network.

Yi-Wen Chen received her master’s degree in the Department of Foreign Languages and Literature at National Cheng Kung University, Taiwan.

1 Introduction

Lately Learning Technology (LT) has been applied in different learning fields such as science, engineering, mathematics, linguistic development and architecture design courses among others (see Chu et al., 2008; Hwang et al., 2009; Hwang and Tsai, 2011; Huang et al., 2012; Chiang et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2014b; Sung et al., 2014). The advance of LT facilitates a paradigm shift from e-learning to m-learning and from m-learning to u-learning based on the use of wireless communication and sensing technology (e.g. RFID readers and tags, QR codes, GPS), which are recognised as an adaptive learning and technology-based environment for learners (Liu and Hwang, 2010; Chen et al., 2014). To be more specific, it has been identified as Context-Aware Ubiquitous Learning (CAUL), which engages learners in seamless learning by providing the surrounding information according to their location at any time (Hwang et al., 2008; Liu and Hwang, 2010; Hung et al., 2014; Hwang et al., 2014).

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So far, studies on CAUL have indicated their enhancement of learning outcomes (Liu et al., 2014b), improvement of learners’ motivation (Ogata and Yano, 2004; Rogers et al., 2005; El-Bishouty et al., 2007; Chu et al., 2010), and positive perceptions and conception of the use of CAUL (Tsai et al., 2011). Nevertheless, most CAUL papers are dedicated to the formal learning aspects. Gradually, some recently published studies pay attention to informal learning conditions with the application of CAUL. Based on literature review, effective language learning and development not only rely on formal education but also on informal learning opportunities (Hwang and Wu, 2014; Liu et al., 2014). Therefore, this paper focuses on the system design of users’ learning receptive language skills with a mobile device and RFID readers and tags, and discusses students’ perceptions and experiences towards this kind of Context-Aware Ubiquitous Language Learning (CAULL) context as an informal learning channel. Further, it aims to raise the affecting factors of using CAULL which deserves practitioners’ attentions as well as provides some implications for future researchers.

2 Literature review

2.1 Context-aware ubiquitous learning

CAUL is an emerging field and approach of LT that fosters an interactive and dynamic environment, in which students are engaged in a series of designed activities in lessons or units with context-aware computing technology and sensors embedded in learning objects, with both real and virtual learning opportunities (Hwang et al., 2008; Chu et al., 2010; Liu and Hwang, 2010; Liu et al., 2014). According to some researchers such as Hwang, Tsai and Yang (2008), Liu and Hwang (2010), and Liu, Hwang, Kuo and Lee (2014), one of the primary characteristics of CAUL is that it allows students to access to the learning materials related to their locations through sensing the sensor tags with a mobile device (a Personal Digital Assistant (PDA), a mobile phone or a portable tablet). With the help of wireless communication, students can reach the learning content which has been embedded in the learning system with a comfortable learning pace. Evidently, the linkage between learner-centred and real world-situated learning has been clearly presented in the relevant research. For example, Jones and Jo (2004) developed an adaptive learning environment with the ubiquitous computing technology, allowing students to access to online education flexibly, calmly and seamlessly. In addition to the features mentioned above, CAUL is able to provide personalised and active supports to assist students in learning in the real world, which is important for both the learning attitude and learning effectiveness aspects (Hwang et al.; Hwang et al., 2014).

In recent years, some research reports (see Rogers et al., 2005; El-Bishouty et al., 2007; Chu et al., 2010; Hwang et al., 2014) have indicated the benefits of applying the CAUL approach, including the improvement of learning motivation and learning effectiveness. For example, El-Bishouty, Ogata and Yano (2007) developed a ubiquitous computing environment which was called PERKAM. This system provided students with personalised learning aids and helped them build their knowledge awareness map in a laboratory setting. The results showed that 100% of the participants agreed that the learning system was helpful to them, and 67% of them were willing to recommend the system to others. Moreover, the Ambient Wood Project (Rogers et al., 2005) encouraged children to explore and hypothesise about different habitats found in Woodland, and it

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was concluded that digital augmentation offers a promising way of enhancing the learning outcome in this kind of interactive processes, especially encouraging the dovetailing of exploring and reflecting on the experiences with both indoors and outdoors designed activities.

In the aspect of language learning in a CAULL environment, some studies have also been proposed and tested. For instance, Ogata and Yano (2004) proposed two systems, JAPELAS and TANGO, for language learning. The first system provides learners with the appropriate polite expressions based on learner’s situation and personal information. The second one can detect the objects around the learners using RFID tags, and can provide the learners with appropriate educational information in a classroom setting. In addition, Chen, Li and Chen (2007) proposed a personalised context-aware ubiquitous English vocabulary learning system. This system is able to accurately detect the positions of learners’ location up to 92%. This feature was proved effectively to improve learners’ performances and interests in learning English vocabulary. Likewise, Cui and Bull (2005) proposed a system, which was called TenseITS, to adapt the interaction to enhance the individual learner’s understanding while learning English with a handheld computer. Ogata and Yano (2003) proposed an English learning system called CLUE, in which the learners were encouraged to provide individual learning experiences in the knowledge awareness map. With this device, the relationship between the knowledge and the current and past interactions of learners was visualised and recorded. In this way, learning is highly enhanced and linked in the dynamic processes with mobile technology, and this fact is also the aim of the study.

To sum up, most CAUL research reports which were discussed above have been proven to help students be engaged in developing and cultivating learning skills, communicative competences and learning motivation, and to provide some guidelines for further studies. However, there has been no sufficient research concerning the investigation of the use of informal CAUL environments. To advance knowledge in this field, this study attempted to explore the issues and challenges of the design and implementation of CAULL in an informal learning environment. Accordingly, the research results also help the researchers propose some suggestions in relation to learners, educators and learning objects in such a learning environment.

3 The development of the CAULL system for the receptive language skills

In this study, the design of the CAULL system integrated the learning materials and LT closely. The well-organised design could help improve users’ learning performance and perceptions of the target knowledge and skills (Hwang et al., 2014; Liu et al., 2014). Therefore, these two elements are specifically described in the following.

3.1 LT of this study

In the u-learning environment, the LT designer usually uses a small mobile device to facilitate users’ learning, such as a PDA or a mobile phone. However, the screen size of a PDA is very different from that of a desktop computer. Therefore, the user interface design which is suitable for a desktop computer is not necessarily suitable for a PDA (Chang et al., 2006). According to Hourcade, Bederson and Druin (2003), the simple form of graphic design in Human–Computer Interaction (HCI) could be assisted in


English learning. This study aimed to conduct an English short reading activity by using mobile devices and sensors. Although the short reading was unable to be distributed in graphic form, the texts could be divided into several sections. In this study, every PDA image showed only two to four sentences, and this practice was found to be clear and readable. Although Chang, Li, Lee and Lai (2006) pointed out that both horizontal and vertical formats had no significant difference for students, when a PDA adopted a vertical format with more detailed content, the number of English words on every line was rather limited. Therefore, the u-learning system in this research adopted an interface with horizontal reading (see Figure 1), decreasing the reading content so that the users did not need to scroll down to read more texts, making the interface more convenient and user-friendly.

Figure 1 The interface of u-learning system (see online version for colours)

Furthermore, through the use of RFID, the ubiquitous learning system was able to gain information about the participants’ location and provided relevant English learning content for each particular assigned spot. The combination of the English learning content and the environment might help learners understand easily the meaning of the mini lessons and achieve the goal of English learning (see Figure 2).

3.2 Learning material and activities of this study

As to pedagogical design, on one hand, legitimate vocal pronunciation was embedded in the portable PDA with RFID technology, which enabled users to be engaged in the exploration of learning objects while they were conducting listening practices at the same time. On the other hand, the learning system also provided vocabulary explanation for learners to have reading practices smoothly. Besides, some studies (see Buchanan, 2000; Gardner et al., 2002) have pointed that formative evaluation, which is embedded in the learning activity, can facilitate students’ learning effectively. For this reason, in order to deepen the understanding of learners’ reading and listening comprehension, the researchers designed quizzes with conversations and cloze questions in the learning materials based on the theory of formative evaluation (Taras, 2005). That is, students were allowed to go to next learning unit only when they could answer the entire set of questions correctly. Otherwise, they had to repeat reading and listening practices until the

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requirements were fulfilled. More importantly, such a learning context could be conducted with technology; meanwhile, learning portfolios of learners could be looked into by educators for the improvement of teaching quality.

Figure 2 The combination of the learning content and the learning context (see online version for colours)

Users in the context and human-computer interaction

Sensor-embedded learning objects

Integration of context, learning objects, and users

The CAULL context

In general, the English learning content used in this study was consisted of conversations and short reading passages which were related to the activities and ecology around Cheng Kung Lake. There were three mini lessons in the learning activities (see Figure 3). To be more specific, the area for the learning activity of the first lesson was in the periphery of Cheng Kung Lake, while the second mini lesson was about the bridge of Cheng Kung Lake. In addition, the third mini lesson focused on the actual experiences of the learners and contains questions such as ‘what do you see in the lake?’ or ‘how many tall trees are there on the island?’ and so on. These questions encouraged the participants to pay more attention to learning with the environment. Besides, there was an informal test at the end of every lesson, including two multiple-choice questions and eight to ten cloze tests, and these were used to identify the learners’ understanding of the vocabulary learned from the mini lessons. Moreover, the learners had to complete each test in order to finish the lesson.


Figure 3 The integration of learning activities and learning context (see online version for colours)

� Around Cheng Kung Lake

� The Island

� The Cheng Kung Bridge

The learning activities include:

1. Dialogue-Based Listening

Comprehension

2. Reading Units

3. Exploration

4. Quizzes

4 The experimental design

The location used in this research was around Cheng Kung lake at a research-based university in Taiwan.

4.1 Participants

A total number of 47 university students took part in this research; 24 were in the experimental group, and 23 were in the control group. The experimental group used the ubiquitous English learning system, while the control group was learning online through the tradition e-learning system containing the same learning content. These students were non-English-majors and from various departments in the colleges of engineering, management, medicine, sciences and social sciences. They were voluntary to participate in the study.

4.2 Experiment procedure

In the process of the ubiquitous learning experiment, the participants used a PDA device to carry out the learning activities around Cheng Kung Lake. According to the guided directions from the ubiquitous learning system embedded in the PDA device, the participants needed to arrive at an assigned spot to start their English learning activity.

The learning period for both experimental and control groups were three weeks. The experimental group could freely operate their PDA devices and take part in the learning activities at any time over the period (see Figure 4). Meanwhile, the control group could access to their online learning activities at any time on the e-learning website (see Figure 5). The content for both systems were completely the same.

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Figure 4 The presentation of u-learning context of the experimental group

Figure 5 The presentation of e-learning context of the control group


4.3 Measuring tools

Due to the aims of the research, this experiment was designed to have a pre-test and post-test in order for the researchers to understand the participants’ learning outcomes. The tests were developed by two English teachers, who had five- and fifteen-year teaching experiences, respectively. The aim of the pre-test was to understand students’ background knowledge, while that of the post-test was to evaluate the learning efficiency towards the use of a CAULL. For the pre-test, there were 20 multiple-choice questions with a total of 100 points. Among the 20 multiple-choice questions in the pre-test, there were ten questions selected from the GEPT intermediate proficiency level, with the other ten questions from the post-test of mini lesson. For the post-test, there were 30 multiple-choice questions and the total was also 100 points. The content of the post-test consisted of the vocabulary and content mentioned in the three mini lessons. For having a better understanding about learners’ perceptions of using the system, the questionnaire in this research was designed based on the studies of some researchers (see El-Bishouty et al., 2007). The questionnaire contained 38 items using a five-point Likert scale covering six aspects of attitudes and intention for use, such as ‘the perception of learning activity’, ‘learning condition’, ‘system of mobile device design’, ‘interface of mobile device design’ and the overall learning attitude with PDA for environmental learning, including two scales, ‘learning attitude towards learning in the real world’ and ‘learning attitude towards informal English learning’. A higher score represents a better learning attitude towards the informal ubiquitous learning system.

The questionnaire used in this research was discussed with and revised by two professors in related academic fields. The reliability of the questionnaire was based on a SPSS statistical analysis to obtain the Cronbach’s α value. The Cronbach’s α value for the total scale table was 0.959, the sub-scale Cronbach’s α value for the perception of learning activity was α = 0.775, the subscale Cronbach’s α value for learning condition was α = 0.804, the mobile device system design was α = 0.798, the interface for the mobile device system is α = 0.816, the attitudes towards using PDA device for learning activities was α = 0.922 and the attitude for the informal English learning was α = 0.873. These results demonstrated the high credibility of this questionnaire.

Next, in order to further investigate participants’ conception towards the use of an English informal u-learning environment, participants, including educators and learners, were required to have an interview with the researchers to truly express their opinions after the informal learning activity. The qualitative data collected from the interview was analysed and described based on Stake’s (1995) qualitative analysis and they were shown later.

5 The learning efficacy with the CAULL system

Independent-sample t-test was used to examine if the participants and comparison groups were comparable at the beginning of the experiment with the pre-test. The result showed that the difference between the two groups was not significant (t = 0.94, p > 0.05), implying that the participants in two groups had similar ability before the experiment, as shown in Table 1. After the experiment, the post-test was conducted to examine the learning efficacy in the two groups with Analysis of Covariance (ANCOVA). ANCOVA was employed to analyse the post-test scores of the two groups by excluding the effect of

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the pre-test scores. Table 2 shows the ANCOVA result. The adjusted means of the experimental group and the control group were 85.30 and 79.21, respectively; moreover, the post-test scores of the two groups reached a significant level with F = 6.06 (p < 0.05) with η2 = 0.13, showing a large effect size (Cohen, 1988). The analyses implied that students who adopted an English u-learning environment had better learning efficacy than those who adopted an English e-learning environment.

Table 1 Independent-sample t test of pretest for two groups

Variance Group N SD Mean t-Value

Pretest Ctl. group 24 8.22 76.79

0.94 Exp. group 23 7.33 74.65

Table 2 ANCOVA of the post-test for two groups learning performance

Variance Group N Mean SD Adjusted mean SE F η2

Learning efficacy

Exp. 24 85.62 7.36 85.30 2.48 6.06* 0.13

Ctl. 23 78.09 12.01 79.21 2.48

Note: *p<.05.

6 The usability and perceptions of system

6.1 Questionnaire survey

Table 3 showed descriptive statistics of the questionnaire for informal English e- and u-learning. For the dimension of learning activity, means for the dimension is 4.046, implying that members in u-learning group presents highly satisfactory level for the learning activity. On the contrary, members in e-learning group present lower-level satisfactory for the learning activity.

Table 3 Descriptive statistic of dimension for English e- and u-learning learner’s attitude

Dimension e-learning group u-learning group

Dimensions of Learner’s attitude Mean SD Mean SD

Conception toward learning activity 3.319 .747 4.046 .511

Learning condition 3.363 .540 3.722 .552

Content design 3.490 .620 4.074 .575

Interface design 3.755 .607 3.685 .651

Attitude toward learning in the real world 3.400 .920 4.315 .669

Attitude toward informal English learning 3.615 .545 4.204 .602

Attitude for the entire learning environment 3.490 0.663 4.008 .506

For the dimension of learning condition of students, means for the dimension is 3.722, implying that members in u-learning group presents middle-level satisfactory for the learning status. Similarly, members in e-learning group also present lower-level


satisfactory for the learning status. It is found that learning system presented unstable connection while conducting a learning activity so that the moods of students were engulfed as well.

For the dimension of content design, means for the dimension was 4.074, implying that members in u-learning group presented a highly satisfactory level for the material content designed on the PDA. On the contrary, members in the e-learning group presented a lower-level satisfactory for this dimension.

For the dimension of PDA interface design, it was quite different from the previous results. The means for e-learning group in this dimension was 3.755, which was higher than means (m = 3.685) for the u-learning group. Moreover, 33% of participants thought that system took much time to connect to the internet so that it was easy to influence their learning motivation.

For both dimensions of attitudes towards learning in the real world and informal English learning, the means for these dimensions were 4.315 and 4.204, respectively. Students in the u-learning group all expressed higher consensus for learning English in the authentic world at an informal time than those in the e-learning group.

To sum up, the participants’ attitudes towards an informal English u-learning environment showed higher satisfaction to the entire learning environment than those in an English e-learning group. It was investigated from the interview with participants, howing that through informal English learning with portable devices and sensing technologies, it easily motivated them and allowed them to learn English at any time without pressure. Moreover, the design of the authentic learning activity could guide them easily to memorise the vocabulary and comprehend the meaning of the articles.

6.2 Interview survey

For the aspect of attitudes towards u-learning, the results were presented from both educators and learners perspectives to investigate a dual perception.

6.2.1 Interview with educators

Qualitative data was analysed and categorised into two sources, educators and learners. For the educators, four perspectives including ‘listening and reading ability’, ‘learning motivation’, ‘teaching quality’ and ‘combination with current instruction’ could be shared to benefit the development of informal English u-learning environment. Table 4 showed the two of English educators’ experiences after going through the entire leaning context.

As to the ‘listening and reading ability’ viewpoint, it was found that the two interviewed educators all highlighted the function of context-aware u-learning environment being useful in listening and reading abilities promotion. They believed that learners are able to increase listening and reading abilities with spoken English assistance.

As to the ‘ learning motivation’ viewpoint, EA and EB all expressed the same position; that is, knowledge from authentic learning environment had its intrinsic value and such a learning way made them feel free at the desired time.

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Table 4 Responses from two experienced educators

Educator EA Educator EB

Experience Four-to-five-year experience Over five-year experience

Responses about listening and reading ability promotion

No matter in the process of listening or reading articles, learners can learn English with spoken English and pictures of learning objects. Such a learning situation can promote learners’ listening and reading comprehension.

In the learning process, spoken English can enhance learners’ abilities. Moreover, annotations for vocabulary can help learners understand articles easier indeed.

Responses about learning motivation

In informal learning hours, such an innovative learning way makes learners feel easy without a tutor aside. Thus, it is easy to motivate them to learn English.

In comparison with classroom learning, guiding learners in an authentic world to learning English can certainly promote their motivation.

Responses about teaching quality

Such a learning approach can help educators assign homework as extended learning. It can facilitate learners’ learning performance.

Sure, such a learning way not only can achieve educators; teaching goal also promoted learners’ performances. That is, it can yield twice the result with half the effort.

Responses about combination with current instruction

For elementary school students, such a learning context is easy to combine with current instruction. Educators can assign additional activities to help students explore new vocabulary in an authentic world.

Certainly. Educators can first teach learners with prior knowledge and set up some questions. Then, learners can freely arrange time to find out the answer to those questions from the authentic learning environment with a self-regulated learning way.

As to the ‘ teaching quality’ viewpoint, two educators gave the same comment on such an innovative learning way. They expressed that it can be employed as an extended tool for further learning after the formal instruction session; that is, learners are able to gain deep understanding knowledge by inquiry-based activities in real world.

As to the ‘combination with current instruction’ viewpoint, the educators all had the same consensus for this perspective, implying that such a learning way can be conducted after the formal instruction session, and it is beneficial for exploring the target language knowledge and self-learning which those aim to learners’ achievement.

To sum up, the educators all agreed that CAULL environment not only can promote learning performance and motivation of students, but also achieve better teaching quality and goal than conventional instruction before.

6.2.2 Interview with learners

For the learners, four perspectives including ‘listening and reading ability’, ‘learning motivation’, ‘learning quality’ and ‘combination with current learning strategy’, were investigated to improve the learning environment. Table 5 showed students’ experiences after going through the entire leaning context.


Table 5 Responses from three experimental learners

Learner LA Learner LB Learner LC

Experience for learning English

Over 10 years Over 10 years Over 10 years

Responses about listening and reading ability promotion

As to listening practice, it is useful to me to prevent from noise around while conducting the learning activity.

As to reading practice, the system also offers prompts for vocabularies which learners never recognise. Those functions facilitate learners in learning English.

With spoken English assistance, learners can easily memorise the vocabularies and pay more attentions on listening and reading practice.

As to listening practice, I think it could be more effective without subtitles prompts.

As to reading practice, it is very useful to memorise the vocabularies and meaning of articles while conducting learning activity in real world.

Responses about learning motivation

Context aware u-learning connects learning to real life, which makes learning more meaningful.

Such an innovative learning way really impresses me while learning English in the authentic world.

Learning English with PDA is different from the past and current learning ways. It is more realistic and will promote learners’ motivation.

Reponses about learning quality

Sure, such a learning way makes learning more concrete and clear. I don’t have to imagine what I read any more.

It is good for memorising vocabulary when learning in real world.

Connect vocabularies to real learning objects will be easier to memorise them than to imagine.

Responses about combination with current learning strategy

Yes, they can combine together. They can complement each other to make English learning meaningful.

Certainly, educators can first complete classroom instruction, and then assign learners exploration activities at informal time. That will promote learners’ performance.

Yes, if educators can combine classroom learning with CAUL, the learning efficacy of students will become more effective.

As to the ‘ listening and reading ability’ viewpoint, LA, LB and LC all thought that listening and reading comprehension would be improved because the spoken English and vocabulary prompts were embedded in the learning context.

As to ‘learning motivation’ viewpoint, the students had the same for the perspective, implying that learning in the real world was more interesting to knowledge construction than that in the classroom or online learning.

As to ‘learning quality’ viewpoint, three students all thought that CAULL environment could fulfil their dreams of learning in the real world; moreover, such a learning way also could enhance the memory of vocabularies.

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Finally, for the ‘combination with current learning strategy’, students all consented that it is good for learners if CAULL can be applied after the conventional instruction. That is, CAULL can be regarded as complementary materials to assist learners at informal time.

To sum up, CAULL method can facilitate their listening comprehension and memorising English vocabulary in an authentic world; moreover, such an informal learning context allows learners to manage learning hours and progress by means of self-regulated learning.

7 Discussion and conclusions

To promote better effects of language learning, it is important to engage students in both formal and informal learning opportunities (Liu et al., 2014c). With the advance of technology and wireless network, technology-enhanced learning in any field of programs has been raised in recent years. In the aspect of language learning, CAULL refers to the support of English learning activity through context-aware sensing technology, handheld mobile devices and the wireless internet (Liu et al., 2014b). The study attempted to investigate the issues and challenges of context aware English ubiquitous learning in informal hours. In this study, the researchers designed a set of learning activities based on the literature, and integrated those activities into an e- or u-learning system, which echoes the advancement of what Bax (2003) advocated ‘integrated CALL’, which is the current trend and practice of most CALL cases. In order to examine the learning efficacy and learning perception, the researcher also designed an experiment. The findings showed that learning English with technologies not only promote learning motivation of students, but also easily achieve teaching goal. Moreover, CAULL even reduces learners’ anxiety during the learning process. It suggests that CAULL as an informal learning approach can make learning interesting and attribute to learners’ learning outcomes, once educators are able to integrate this innovative approach into the conventional instruction properly.

From the results, there are few points that worth of discussion. First of all, it was found students’ learning attitudes were examined relatively higher than the attitudes towards e-learning. In practice, learners’ attitude plays an important role on guiding and motivating learners’ learning willingness (Fatemi Jahromi and Salimi, 2013). For this reason, as an informal learning tool, a CAULL environment seems better for both learning attitudes and learning performances than the application of e-learning because of the contextual attributions.

Next, both educators and students expressed that assistances of sounds and graphics are useful for memorisation and comprehension so as to enhance their receptive skills. This conforms to the features of learning technology that provide various tools for teaching English such as graphic presentation for helping reading (Hourcade et al., 2003), podcasting for teaching listening strategies (Rahimi and Katal, 2012) and so on. However, the provision of authentic learning experiences in the real context is more effectively to carry out students’ intrinsic motivation in a CAULL environment without emphasising pressure than in an e-learning environment according to the participants.

Third, a CAULL system highly relies on the wireless internet (Liu and Hwang, 2010). In this study, it showed that not every place on campus allowed users to access to the reliable and stable internet even though the technicians had double-checked with


all the mobile devices and the wireless network equipment before the experiment. In this way, for the researchers or practitioners who would like to adopt internet-based learning activities, it suggests that the essential step before the research or learning procedure should be to check whether all the materials are placed in a position with a stable internet first.

Forth, making sure the preparation of training well is one of the significant elements when adopting learning technology (Fatemi Jahromi and Salimi, 2013). Otherwise, it will result in some negative effect on the participant’s learning perception. For example, in this study some participants felt confused about the operation of the learning system because this experiment was an informal learning project, different from traditional formal learning with immediate help from the technicians. In this way, problems with the devices had a significant effect on the learning perception.

Finally, from the results, it was found that the preference of interface presented on a desktop is higher than the preference of interface presented on a mobile device. Nevertheless, the pervasive application of mobile device is a trend for technology-based learning. With regard to this aspect, it suggests that visual analytics also needs more language learning scholar’s attention for the sake of design of technology-enhanced learning system (Green et al., 2008; Miksch and Santucci, 2011).

CAULL has been an emerging research trend so far (Liu et al., 2014b), and it has also become a new practical teaching and learning approach as long as it can effectively integrate the language learning tasks and objectives into the dynamic learning processes. To promote CAULL, two suggestions – based on the research results in this study – are as follows. First, the well-developed training for both learners and educational practitioners towards the successful operation of a CAULL system is needed. Second, future researchers may try other academic fields such as science education and scientific literacy (Liu et al., 2014a) and wiki-based collaborative writing practices (Stoddart et al., 2013) in order to explore the appropriate language learning material and design for CAULL.

Acknowledgements

The authors thanked the participants in the study and appreciated Chair Professor Gwo-Jen Hwang’s help and support on the research equipments of the study. This work was supported by the Ministry of Science and Technology in Taiwan (NSC 98-2631-S-024-001, NSC 102-2511-S-006-005-MY3 and NSC 102-2511-S-011-007-MY3).

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