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REVOLUTIONARY AESTHETICS IN NGUGI AND MUGOS THE TRIAL OF DEDAN
KIMATHI AND HUSSEINS
KINJEKETILE
BY
ARO-LAMBO, AISHAT OLABUSOLA
07/15CDO57
AN ESSAY SUBMITTED TO THE DEPARTMENT OF ENGLISH, FACULTY OF
ARTS, UNIVERSITY OF ILORIN, ILORIN
IN PARTIAL FULFILMENT OF THE REQUIREMENTS OF THE AWARD OF
THE DEGREE OF BACHELOR OF ARTS (HONS.) IN ENGLISH
MAY, 2011
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CERTIFICATION
This essay has been read and approved as meeting part of the
requirements for the
award of a Bachelor of Arts Degree (Hons) in the Department of
English of the Faculty
of Arts, University of Ilorin, Ilorin.
--------------------------- ------------------------ Dr. A.S.
Abubakar Date Supervisor ----------------------------
------------------------- Dr. S.T. Babatunde Date Head of
Department --------------------------- ------------------------
External Examiner Date
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DEDICATION This research work is dedicated to Almighty Allah,
the author and finisher, who
has been an inspiration and guardian to me throughout my life.
Glory be unto Him.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
I profoundly express my gratitude to God Almighty who gave me
the wonderful,
zeal and strength to undertake this research work, I am most
grateful to Him for the
successful completion of this work.
My gratitude also goes to my parents, Chief Alh. Bode Aro-lambo
and Hajia
Fatimo Aro-Lambo for their moral,spiritual and financial support
throughout my stay in
the University. May you live long enough to reap the fruits of
your labour.
To my wonderful and able supervisor, Dr. A.S. Abubakar, whose
constructive
criticism and guidance was a source of encouragement to me
throughout the duration of
this research work.
Dr. Femi Dunmade and Dr. M.S. Abdullahi-Idiagbon are also highly
appreciated
with their immense support, patience and wonderful advice. They
also, in-between
lectures and other schedules, managed to provide some useful
materials for my research
work.
I also use this opportunity to thank Mr. Sheu Akolade Idris, the
acting Registrar of
the Federal College of Freshwater Fisheries Technology, New
Bussa, for taking my
research work as one of his topmost priorities and in his
ability to patiently advice and
guide me. He was also able to do the perusal of my research
work. Thank you very much
for everything.
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I would also like to appreciate the support and accommodation of
Mr. and Mrs.
Olaniyan, who are always there for me especially when Im not
financially buoyant.
My heart felt gratitude also goes to my brother and his wife,
Mr. and Mrs. Wasiu
Aro-lambo, my sister and her husband, Mr. and Mrs.Akindeko, my
immediate younger
brother, Soliu, my youngest sibling, Akeem and my wonderful
niece, Rachel Akindeko.
Thank you all for always being there for me. May the Almighty
Allah bestow his favour
and mercies upon you all.
I am eternally indebted to my wonderful friends, Damilola
Fakunmoju, Akano
Temitope, Ayilara Kemi and Alli Jubril. I offer my sincere
gratitude to Engineer and Mrs.
Kehinde Popoola. I pray that we will all always be in support
and assistance of one
another for beneficial purposes in the years to come.
Finally, I would like to appreciate and express my unlimited
gratitude to a special
friend who supports advice and encourages me, Abraham Olatunji
Emmanuel (Man Jay),
who also helped in the typing of this project work. May God
bless you.
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ABSTRACT
The attempt in this study is to examine two notable East African
plays, The Trial of
Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile, against the background of
revolutionary aesthetics as a
means of socio-literary engagement. The work is comparative in
nature. The realist
dimensions in the realization of the theme of revolution are
carefully examined including
other major themes like oppression, exploitation, poverty, and
so on. Copious inferences
were drawn from the examination of the selected works. The study
is included on the
relevance of realist ideology in an aggressive pursuit of
freedom, through revolt, against
all human and material weapon of colonialism.
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TABLE OF CONTENTS
Title Page i Certification ii Dedication iii Acknowledgement iv
Abstract vi Table of Contents vii CHAPTER ONE 1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 The Struggle for Independence in Africa 4 1.3 Pre-Independent
Kenya 6 1.4 Pre-Independent Tanzania 7 1.5 Purpose of Study 10 1.6
Justification of Study 10 1.7 Scope and Limitation 11 1.8
Methodology 11 References 13
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CHAPTER TWO 2.1 Literature Review 14 2.2 Ideological
Perspectives on Ngugi Wa ThiongO and Micere Githea Mugo 14 2.3
Ideological Perspectives on Ebrahim Hussein 18 References 21
CHAPTER THREE 3.1 Introduction 23 3.2 Authorial Background of The
Playwrights 23 3.3 Analysis of The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and
Kinjeketile 25 3.4 Themes and Sub-themes in The Trial of Dedan
Kimathi and Kinjeketile 26 References 48 CHAPTER FOUR 4.1 Summary
49 4.2 Findings 50 4.3 Conclusion 51 Bibliography 52
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CHAPTER ONE
1.1 INTRODUCTION
All African nations except Ethiopia have experienced one
colonial administration,
or the other. It has grown in leaps from pre-colonial to
colonial and post-colonial. This
project is concerned with the use of revolutionary aesthetics
employed by Ngugi and
Mugo in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Husseins Kinjeketile to
conscientize and
creates awareness in the people asking them to rise up and
change their situation.
Dating largely from the 1930s, substantial bodies of literature
in many languages
exist reflecting revolutionary or otherwise extreme social
situation. Literature is written
to reflect the happenings in the contemporary society. Ngugi
(p.6) asserts that:
Literature is more than just a mechanistic reflection of the
social
reality it does shape our attitude to life, the daily struggles
within
a community, and the daily struggles within our individual souls
and
selves.
Literature is a reflection of life which records or imagines
actualities in or for the
society. It is employed as a weapon of change, i.e.,
revolution.
The term revolution was coined from the Latin word revolucio
which means a
turn around. The Encyclopedia Americana (p.445) defines
revolution as:
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a struggle, more or less successfully and completely
accomplished,
in which the ruling power of a country passes from one
economic
class or political group to another class or group.
Revolution is the most extreme but necessary social alternative
taken when other
options or avenues to achieve reforms have been exhausted. It is
meant to arouse the
consciousness of man with the revolutionary ideology. It also
helps man understand, master
his environment and fashion it to serve humanity better.
According to the Oxford Advanced
Learner Dictionary (p.1010), revolution is:
an attempt, by a large number of people, to change the
government
of a country , especially by violent action
Revolution can be described as a form of radical change in
economy, culture and
sociopolitical institutions as expressed in MerriamWebsters
dictionary (p.1) that
revolution is:
an activity or movement designed to effect fundamental change
in
the socio-economic situation of man
Revolution is however regarded as the choice between two
alternatives: humanization
and dehumanization. Of these two, mans choice is clear,
humanization. But the choice is
constantly negated through injustice, exploitation, oppression
and the violent of the
oppressors.
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However, there are other perspectives of revolution. Attempts
have been made by
African artists to evolve a revolutionary ideology that will
negate the evils of colonialism,
neo-colonialism, imperialism and capitalism. The strategic
weaponry and ideology in
imaginative creativity is the process used. Creativity is the
mother of aesthetics. Aesthetics,
according to Encyclopedia Britannica (p.277) is the philosophy
of the science of the
beauty of taste or the fine arts
The employment of aesthetics in African literature is as old as
the vocation itself.
From Soyinka to Ngugi, from Hussein to Armah, Africa literature
got permeated by beautiful
works of art imbued with exciting creativity. That the two
attributes of revolution and
aesthetics employed in the two texts and the idea that both are
revolutionary works that have
consciously engaged the medium of drama to covey their important
messages cannot be
over-emphasized. One can, therefore, see that revolutionary
aesthetics play a very great role
by ideally and realistically projecting the social structures
that influenced the actions of the
individuals.
Based on these postulations, committed writers are creating
awareness so that with
time masses who are conscientized can stand up for their right.
The main feature of art in
revolution is aimed at empowering the powerless (masses). The
aesthetics is in the ability to
create social awareness among the oppressed to rise up against
their oppressors.
Revolutionary aesthetics, therefore, demands among other things
the simplicity of expression,
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humility towards the culture of the people, collective
sensibility and the functionality of the
message expressed.
1.2 THE STRUGGLE FOR INDEPENDENCE IN AFRICA
In the early eighteen century, various representatives of
different European countries
were on a quest to acquire material wealth. They went about this
by pillaging the African
continent, but the continent was not developed enough in terms
of arms to be able to defend
itself. Thus, these Europeans found that they could easily
penetrate the countries and acquire
wealth. Africans resisted incursions into their territories at
first, but were subdued by the
Europeans due to the fact that their arms were more superior to
the Africans. Having had
absolute control of economic activities, the Europeans began to
fight and quarrel with each
other based on who should be in charge of the various areas.
This was what prompted
Bismarck, a German emperor to call a meeting which was held in
Berlin in 1884/1885, and
Africa was formally divided among the colonial powers to be
ruled.
The struggle for independence in Africa led to the use of
violence as a revolutionary
means to break free from the clutches of the white oppressors
who seized their lands and
made them landless yet making them laborers on their own lands.
Abubakar (p.19) asserts
that:
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Revolutions, especially politically influenced ones, predate
colonial
domination in Africa. Africans have not been known to accept
oppression and domination lying down. The agitation for changes
in
leadership and political systems gave rise to numerous
uprisings
which became popular in the region prior and during the
colonial
conquest.
Algeria, a North African country experienced French conquest in
1830. War was
declared against the colonial administration by the National
Liberation Front in 1954. In
1962, a cease-fire was agreed between the two groups and
independence was declared.
Nigeria, a West African country also attained independence in
1960 after Nigerians
who were educated in Europe and America formed various activist
groups like WASU (West
African Students Union) for the purpose of demanding for
self-rule. Other African countries
were not left behind in the maze for independence with the
exception of Ethiopia, which did
not experience any sort of colonial administration. However, our
focus is on two East African
nations, who struggled for independence via revolution, i.e.,
Kenya and Tanzania.
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1.3 PRE-INDEPENDENT KENYA
Kenya was one of the British colonies in Africa. Thousands of
British soldiers were
relocated by the British government to Kenya after the First and
Second World Wars.
Consequently, the natives were dispossessed of their lands and
ultimately reduced to low
wage labourers and this was one of the propelling factors
towards colonial struggle.
The struggle against colonialism was marked by several attempts
by the masses to
annihilate colonial rule. At first, the masses established
peaceful resistant organizations like
EAA (East African Association) led by Harry Thuku, KCA (Kikuyu
Central Association)
which was organized by the ilk of Jesse Kariuki, Joseph
Kingethe, James Beauttan and so on
which later metamorphosed into KAU (Kenyan African Union), under
the leadership of
Jomo Kenyatta, in 1946. However, these resistance organizations
were met with repudiation,
hostility and resistance from the imperialist circles. Some of
the leaders of these
organizations were arrested and exiled while some of the masses
of Kenya were also killed.
Due to the failure of this approach, a culture of violent
resistance soon developed
among the people resulting to the establishment of the Mau Mau
movement. The
movements first strategy was to educate, mobilize and unite as
many people as possible and
the swearing of oath was implemented. It was characterized by
pointing out clearly to the
Kenyan masses to road to armed struggle with Dedan Kimathi and
Stanley Mathenge as the
new leaders.
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Kimathi became one of the most prominent of the dominant leaders
of Mau Maus
land and freedom armies, with oversight function for the
Aberdare Forest. On the twentieth
of October, 1952, Jomo Kenyatta was arrested due to the
misguided notion that he was the
main organizer of the MauMau movement and a state of emergency
was declared after which
stringent measures were taken against the Kikuyu peasants.
Kimathi created the Kenya Defense council to co-ordinate
guerilla activities and
moved to the Nyandarua forest. The government took swift action
against the Mau Mau,
using repressive action. They began with the banning of KAU
because they did not realize
that the Mau Mau is an independent movement. The Operation Anvil
was also launched in
Nairobi with 25,000 soldiers and police. The peasants were
maltreated, killed or even
castrated. Consequently, food and drug supplies could not reach
the Mau Mau soldiers. The
capture and surrender of General China led to the downfall of
the Mau Mau. He confessed
and betrayed the Mau Mau by revealing their plans and secrets.
Kimathi was captured with
Wambui, his forest wife and was hanged on the 18th of February,
1957.
1.4 PRE-INDEPENDENT TANZANIA
The establishment of German colonial rule in Tanzania from 1880
came about
through the force of arms. The alternative option of peaceful
negotiation did not seem to hold
much prospects as non of the African communities was ready even
at the age of partition, to
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surrender their sovereignty to the Europeans without a struggle.
But even in the use of force,
the German colonialists met with communal rebuffs of a continual
nature.
Tanzania is divided into two regions: Tanganyika and Zanzibar.
The Africans of
Tanganyika were not organized, rather, they were organized in
small units, each independent
of and sometimes hostile to, the other. The collection of hut
tax was ruthlessly enforced.
Deprivation, discrimination, forced labour and flogging became
the order of the day. The
people submitted patiently because they were not united.
The Tanganyika Africans fought bravely in defense of their
age-long freedom, such
as the ambush of an advancing German expedition led by Emil Von
Zelewski by Mkwawa of
Uhehe and his people in 1891, another ambush was also organized
and executed by Meli
Moshi in 1892 which was marred by inter-ethnic rivalries which
marked the relations
between the Moshi and other Chagga states before the arrival of
the Germans, Isike of
Unyanyembe also fought bravely to resist the Germans advance in
1892. Only Mkwawa of
Uhehe tried to ally with Isike of Unyanyembe between 1891 and
1893. Albeit, some
ambitious people in almost all the communities used the Germans
for their selfish ends, the
situation was slightly different in Zanzibar. The colonial
rulers in Zanzibar were the Omani
Arabs from Muscat, and Seyyid Said headed the government.
The rigour with which tax was collected among the
hunger-stricken masses almost
led to a rebellion in 1899. By 1900, about twenty Chiefs were
executed in the Kilimanjaro
area alone and two thousand Africans were also killed for
resisting against the imposition of
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hut tax and this paved the way towards the uprising of the Maji
Maji revolt. The Maji Maji
revolt was the final attempt by the Tanganyikas old societies to
destroy the colonial order by
force. While the German masters inhuman treatment of the
tribally segmented people of
Tanganyika lasted, Kinjeketile Ngwale, a leader and priest of
the religious cult of Kolelo rose.
He lived in Ngarambe in what is now southern Tanzania. He was
believed to possess great
legendary powers relating to Hongo, the water god, in a
tributary of the River Rufiji. He
became a source of strength for the oppressed people. He also
became a rallying point for the
peoples revolt especially because of the belief that he
possessed the power to turn Germans
bullet to water. The legendary Maji holy water was administered
on the people and they
started a war campaign against their colonial masters. The
various tribes in the colony closed
ranks and forged a common alliance in preparation for
independent war against the Germans.
The Maji Maji revolt began in late July 1905. The discovery of
the failure of the Maji holy
water to provide humility from the bullets of the German troops
greatly demoralized them.
Kinjeketile was, however, captured and hanged at Mohoro.
The revolt did not bring about the much sought after
independence, but it rather laid
the foundations for independence. Tanganyika and Zanzibar
inspired by their nationalistic
interests amalgamated as one country under the name Tanzania
which gave them the much
needed strength. In respect to these African nations who
struggled for independence, two
notable plays from East Africa; The Trial of Dedan Kimathi by
Ngugi Wa ThiongO and
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Micere Githae Mugo (Kenya), and Ebrahim Husseins Kinjeketile
(Tanzania) have been
selected as case study.
1.5 PURPOSE OF STUDY
The study examines revolutionary features in Ngugi Wa ThiongO
and Micere Githae
Mugos The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Ebrahim Husseins
Kinjeketile respectively to show
the contribution of literature to the revolutionary struggle of
the people of East Africa
towards liberating themselves. The study does a comparative
analysis to assess the
differences in the approaches of the playwrights in the selected
text of study.
1.6 JUSTIFICATION OF STUDY
This research work is being embarked upon to exhibit the belief
that reality exists
independently of observers and then to draw up the lessons
embedded in the struggle, how
these lessons are utilized and the artists perception of the
whole business of struggle,
freedom and governance. It is a study of the differences between
the realist struggler for
freedom and the idealist artist who has an Utopian view of the
society.
Opinions have actually varied as to how successful Ngugi and
Mugo, on the one hand,
have employed revolutionary aesthetics in conveying the artists
feelings about the struggle
for freedom in Kenya, and how Ebrahim Hussein, on the other
hand, pursued the same cause
in Kinjeketile. The need to lend further clarification to the
polarity of opinions has, therefore,
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arisen and this work sets out to make such clarification. It is
hoped on the whole that the
present attempt will lead to enhanced readership of East African
literature in particular but
also all the literature that are embedded in revolutionary
ideologies that aim to salvage
humanity.
1.7 SCOPE AND LIMITATION
Revolution permeates the literature of all cultures- European,
Arabic, African etc.
Few examples have already been given in the earlier part of this
study. The scope of this
study, however, covers only the comparison revolutionary
aesthetics in two notable east
African works, namely, The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and
Kinjeketile regarding critical
analysis of the personae of the different protagonists, and how
the aesthetics and message of
revolution was vehicled across through these works.
The scope is however limited to only the afore-mentioned works,
yet, there is much
more to do on the same theme as projected by other African
writers. The future of
revolutionary aesthetics in literature certainly holds much work
and much excitement.
1.8 METHODOLOGY
The research work will be approached in line with the theory of
realism. The
approach concerns itself with finding out what produces change,
what makes things happen
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and forces change. It establishes relations on natural necessity
rather than the relations of
logical necessity and how closely associated it is with
historical materialism.
The research work will help us understand the concept of social
structures that
influence and are influenced by the action of individuals. It
will also project the movement
along the daily and life paths which leads to the accumulation
of mental experience that
shaped intentions and influenced movements which will be highly
supported by evidence
projected in the plays and actions, illuminated by reasons,
thereby ,encouraging us to put
ourselves in the same condition as experienced by these
individuals. The study proceeds to
compare the plays and draw the implications and relevance of the
revolutionary undertones
in the texts for the contemporary society.
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REFERENCES
1. Wa ThiongO, N. (1981). Writers in Politics. Nairobi:
Heinemann Educational
Books. p.6
2. Encyclopedia Americana International. (1979). America: Groila
Incorporated. Vol. 6.
p.445
3. Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2000). London: Oxford
University Press.
Vol.6 p.1010
4. (1980). http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/revolution.
p.1
5. Encyclopedia Britannica. (1926).London: EBC Ltd. Vol.1.
p.277.
6. Abubakar, A.S. (2002). Ideological Conflict in Niyi Osundares
The eye of Earth. In
V.A. Alabi (ed.), Alore, Ilorin Journal of Humanities, Faculty
of Arts,
University of Ilorin. Ilorin: University Press. Vol .12.
p.19.
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CHAPTER TWO
2.1 LITERATURE REVIEW
In the first chapter, we approached the topic of discussion by
examining the two
main terms revolution and aesthetics that are central to our
study. We intend to
review related literary materials by the playwrights that deals
with chosen topic. It will
also help us to understand the aspect of life of these
playwrights, their beliefs as regards
African literature and the changes their works have brought to
the society.
2.2 IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON NGUGI WA THIONGO AND MICERE
GITHAE MUGO
The Trial of Dedan Kimathi is a co-authored play by Ngugi Wa
ThiongO and
Micere Githae Mugo. The play dramatizes the events of the Mau
Mau emergence in
Kenya. The conflict in the play is not that of culture but it is
more of a fight for political
independence. The play is an attempt to restore the character of
Kimathi to his legitimate
place in the history of Kenya. Etherton (p.68) believes
that:
none has been written with such intense political commitment
to
make Kimathis life and death meaningful for modern Kenya, as
Mugo and Ngugis imaginative play.
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Attempts have been made by African artists to evolve a
revolutionary ideology
that will negate the evil of colonialism, neo-colonialism,
imperialism and capitalism. The
use of strategic weaponry and ideology in imaginative creativity
has, however, been
employed by the two playwrights in the play.
Through the historical character, Kimathi highlights
revolutionary commitment
and struggle in the face of the British colonial rule. Kimathi,
the revolutionary leader, is
the voice of the people in whom, symbolically, is summed up by
the unwitting aspiration
of the suppressed masses and their potential for revolutionary
action. Amuta (p.158)
asserts that:
The Trial of Dedan Kimathi explodes its specific historical
prediction to become a gigantic metaphor of the history of
the
struggle among the African people in the past and present as
well as
envisioning a future of triumph for patriotic and progressive
forces.
Critics believe that colonial factor is clearly depicted in
Ngugis work and that he
projects his works from the two sides of a coin (African and
Europeans). According to
Palmer (p.288):
Ngugis balanced viewpoint takes into account the weakness of
Africans themselves as well as the Europeans.
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The fact that Ngugi not only projects the situation of the
people of Kenya but also
profers solutions to these issues as a way of conscientizing the
Kenyan masses and
Africans as a whole can be seen and noted in all his works. It
is also established that his
works are influenced by the historical aspects of his country.
Onoge (p.21) therefore,
states that Ngugi is seen as:
a social realist who does not only testify to the
condition of social crises but goes on to offer a
precise diagnosis.
Ngugi devotes some of writing to the evils of tribalism which is
regarded as one
of the reasons that delayed Kenyas freedom. The message is clear
enough: tribalism and
other division really induced by competition for scrape of
colonial power can only be
over come by an armed struggle against the common enemy, forging
a new national
consciousness. His view about the evils of tribalism was
mentioned in the forward of this
novel, The Black Hermit. It states (p.viii) that Ngugi:
dwells on the evil of tribalism, the effect of cultural
alienation,
and the frustrated hopes of Uhuru or independence.
Ngugi as a writer is majorly concerned on issues of oppression
and he believes
that his works will bring about a positive change in the
society. He writes in a manner
that will appeal to the masses and hope that his writing will
gear the masses into action.
He is also concerned about the affects their day-to-day
activities and how the people
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reacts to the society. He believes that art should be used as an
instrument of uplifting and
enhancing the peoples conditions in the society. Cook and
Okenimpke (p.23) states that:
...there is a concern for the economic well being of the
masses
which could also develop into a vision of political power for
the
disadvantaged group.
Mugo is also believed to be the voice of the black race, the
underprivileged and
appears to speak for Africans and blacks, women and the
downtrodden.
Ngugi and Mugo have built a powerful and challenging play out of
the
circumstance surrounding the trial of one of the celebrated
leaders of the Mau Mau
revolutions. They sing the praises of the deeds of this hero of
the resistance who refused
to surrender to British imperialism. They write in a
revolutionary inclined manner
because the want to give their readers a proper account of the
situation in pre and post
independent Kenya by indicating the historical allusions of
their work. They use their
revolutionary ideology and potentials to sharpen social
awareness.
It is, however, imperative to note that the playwrights are both
Marxist inclined
and activities for freedom of the masses of Kenya and that it is
this spirit of liberation
that influence their works and qualifies them as Kenya literary
activist. These playwrights
try to project and proclaim the injustices done to the citizens
of Kenya, Kimathi and other
notable historical figures whose contributions before, during
and after colonialism are
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unforgettable even in the present day Kenya and also denouncing
the European
administration and dominance over the African of Kenya.
2.3 IDEOLOGICAL PERSPECTIVES ON EBRAHIM HUSSEIN
Ebrahim Hussein is the author of the play Kinjeketile. The play
deals with the
Maji Maji revolt in the then Tanganyika. It exposes the
deplorable state of affairs in
Tanzania especially Rufiji region as meted on the people by
their colonial musters. The
playwright uses Kinjeketile to appeal to the society intellect
in presenting moral problems
and reflecting social realities of life on stage (society).
Mbughuni (p.87) observes that:
Kinjeketile is one of Husseins best plays and it is indicative
of
this treatment of major themes and ideas that concerns him.
The playwright uses his play to confront the tradition of the
realist or socialist
of African historical tragedy. While writing, he attempt to
distinguish between art and
history as there are always attempt to mix their merits. He
rather suggests that the play
should be seen primarily as a work of art and the yard-stick for
saying it should be artistic.
He states (p.4) that:
I have had to mould my character to suit artistic needs
,borrowing
freely from the imagination when historical facts did not suit
my
purpose.
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Hussein is believed to skillfully fuse historical facts with
fiction to create a
masterpiece. Though playwrights are not bound by the sanctity of
historical data, the
playwright must make bold the attempt to falsify history. The
license to fabricate and
falsify is not to be misused. Dukore (p.142) asserts that:
When authors take their plots from history, they must be careful
not
to depart too widely from the records.
As a committed playwright, Husseins plays not only give
expression to the day-
to-day wishes and aspiration, but also promote east Africa
culture. Hussein, even at this
point, is concerned with a drama that is accessible to the
people in his immediate
environment and this is the factor that propels his writings in
Ki-Swahili. His choice of
language was determined by his desire to communicate with the
majority of his native
audience. Ebrahim Hussein does not use art as an escapist route,
rather, he uses it in a
realistic manner to tackle the problems of his immediate
environment in the society. Most
of his works are written first in Ki-Swahili. It has been
observed that:
although Ebrahim Hussein is just beginning his
career and the volume of his work is small in
comparison with important dramatist working in
Ki-Swahili.
Husseins ideology does not consciously aim at linking the people
with their root
but at ridding the society of historical superstitions as a
means of conscientizing the
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society and encouraging revolution. The crisis in Tanzania is
transformed into a
revolutionary struggle for liberation from the foreign yoke. The
perspective of tragedy of
the tragic hero, the archetype of tragic action and the
socio-cultural matrix helped to
probe into the tenets of the real historical circumstances and
crisis.
The playwright is also a Marxist writer with a revolutionary
ideology and he
posits that every great period is marked by transition, a
contradictory crisis and resolution,
destruction and rebirth and uses his plays to create awareness
which not only has a
cathartic effect but also exhibit to the audience, the past, the
present and the future.
All critics generally agree on the thematic similarities in the
works used for this
study. The two attributes of revolution and aesthetics employed
in the two works
selected, The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Kinjeketile, and the
idea that both are
revolutionary works that have consciously engaged the medium of
drama to covey their
important messages cannot be over-emphasized. One can see that
revolutionary aesthetics
play a very great role by ideally and realistically projecting
the social structures that
influenced the action of the individuals. The analysis shall
form the major engagement in
the subsequent chapter.
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29
REFERENCES
1. Etherton, M. (1980). Trends in African Theatre. In Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.)
African Literature Today. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Vol.10
2. Amuta, C, (ed.). (1989). Drama and Revolution. In The Theory
of African
Literature. London: Zed Books Ltd.
3. Palmer, E. (1979). The Growth of The African Novel. London:
Heinemann
Educational Books.
4. Onoge, O. (1986). The Crisis of Consciousness. In George
Gugelbeger (ed.)
Modern African Literature. Enugu: African World Press.
5. Wa ThiongO, N. (1968). The Black Hermit. Nairobi: Heinemann
Educational Books
6. Cook, D. and Micheal, O. (1983). Ngugi Wa ThiongO: An
Exploration of His
Writings. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
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30
7. Mbughuni, L.A. (1980). Old and New Drama from East Africa. In
Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.) African Literature Today. London:
Heinemann
Educational Books. Vol.8. p. 86.
8. Hussein, E. (1970). Kinjeketile. London: Oxford University
Press. p.v.
9. Dukore, B.F.(1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to
Grotowski. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc. p.142.
10. Mbughuni, L.A. (1980). Old and New Drama from East Africa.
In Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.) African Literature Today. London:
Heinemann
Educational Books. Vol.8. p. 87.
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31
CHAPTER THREE
3.1 INTRODUCTION
In this chapter, the authorial background of the playwrights
will be briefly
discussed and also how this background helps to inform their
works. However, the
comparative analysis of the texts and their ties to reality
through thematic approach shall
form the major focus. Attempts will be made to draw textual
reference from the texts at
relevant points in the course of analysis.
3.2 AUTHORIAL BACKGROUND OF THE PLAYWRIGHTS 3.2.1 NGUGI WA
THIONGO
Ngugi Wa ThiongO has established a remarkable reputation as a
novelist, as well
as a playwright. He was born in Limuru, near Nairobi: and he was
called James Ngugi
until March 1970, when he took the traditional name, Ngugi Wa
ThiongO. He was
influenced by the writing of Chinua Achebe which is liberal. He
grew up in Kenyas
colonial history which puts him in a good position to present to
the world the theatrical
presentation of his countrys experiences. Ngugi Wa ThiongO has
written a lot of artistic
works such as A Grain of Wheat, The Black Hermit, Weep Not Child
and so on.
Ngugi as a writer is committed to writing about the problem of
pre and post
colonial Africa and the effect the arrival of the European had
on the people Kenya. He
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castigates the Christian religion in his more radical works. In
his later works, he
conscientizes the masses by creating awareness in them to
liberate themselves. His works
are emotional and its major concern is on issues of arm
struggle, land, colonialism etc.
3.2.2 MICERE GITHAE MUGO
Micere Githae Mugo, is a writer, activist, and academic. She was
born Madeleine
Mugo in 1942, in Baricho, Kenya. At the time, her country was a
colonial possession of
the British Empire. Her adolescence was disturbed by the Mau Mau
uprising whose
armed revolt against the British colonial government and its
economic and social
discrimination brought about much blood shed in Kenya.
Mugo was also influenced by Chinua Achebe. Her works include:
The long
illness of Ex-chief Kuti and other Works, Vision of Africa etc.
She also believes in the
freedom of the masses of Kenya. Her writings were informed by
her background in
Kenya.
3.2.3 EBRAHIM HUSSEIN
Ebrahim Hussein is the best known Swahili playwright, and
Tanzanias most
complex literary personality. He is known first and foremost as
a dramatist, he is also a
theorist whose dissertation on the theatre in Tanzania remains
the standard reference
work.
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33
As it is the practice with most east African authors, his works
deal with class
struggle, oppression and liberation. His works are written first
in Ki-Swahili. His
published plays include Alkioma (He Got It), Mashetani (Devil)
and so on. Husseins
plays are a corpus of theatrical material with great
significances to an understanding of
Tanzanias political and social development in relation to the
Swahili / Islamic coastal
culture of which he is a part.
3.3 ANALYSIS OF THE TRIAL OF DEDAN KIMATHI AND KINJEKETILE
The Trial Dedan Kimathi can be seen as an artistic recreation of
the heroic role that
Dedan Kimathi played in the liberation of his people. Dedan
Kimathi, a historical figure
and the major character in the play is a symbol of relentless
struggle and unyielding force.
The playwrights prop into history by re-asserting Kimathis value
so that the present
generation of masses can continue with the struggle for
liberation.
The play is divided into four units, namely, the opening
(prologue), the first
movement, the second movement and the third movement. The
strategy employed makes
the play relevant to contemporary revolutionary movements. The
opening serves as an
explanatory presentation of the back ground to the Black mans
history, the re-enactment
of the onset of slave trade and to the trial and tribulation of
Kimathi and other members
of the revolutionary movement. It also deals with the
instigation of the Mau Mau
revolution, the operations of the colonial government against
the revolutionaries and the
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34
arrest and detention of Kimathi at Nyeri. Every subsequent
action, therefore move
towards the trial of Kimathi at Nyeri.
Kinjeketile portrays the revolutionary rebellion against the
German colonial rule.
Kinjeketile, another historical figure and major character,
through Maji symbolizes a
new dawn of unity and resistance. The play attempts to recapture
the problem of an
oppressor people faced with overwhelming dominance tinged with
brutality by their
colonial oppressors. Hussein has created this uprising in his
play Kinjeketile.
The play is segmented into Acts and scenes. The play reveals the
abject situation
that characterizes the lives of the legitimate owners of the
Tanganyika land, under the
German rule. The beginning serves as an introduction to the
struggle of survival against
all odds, thereby, laying the foundation for the subsequent
actions.
3.4 THEMES AND SUB-THEMES IN THE TRIAL OF DEDAN KIMATHI AND
KINJEKETILE
The dominant thematic pre-occupations used in Ngugi Wa ThiongO
and Micere
Githae Mugos The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and Ebrahim Husseins
Kinjeketile that
projects the realities perceived in both plays as regards the
colonial administration shall
be the major focus in this section.
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35
3.4.1 POVERTY AND DEHUMANIZATION
In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, the harsh realities of poverty
and dehumanization
brought upon by the arrival of the colonial government. The
result of poverty is clearly
portrayed between Boy and the Girl who fought for leftover under
the tourists table.
They roam the street together or hang around big hotels like New
Stanley, engaging in
odd jobs as baggage carriers and sometime will act crippled or
blind and deaf. The fight
between them ensued because the Girl ran away with ten shillings
given to them by a
white tourist. They ran into Woman who tries to settle their
quarrel. The hazard an
average citizen of Kenya goes through by trying to survive is
presented in by Boy who
recounts his experience to Woman saying:
Boy: We scourged into every dustbinwe would act crippled
or blind and deaf. They would give us money (p.16)
This statement clearly shows that poverty has eaten deep into
the society during
the colonial administration as it was in reality. Most of the
people of Kenya were
relocated to other parts of the state during the Mau Mau
revolution due to the fact that the
colonial government was suspicious of everyone and some villages
were already tagged
as villages dominated by Mau Mau supporters. The level of
dehumanization and
degradation is also proclaimed by the Boy
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36
Boy: Aaa Nairobi. I have fought with dogs and cats in the
rubbish bins for foodan Indianwould throw away
the rotten bread. We all ran for it. (p.19)
Here, the competitive race for scraps of food left in the
dustbin is projected. Most of the
people of Kenya after relocation find it very difficult to eat
daily especially when the
citizens involved are a family.
The unspeakable torture meted out to Kimathi after incarceration
is also another
form of dehumanization all because he refused to betray his
fellow guerilla fighters.
Kimathi, in the first trial, stands against Shaw Henderson, a
white man and enemy-friend
of the African people, in his argument by stating clearly
that:
Kimathi: With the British, we have been Loser all the
wayyesbut this is a new era. This is a new war. We
have fought your wars for you, against the Germans,
Japanese, Italians. This time we shall bleed for our soul,
for our freedom, until you let go. (p.34)
This in reality is likened to the fact that Africans have always
fought the white
mans war. Many of Africans able bodied men have been shipped
across the continent
to fight for the white men yet, even after their return to their
hometown, they are rendered
useless because most of them return with missing limbs.
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37
Shaw Henderson, who acted as the judge and prosecutor of
Kimathi, finds solace
in brutal measure slaps and physical torture which are
faithfully carried out by Waitina,
a white man, and Gakunia/Gatotia, a black man, whenever the
opportunity arises and
things are not going the way he wants them to. This can be seen
in the fourth and final
stage of trial when Henderson tries to break Kimathi by
torturing him, proclaims that:
Henderson: Right askari! Remove him to the torture chamber
(and at Gatotia) give him intensive treatment.
(p.56)
Henderson symbolizes the colonial government in reality that
tends to use force
and torture on people during the Mau Mau revolution.
In Kinjeketile, poverty and dehumanization is also portrayed in
the play. The poor
social existence of the society is highlighted in Bibi Kitundas
statement:
Bibi Kitunda: And all that work for nothing. Our men work a
lot, but they get nothing We dont even have
food in the house I have looked for
rootssome of these roots are most poisonous.
Bibi Bobalis son died from eating some. (p.1)
Hunger and poverty pervades the situation of the people and they
die of starvation
or from eating poor and sometimes poisonous food. The state of
hunger of the people is
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portrayed in the play as they swallow their pride and beg for
food. This can be seen in
the dialogue between Bibi Kitunda and Bibi Kinjeketile.
Bibi Kitunda: (intimately) But my dear, dont you have some
spinach or even a bit of cassava you can spare me ?
please
Bibi Kinjeketile: Honestly, I dont have any, my
friend (p.2).
This indicates that poverty and hunger have become the order of
the day ever
since the arrival of the German colonial government.
Human degradation and dehumanization are also exhibited in this
play. Kitunda is
being supported on his way home from the white mans farm as a
result of the whipping
he got on the farm for daring to stretch his back a little while
working. This can be seen
in the First mans reply to Bibi Kitunda:
First man: He straightened up, to ease his back a little.
The
over seer slashed him with a whip from the over
seer and immediately the headman was called in,
who ordered Kitunda to be whipped some more.
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39
This degradation is not limited to men alone but also extended
to women and
young girls. Kitundas wife had to go and work on the white mans
plantation because
her husband could not go as a result of the wounds he sustained
when he was flogged.
The conversation below is instructive:
First Woman: Wheres Chausikus mother today?
Second Woman: She has gone to the plantation in place of
her husband. Her husband couldnt go
after yesterdays beating. (p.11)
The Tanzanians were denied their rights of achieving the aim of
the labour on
their ancestral heritage. They are instead made to toil hard for
the Germans who,
metaphorically, are called Red Earth. The imposition of taxes
was enforced on the
citizen while they also make them abandon their domestic
activities without any sort of
compensation. The level of dehumanization and degradation is
also likened to the various
events that actually happened in reality. The people of Tanzania
scarcely or never had
enough food to neither eat nor time to go to their own farms,
rather the men were sent to
work on the German settlers plantations.
Hunger, thus offer many distractions which the Europeans
exercised in the two
plays. The whitemen offer to employ the natives their service as
clerk, warders,
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40
mercenaries and so on. Hunger is the open gate for those who
will like to collaborate with
the whites.
The sub theme derives from poverty and dehumanization in both
plays is that of
hunger and degradation of the African people and its implication
to other African nations
who also under went the same treatment during the colonial
administration.
3.4.2 EXPLOITATION AND ECONOMIC DEPRIVATION
Exploitation and economic deprivation are among the atrocities
perpetrated by the
whitemen through colonialism in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi and
Kinjeketile. The
Banker and the Indian in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi represents
domestic exploiters who
serve as middlemen in siphoning the wealth of African countries
to foreign investors
while the Kenya among them who does not speak at all but nods
his lead in approval
symbolizes the Kenyan peasants who, due to illiteracy and lack
of understanding accept
whatever the middlemen tell them. This is seen as the Banker
addresses Kimathi:
Banker: Time is money. I am or rather we are from the banks,
the insurance companies, the industries. You see Dedan,
this war is holding back investment, the flow of money
development. (p.38)
Here, the bankers major concern is that the interest of his
masters, i.e. , the
foreign investors. The sub theme of Kenyas economic dispensation
is revealed through
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41
the Banker and the Indian. Their main concern is to stop the
struggle for liberation
because they are bothered that the struggle will threaten their
economic and political
domination of the people.
The need to extinguish exploitation and economic deprivation is
stressed by
Kimathi too when he rhetorically ask the Business Executive, an
agent of imperialism,
why his people are expected to buy back things that originally
and legitimately belong to
them. In a combination of anger and irritation, Kimathi
rhetorically asks.
Kimathi: What new song is this? Buy back our land from those
who stole it from us? our land? Have we not bought it
with streams of blood? Rivers of sweat? (p.45)
The above statement by Kimathi can be likened to the treatment
of the colonial
government towards the people of Kenya. The Kenyans do not only
live in poverty but
are also exploited. The British government took over their lands
and paid them little or
nothing in return. The colonial government also used them for
manual labour, and yet
denies them of their right.
In Kinjeketile, the Tanzanians were denied their right of
achieving the aim of their
labour on their ancestral heritage. The strong demand, in
reality, for raw materials like
cotton, rubber, cocoa etc in the European market made the
Germans exploit them and
deprive them of their economic products. They are instead made
to toil hard for the
German who metaphorically are called Red Earth. The imposition
of tax collection was
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42
also enforced on the citizens while they made them abandon their
domestic activities
without any sort of compensation. The poor social existence of
the masses is as a result of
the economic deprivation and exploitation which is expressed by
Mkichi:
the red earth is still in our country. Whats more, he has taken
our
country from us by forceNow he has forced us to cultivate
his
cotton plantation for himHe has got us paying his
taxes.(p.5)
Sexual abuse also form a part of the general exploitation as is
seen when Mnypala
comes to take Chausiku, Kitundas daughter away for the benefit
of an Askari as
projected in the dialogue between Kitunda and Mnypala.
Mnypala: yes- as I was saying by Askari say you can rest
tomorrow. (Uncomfortable silence)
Kitunda: our village has only two days left for us to work
on
the plantation, then our turn ends. I can rest then. There
is no need for me to rest tomorrow.
Mnypala: but think, two days! Two days with no work.
Kitunda: and what do I have to do to earn that?
Mnypala: Hmyou can...lend us your daughter. (p.9)
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43
Young girls are violated by the Askaris and the white men,
through the
connivance of the policemen or headmen who go to the villages
and forcefully take the
beautiful girls of the village, most especially green maidens of
the land to them. This
problem is projected when Mnypala took Chausiku away. Kitunda
and his wife fought
against Chausiku being taken away but it was to no avail. The
general state of panic and
fear prevent the neighbours from rescuing Kitunda and his
household when Mnypala
descended on them.
The rate at which the Europeans exploited and deprived Africans
from their
economic product is also one of the factors that have to be
considered in reality as one of
the reasons behind the revolutionary movement against the
colonial administration.
3.4.3 OPPRESSION
The theme of oppression is one of the pronounced elements in The
Trial of Dedan
Kimathi and Kinjeketile. Both plays used this theme to explain
the sort of relationship
that existed between the European settlers and Africans during
the colonial period.
In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, Woman subtlety talks about the
how the colonial
government have oppressed the people of Kenya. She says:
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44
our own food eaten and leftover throw to us in our land,
where
we should have the whole share. We buy wood, from our own
forests; sweat on our own soil for the profit of our
oppressors.(p.18)
This statement indicates that the oppressors, i.e, colonial
government forced the
people of Kenya into submission while they exploit and oppress
them. It is not
uncommon of them to engage in hoarding essential commodities,
thereby, creating
artificial scarcity so as to make life difficult for the
ordinary man who has no access to
such commodities. In such actions against the majority lies
higher revenue for these
oppressors.
In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi the oppressors consist of the
businessmen,
religious leader, bankers and so on who are collaborators that
exploit the wealth of the
people collectively. The collaborators in Kimathis words are
those who:
Allow our people to continue slaves of hunger, disease, sorrow
in
our own lands while foreigners eat and snore in bed with
fullness?
(p.38)
The character Boy and Girl are also infused in their rustic
mental state. Boy
keeps on chasing and terrorizing Girl while the latter fails to
put up resistance thereby
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45
encouraging Boy to keep on oppressing her. This implies that the
colonialists have
been because the masses have not revolted, rather, they have
kept on running like the girl.
The encounter between boy and woman gradually stirs the former
to self
realization and this made him scrutinize the hazardous and harsh
realities of his existence
after the death of his father due to lack of proper medical care
from his fathers
employers when the machine cut off his right hand and his father
bled to death.
This encounter consequently enables him, in the last movement,
to acquire a more
realistic perception of reality. The omnipresent voice of the
Woman after she left him
declares that:
Womans voice: The day youll ask yourselfwhat can I do so
that another such grisly circumstancesthat day
youll become a man my son. (p.22)
The voice of the Woman continues to stir boy and the moment he
forgets and
does anything contrary to the instruction of the Woman, he
usually feels
Boy: as though she is watching me, admonishing
me. I feel so ashamed (p.11)
This shows that for there to be a revolution, there is need for
self realization
which is what woman did by creating the awareness. The various
sub themes in this play
include those of political, religion and cultural
oppression.
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46
In the pre-independent days of Kenya, Christianity, a religious
sector, was used as
a means of silencing the people and restraining them from
fighting to reclaim their stolen
land and pride. It also served as a means of cajoling Africans
into submission as seen in
the role of the Priest who contributed in subverting the
collective struggle of the Mau
Mau peasants which Kimathi rejects. Kimathi antagonizes the
priest and tells him in clear
terms that he is just a pawn on the white mans chess board. He
goes on to tell the
priest that he finds the Christian principle of turning the
other cheek in the face of
victimization and oppression repulsive:
Kimathi: Betrayal, Betrayal, prophets, seer, strange. I have
always been suspicious of those who would
preach cold piece in the face of violence. Turn
the other cheek. Dont struggle against those
that clothe themselves as butterflies.
Collaborators. (p.49)
The politicians can be seen as puppets in the hands of the
colonial masters. The
politicians are manipulated by the British government and the
consequently sell
Kenya to the British government. Oppression, to the white men,
is believed to be the
tool and style that works for them.
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47
In Kinjeketile, oppression is derived through taxation, cheap
labour, the brutality
of the Germans, their minions and henchmen, the Askaris (native
constables) and
overseers whipping and the rape of African women and girls. The
Germans uses the
element of fear to oppress the masses. The dominant atmosphere
of the play is that of
utter despair and despondency which can also be seen in the
utterances of Mkichi:
It is better to die than to live like this, we are made to work
like
beasts in the cotton plantation. We are forced to pay tax. We
die of
hunger because we cannot work on our shambas. I say death is
better than this. (p.8)
The theme of oppression can also be deduced through the
treatment of the Askari,
the overseers, the headmen and the whitemen over the masses of
the society in all
ramifications. The need to rise up against this thematic factor
was declared by the two
protagonists in the plays.
3.4.4 UNITY AND RESISTANCE
Kimathi, in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, is portrayed as being a
selfless leader of
the Mau Mau revolution. He has good organizing abilities which
he uses to galvanize the
people to action. He assumes the position of an ideal
revolutionary. Kimathi resists the
advances of the colonial authorities which Henderson represents
and in anger grabs
Henderson neck declaring that:
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48
Kimathi will never sell Kenya to the British or any other Breed
of
man-eaters now or in the years to come (p.36)
Kimathi is steadfast in this commitment to the Mau Mau movement.
Bruised and battered,
he refused to surrender or be swayed even when the agent of the
colonial government
tries to cajole him into surrendering. He says:
I will fight to the bitter end, Protect our soil. Protect our
People.
This is what I, Kimathi Wa Wachiuri swore at initiation.
(p.54)
The word initiation here alludes to the initiation of people to
become members
of the Mau Mau movement. Kimathi believes that no sacrifice is
too much for the
liberation of his people. His torture in the fourth trial can be
likened to Christ being
scourged and led to the torture stake. The self sacrifice of
Kimathi in an attempt to
liberate the masses is the crux of the play.
At the point where Girl puts up a resistance, there is a drastic
change, at the same
time, Boy, the terrorist, cowed back. This was after the
encounter between Boy and
Woman. Girl says:
All cowards, all brutes and bullies behave the same way. Show
fear,
a tail in your mouth and they threaten thunder and rain.
They
humiliate you, insult you, injure you. Show that you are a
human
being: struggle, fight back and it becomes their turn to run
away, to
flatter you, to try and make you their friends. (p.42)
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49
This statement implies that Africans must come to the
realization that success can
only come by the determination to change their social status.
Hence, the era of resistance
is here to stay and the masses have what it takes to resist the
European oppressors.
The paradox of liberation is that the oppressed are not united
and they want to
succeed over the oppressors. There is therefore, a need for them
to resolve their
differences and bury their hatchets in the head of their common
enemy. The playwrights
aesthetically portray this fight in the quarrel between Boy and
Girl who, having resolved
their differences joined forces together and serve as
co-facilitators to the subsequent
liberation of Kenya, which is portrayed in the dialogue between
Woman and Girl.
Woman: (proud) That is the way it should always be. Instead
of
fighting against one another, we who struggle against
exploitation and oppression should give one another
strength and faith till victory is ours.
Girl: (despondently) It is hard. It is hard seeing that we are
weak.
Woman: United, our strength becomes the faith that moves
mountains. (p.60)
Woman, in a concluding note, about the need for unity in
revolution states that:
Woman: We shall continue to suffer until that day we can
recognize our own, our true kinsmen when we can
correctly Identify our enemies. (p.73-74)
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50
Similarly, collectivism is needed to achieve this goal. Every
member of the
struggle is important. Responding to the call shows maturity
irrespective of age and sex.
The play is a clarion call for a united front to liberate the
society. Kimathis vision of
unity can be considered national not regional in reality due to
the fact that he penned
letters to different parts of his country in order to gain the
allegiance of other tribes. In the
play, he says:
Kenya is one indivisible whole The cause we fight for is
larger
than provinces; it shatters ethnic barriers. It is a whole
peoples
cause. (p.46)
The language of the play is also consistently revolutionary with
the
relatively simple poetry to enable the masses understand.
Kimathi admonishes
his people to appreciate and clamour the need for unity and
discipline as a
weapon capable of guaranteeing the success of their
struggle.
Kimathi: Our love for freedom is our bullet Our successes are
our
newspaper But Mightier than our best generals Is our
unity and discipline (p.69)
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51
Revolution demands commitment on the part of the undertakers.
Kimathi, focuses
and committed confronts his oppressors with his undying
resolve:
But our people will never surrender Internal and external
foes
will be demolished And Kenya shall be free. (p.83)
The playwrights have aesthetically used the four trials of Dedan
Kimathi to
portray that there are enemies of the people who will discourage
the revolution by either
betrayal or threats. But a true revolutionary must be focused
and ready to face all
consequences as seen in Kimathi. Kimathi symbolizes the entire
society who must carry
on a continuous struggle without giving up. The play is used to
alert the masses to be
aware that they have what it takes to be liberated.
In Kinjeketile, the rate at which there is disunity and distrust
due to tribal, ethnic
and individual hostilities is exhibited in Kitundas
statement:
Kitunda: We are a hungry people, and hunger drives us to
betray one another. So you see, we cant afford to rush
into things recklessly. We have enemies even among our
own people. (p.5)
The people can identify this as the root of their problems and
they realize that
they must come together and fight against the common enemy. This
disunity is not only
as a result of tribal sentiments alone, but also as a result of
the lack of trust among
individuals, even when they attempt to join forces with other
tribes in order to gain
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52
enough strength to defeat the Germans. This is portrayed in the
conversation at the
elders meeting:
Mkichi: We heard that you went to Kilwa.
Kitunda: I went to Kilwa to visit my brother. He was in trouble
with
the government.
Mkichi: And you were able to help
Mingindo: People say that if one goes to Kilwa with the
right kind of news, one is rewarded. The
whiteman pays well to get valuable information.
Kitunda: Are you trying to say that I am selling you and my
people to the whiteman.
Mkichi: There are people who are doing that. There are
people who are paid to stop us uniting. (p.8)
It was not until Kitunda reveals the scars on his back that they
believed him. The
elders attempt to unite the tribes is usually hampered by
bickering and jealousies. The
people were not united; they spy on one another instead of
looking for avenues to unite
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the tribes. Their lack of will and resistance brought about the
disunity and traditional
hostilities which kept them divided. The disunity that has been
hampering them is
reflected during the course of the meeting when one tribe
accuses another of cowardice
and womanliness, Mingindo intervenes by saying:
Mingindo: We have come this far to unite with one another; not
to
fight, if we fight one another, tribe against tribe, how
can we hope to fight the whiteman? What we must first
do is unite. (p.6)
Kinjeketile emerges against this background of inter-tribal
conflicts, poverty,
distrust, humiliation and forced cheap labour. Though
Kinjeketile is also as poverty
stricken as the rest of the other peasants, what sets him apart
is his mystical essence. His
trance as he is dragged by unseen forces into the river for over
twenty-four hours marks
the change and transformation of Kinjeketile. This can be
likened to the real Kinjeketile
Ngwale who also went into the river Rufiji for over twenty-four
hours.
However, Kinjeketiles re-emergence with the whisk and a pot of
water,
pronounces a new dawn of victory and renewal of the peoples
existence. He proclaims
unity through the power of their god and ancestors. It is at
this point that he assumes a
dual personality and his mystical personality reaches its peak
and he proclaims that:
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Kinjeketile: The sun has risen It will fill us with warmth
and
love for one another. Love between tribe and the
warmth of love will free us. (p.15)
He consecrates the spirits of the people gathered with the water
Maji. He tells
them that the water will act as a sort of shield against the
bullets of the Germans and that
they will defeat the Germans. The revolution was successful at
the initial stages, but the
people fell eventually due to their recklessness. The manner in
which they approached the
war was wrong because they were not well prepared nor organized
which was why they
lost to the Germans.
The spirit of unity, resistance and belief in the Maji water is
what made the
people of Tanganyika revolt against the Germans. Kinjeketile
succeeds in unifying his
people and mobilizing them against oppression and injustice
which at the level of content
gives expression to their day-to-day realities.
The playwrights, in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, have consciously
reconstructed
an otherwise mutilated and distorted history to give direction
to the vision of the
oppressed Kenyan people. History and realism have been employed
to highlight the past
with the hope of having a better future.
Ebrahim Hussein, in Kinjeketile, employs a realistic approach to
human problems
by implying that myth and religion are not the only essentials
that can bring about
revolutionary changes. Ebrahim Hussein does not merely use
history and reality in telling
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stories to entertain an audience, but rather use history and
reality to reflect on the past, to
highlight the present and to forge a solid social, economic and
political ethos for the
realization of a better future.
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REFERENCES
1. Wa ThiongO, Ngugi and Micere Githae Mugo. (1976). The Trial
of Dedan
Kimathi. London: Heinemann Education Books.
2. Hussein, Ebrahim. (1970). Kinjeketile. London: Oxford
University Press.
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CHAPTER FOUR
4.1 SUMMARY
We have attempted to examine the revolutionary undertones
employed
aesthetically in The Trial of Dedan Kimathi by Ngugi Wa ThiongO
and Micere Githae
Mugo and Kinjeketile by Ebrahim Hussein respectively.
In The Trial of Dedan Kimathi, the colonialists deprived them of
their own land
and other socio-economic rights which rendered them helpless.
The use of violence was,
there after adopted in order to regain their independence. The
playwrights in this case use
the dramatic genre of literature to explicate their socialist
ideology. This is meant to
create awareness in the masses whom he identifies with to wake
up and liberate
themselves from such dominance. The play portrays revolution in
the heart of the
struggle as it challenges colonial domination and creates
awareness in the oppressed
masses to revolt via the Mau Mau. Even though Kimathi dies in
this play as in reality, the
play is not a tragedy nor is Kimathi a tragic character. Rather,
Kimathi's death is a
necessary sacrifice for the well being of the generality of the
Kenyan people and the
uplift of the human race as a whole.
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Kinjeketile, however, is a revolutionary historical tragedy. The
common problem
of lack of unity and solidarity is well projected and the
attempt at uniting in one accord is
constantly hampered by bickering, jealousies, accusations of
cowardice and womanliness.
Due to the fact that people tend to find in religion during
moments of great upheaval and
societal turmoil, Kinjeketile acknowledges this trend and forges
a sense of unity through
the people's religion. In the play, the legendary hero lays down
his life so that his people
may have peace and freedom though in reality Kinjeketile
suffered a tragic death and was
unmourned after the failure of the "Maji" holy water against the
Germans bullets.
However, in both cases, Kinjeketile Ngwale died after failing
his people, though he was
able to unite the warring tribes in order to fight the common
enemy, the Germans.
4.2 FINDINGS
Writers have aesthetically used their art to express themselves
with the aim of
either educating or changing their audience. Hence, the authors
of these works portrayed
the socio-economic and political realities of their countries.
They have been the political
realities of their countries. They have been able to project
that men should look inward
and employ qualities like intellect, strength, courage and then
an individual can achieve
whatever he wants to achieve as long as he is totally dedicated
to the cause.
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Our findings in this work reveal the inhuman invasion of the
Europeans, their
brutality, and the economic exploitation of Africans, the
imposition of taxes and forced
labour, the level of dehumanization and degradation, the
deprivation of the people's
manpower, the heights of hunger and poverty and the reaction and
the resistance of
Africans against these intolerable conditions. Thus, the reality
of the historical and
inhuman treatment of Africans and their unity is the basis of
any form of resolution.
4.3 CONCLUSION
In conclusion, the realist ideology has been appropriated to
serve as a weapon of
change by creating revolution. The use of theatre is utilized to
entertain, educate and
conscientizes people towards positive ends. The use of content
has also been made to
give expression to the peoples day-to-day activities and the
propellant of their revolt. It
is therefore, imperative to note that it was the inhuman
treatment with which these
Europeans extended to Africans that made them resort to revolt
against them. The
playwrights have written to uplift the cause of the oppressed
masses thereby
revolutionarizing the society by the concept of reality towards
positive changes.
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BIBLIOGRAPHY
PRIMARY TEXTS
Hussein, Ebrahim. (1970). Kinjeketile. London: Oxford University
Press.
Wa ThiongO, Ngugi and Micere Githae Mugo. (1976). The Trial of
Dedan
Kimathi. London: Heinemann Education Books.
SECONDARY TEXTS
Abubakar, A.S. (2002). Ideological Conflict in Niyi Osundares
The eye of Earth. In
V.A. Alabi (ed.), Alore, Ilorin Journal of Humanities, Faculty
of Arts,
University of Ilorin. Ilorin: University Press. Vol .12.
Amuta, C, (ed.). (1989). Drama and Revolution. In The Theory of
African
Literature. London: Zed Books Ltd.
Cook, D. and Micheal, O. (1983). Ngugi Wa ThiongO: An
Exploration of His
Writings. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
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Dukore, B.F.(1974). Dramatic Theory and Criticism: Greeks to
Grotowski. New York:
Holt, Rinehart and Winston Inc.
Encyclopedia Americana International. (1979). America: Groila
Incorporated. Vol. 6.
Encyclopedia Britannica. (1926).London: EBC Ltd. Vol.1.
Etherton, M. (1980). Trends in African Theatre. In Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.)
African Literature Today. London: Heinemann Educational Books.
Vol.10
Mbughuni, L.A. (1980). Old and New Drama from East Africa. In
Eldred
Durosinmi Jones (ed.) African Literature Today. London:
Heinemann
Educational Books. Vol. 8.
Onoge, O. (1986). The Crisis of Consciousness. In George
Gugelbeger (ed.)
Modern African Literature. Enugu: African World Press.
Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary. (2000). London: Oxford
University Press.
Vol.6
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Palmer, E. (1979). The Growth of The African Novel. London:
Heinemann
Educational Books.
Wa ThiongO, N. (1968). The Black Hermit. Nairobi: Heinemann
Educational Books
Wa ThiongO, N. (1981). Writers in Politics. Nairobi: Heinemann
Educational
Books.
(1980).
http://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/revolution.