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Database for educational courses on ecosystem goods and
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Joachim Schmerbeck
NETworking FOrest Plantations in a crowded world: optimising
ecosystem services through improved planning and management
supporting innov ative india - e uropean union civil society
partnerships
E u ro p ean Uni on - In d ia E co n o m ic C ro s s Cu ltu r a
l P r og ram m e
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Copyright 2006
Alterra, Wageningen UR, The Netherlands Forest Research
Institute, Dehradun India Waldbau Silviculture Institute, Freiburg
Germany
Alterra, Wageningen UR P.O Box 47, 6700 AA Wageningen The
Netherlands Tel: +31317477856 Fax: +31317419000 Website:
www.alterra.wur.nl
Forest Research Institute New Forest P.O. Dehradun 248006
Uttranchal India
Institute of Silviculture Tennenbacherstr. 4 79106 Freiburg
Germany
Website: http://www.silviculture.uni-freiburg.de/
This is report number NETFOP06 of the NETFOP project: NETworking
FOrest Plantations in a crowded world:optimising ecosystem services
through improved planning and management. The project was funded by
the European Union under the EU-India Economic Cross Cultural
Program. Funding was also obtained from the Dutch Ministry of
Agriculture, Nature & Food Quality (KB Theme I-P3)
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Database for educational courses on ecosystem goods and
services
Joachim Schmerbeck
NETFOP REPORT 06 NETworking FOrest Plantations in a crowded
world:optimising ecosystem services
through improved planning and management
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Table of Contents
Table of Contents
.........................................................................................................i
Chapter 1
Introduction..........................................................................................
1
Chapter 2 Literature
database...............................................................................
3
2.1 General information about EGS
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3 2.2 Methodologies to assess
EGS...............................................................................................
6 2.3 Valuation and marketing of EGS
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9 2.4 EGS and forest management
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16
Chapter 3 Useful
links..........................................................................................31
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Chapter 1 Introduction
The concept of Ecosystem Goods and Servics (EGS) has become
increasingly important in recent years. The natural resources that
are available to support basic human needs and our quality of life
on the earth are being degraded at an increasing rate. How these
resources can be used more sustainably has become a focal issue
over the most recent decades. In the 1990s the term EGS emerged to
describe the benefits human society receives from ecosystems and
the natural processes behind them.
Since then a great deal of research has been carried out with
the aim to establish universal terminology and to develop workable
concepts to assess, valuate and market these services.
With the EU funded NETFOP project (Networking forest plantations
in a crowded world), carried out in the years 2005 and 2006, the
Institute for Silviculture of the University of Freiburg has
amassed literature on this topic to be used in courses in EGS
received from forests.
I tried to select the most important and representative
documents on the subject of EGS on a broad range of topics. Most of
these are journal articles, but there are also useful books,
reports and web pages.
All documents in this list will be described briefly below.
Wherever possible the original abstracts or summary will be given.
Otherwise a brief summary will be provided.
The documents are not attached to this list because the
Institute of Silviculture does not hold the copyright for them.
Persons and Institutes who are interested in reading the full text
of the documents are responsible for procuring them
independently.
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Chapter 2 Literature database
The articles listed here covering different aspects of EGS is a
collection of 60 documents. It is far from being complete; however,
it gives an overview on the possibilities for assessing and
quantifying EGS today.
2.1 General information about EGS
The literature listed here will introduce the concept of EGS. I
tried to list important and often cited literature covering the
different ways EGS are seen and discussed and the wide range of
ecosystems and their associated service provision. A few examples
for the use of the EGS concept are also on the list, but most of
them can be found in the general documents section on EGS.
1. R.S. de Groot (1992): Functions of Nature, Evaluation of
nature in environmental planning, management and decision making,
Wolters-Noordhoof, Absterdam, 315 pp. ISBN 90-01-35594-3 (Book)
This book explains in detail the available concepts, methods and
arguments for using the EGS approach. It explains the natural
functions making the supply of EGS possible, methodologies for
their assessment and valuation and introduces to some case studies.
Finally, the book stresses the evaluation of functions as a tool in
environmental planning, management and decision-making
2. De Groot R.S., Wilson M.A. and Boumans R.M.J. (2002): A
Typology for the Classification, Description and Valuation of
Ecosystem Functions, Goods and Services. Ecological Ecological 41:
393-408. (Journal article)
This article summarises some aspects of his book: Functions of
Nature, Evaluation of nature in environmental planning, management
and decision making
Abstract: An increasing amount of information is being collected
on the ecological and socio-economic value of goods and services
provided by natural and semi-natural ecosystems. However, much of
this information appears scattered throughout a disciplinary
academic literature, unpublished government agency reports, and
across the World Wide Web. In addition, data on ecosystem goods and
services often appears at incompatible scales of analysis and is
classified differently by different authors. In order to make
comparative ecological economic analysis possible, a standardized
framework for the comprehensive assessment of ecosystem functions,
goods and services is needed. In response to this challenge, this
paper presents a conceptual framework and typology for describing,
classifying and valuing ecosystem functions, goods and services in
a clear and consistent manner. In the following analysis, a
classification is given for the fullest possible range of 23
ecosystem functions which provide a much larger number of goods and
services. In the second part of the paper, a checklist and matrix
is provided, linking these ecosystem functions to the main
ecological, socio-cultural and economic valuation methods.
3. Daily C. D. (1997): Natures services societal dependence on
natural ecosystems. Washington: Island Press. (Book)
This book contains one of the first broader descriptions of the
concept of EGS. After a clearly written introduction, it focuses on
several fields of the topic including: the history of EGS,
valuation, EGS provided by different ecosystems and presents a
number of case studies. Considering the fact that the book is not
up to date, it is still useful as a teaching material due to its
comprehensive approach.
4. Daily et al. (1997): Ecosystem Services: Benefits Supplied to
Human Societies by Natural Ecosystems. Issues in Ecology No. 2,
Ecological Society of America, Washington DC. (Report)
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This article gives a good introduction to the concept of EGS and
its link to human society along with general global figures
summarising the contents of the book.. It describes in detail some
fields of ecology where EGS are particularly relevant, like climate
change and daily life , ecosystem services provided by soils,
pollination etc. In addition, the threats ecosystems are facing and
the valuation of services are briefly discussed. This book is a
good starting tool with which to introduce the concept of EGS.
5. Campos J.J. et al. (2005): An Integrated Approach to
Ecosystem Services. In: Mery G., Alfaro R., Kanninen M. and
Lobovikov M. (eds.) Forests in the Global Balance Changing
Paradigms, IUFRO World Series Volume, 318 p., IUFRO Helsinki (Book
chapter)
Abstract: Forest ecosystem services (FES) are fundamental for
the Earths life support systems. This chapter discusses the
different services provided by forest ecosystems and the effects
that land use and forest management practices have on their
provision. It also discusses the role of markets in providing an
enabling environment for a sustainable and equitable provision of
FES, and describes a standardized approach for designing effective
PES (Payment for Environmental Services) that takes into
consideration the biophysical, demand (beneficiaries) and supply
(providers) components, as well as institutional requirements of a
PES scheme. The chapter assesses some potential limitations and
challenges in the use of market mechanisms in general, and PES
schemes in particular, for sustaining the provision of forest
ecosystem services, such as difficulties to demonstrate that
services are actually being provided, lack of an effective demand
for the services or restrictions from the supply side, as well as
other limitations related to institutional capacity and scale. The
main challenge is probably in establishing long term, sustainable
financing mechanisms that effectively internalize environmental
services in the appropriate institutional frameworks. To overcome
these challenges, research and management need to take into
consideration larger temporal and spatial scales, as well as
integrate the different components in the landscape and in the
policy and decision-making processes.
6. Cork S.J. (2001): Ecosystem services: The many ways in which
biodiversity sustains and fulfils human life. In: Food for Healthy
People and a Healthy Planet, Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial
Research Organization (CSIRO) Sustainable Ecosystems, Internet
Conference. (Conference proceedings)
Abstract: Ecosystems are declining worldwide, largely due to
ignorance of their value to humans and inadequate social and
economic mechanisms to encourage individuals to invest in
maintaining them. The concept of Ecosystem Services is becoming
popular as a way to encourage discussion about the dependence of
humans on nature and what that means socially and economically.
Ecosystem services are transformations of natural assets (soil,
water, air, and living organisms) into products that are important
to humans. Examples include: provision of clean air and water;
maintenance of soil fertility; maintenance of liveable climates;
pollination of crops and other vegetation; control of potential
pests; provision of genetic resources; production of food and
fibre; and provision of cultural, spiritual and intellectual
experiences. The value of ecosystem services to humans comes from
their role in supporting our lives, their cheapness, and our
limited ability to replace them with human-engineered alternatives.
The problems we have in maintaining them come about because our
economic systems dont cope well with goods and services that are
publicly owned. This paper discusses the importance of ecosystem
services for supporting food production and sustaining and
fulfilling human populations. It briefly discusses an initiative
being taken in Australia to apply the concept of ecosystem services
to addressing the big drivers of ecosystem decline.
7. Cork S.J. (2002): Ecosystems services and institution rules.
In: "FutureScape: Exploring the Interaction between the
Environment, Economy and Society, 29-30 April, 2002, 14, Nature
Conservation Council of NSW, Sydney. (Conference proceedings)
Abstracts: Environmental problems often arise from deficient,
uncertain or confusing information about what ecosystem goods and
services are available, how they are important to humans, who
benefits and over what scales, combined with incomplete,
inconsistent or unenforceable rules, rights
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and responsibilities. Establishing rules, rights and
responsibilities at the range of spatial and temporal scales at
which ecosystems function is a major challenge. Furthermore, the
costs of implementing regimes of property rights and
responsibilities can be beyond many land owners and managers. The
concept of ecosystem services is being adapted and tested in
Australia as a way to address some of the limitations of
information and institutional rules. It attempts to express the
benefits of ecosystems in language and concepts that the majority
of land managers and users can understand and identify with, and it
lays the foundations for developing formal and informal markets in
which a fuller range of the beneficiaries of ecosystems contribute
to the costs of their maintenance.
8. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005a): Living Beyond Our
Means - Natural assets and human well-being. 25, Millennium
Ecosystem Assessment (Report)
The reports of the Millennium Ecosystem Assessment created
global awareness of the limitation of our global natural resources.
This is not new information but the reports demonstrated links to
the concept of EGS and in this way demonstrates the growing
importance of this concept.
Preface from the The Board of the Millennium Ecosystem
Assessment
The Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (MA) was called for by
United Nations Secretary-General Kofi Annan in 2000 in a report to
the General Assembly entitled We the Peoples: The Role of the
United Nations in the 21st Century. Initiated in 2001, the
objective of the MA was to assess the consequences of ecosystem
change for human well-being and the scientific basis for actions
needed to enhance the conservation and sustainable use of those
systems and their contribution to human well-being.
The MA has involved the work of more than 1,360 experts
worldwide. Their findings on the condition and trends of
ecosystems, scenarios for the future, possible responses, and
assessments at a sub-global level are set out in technical chapters
grouped around these four main themes. In addition, a general
Synthesis draws on these detailed studies to answer a series of
core questions posed at the start of the MA. The practical needs of
specific groups of users, including the business community, are
addressed in other synthesis reports. Each part of the assessment
has been scrutinized by governments, independent scientists, and
other experts to ensure the robustness of its findings.
This statement is from the Board governing the MA process, whose
membership includes representatives from U.N. organizations,
governments through a number of international conventions,
nongovernmental organizations, academia, business, and indigenous
peoples. (For a full list of Board members, see the inside front
cover.)
It is not intended as a comprehensive summary of the findings of
the MA, but rather as an interpretation of the key messages to
emerge from it. Written for a non-specialist readership, it is
nevertheless consistent with the more detailed documents of the
assessment and can be read in conjunction with them.
We believe that the wide range of global interests combining to
issue this statement, together with the rigorous study on which it
is based, should add power and urgency to the conclusions it sets
out.
9. Millennium Ecosystem Assessment (2005b): Ecosystems And Human
Well-Being Synthesis, Millenium Ecosystem Assessment. World
Resources Institute, Island Press, Washington, DC. (Report)
This document provides the in dept results of the Millenium
Ecosystem Assessment. It describes how the ecosystem of the world
have been changed though human influence in the past 50 year, the
most critical factors causing these changes and how this effected
the provision of ecosystem services. A wide sections of the report
deal with the consequences of this development for the future and
the options we have to manage ecosystems sustainable.
Four Main Findings
Over the past 50 years, humans have changed ecosystems more
rapidly and extensively than in any comparable period of time in
human history, largely to meet rapidly growing demands for food,
fresh
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water, timber, fiber, and fuel. This has resulted in a
substantial and largely irreversible loss in the diversity of life
on Earth.
The changes that have been made to ecosystems have contributed
to substantial net gains in human well-being and economic
development, but these gains have been achieved at growing costs in
the form of the degradation of many ecosystem services, increased
risks of nonlinear changes, and the exacerbation of poverty for
some groups of people. These problems, unless addressed, will
substantially diminish the benefits that future generations obtain
from ecosystems.
The degradation of ecosystem services could grow significantly
worse during the first half of this century and is a barrier to
achieving the Millennium Development Goals.
The challenge of reversing the degradation of ecosystems while
meeting increasing demands for their services can be partially met
under some scenarios that the MA has considered, but these involve
significant changes in policies, institutions, and practices that
are not currently under way. Many options exist to conserve or
enhance specific ecosystem services in ways that reduce negative
trade-offs or that provide positive synergies with other ecosystem
services.
10. Fearnside P.M. (1999): Biodiversity as an environmental
service in Brazils Amazonian forests: risks, value and
conservation. Environmental Conservation 26: 305321. (Journal
article)
Gives a good introduction to the importance of forest
biodiversity
Abstract: The environmental service provided by the great
biodiversity of Amazonian forests is one of several factors leading
to the conclusion that much greater efforts are warranted to reduce
the destruction of these forests. Risks to biodiversity in
Amazonian forests include deforestation, logging, fires,
fragmentation, depletion of fauna, invasion by exotic species, and
climate change. Financial values assigned to biodiversity depend
strongly on the purposes of valuation. Utilitarian benefits include
the values of presently-marketed and presently-unexploited forest
products, and the monetary value of environmental benefits.
Non-monetary values of Amazonian forests are also essential
components of decision-making on conservation. Measures of
willingness to pay and willingness to accept can be useful as
indicators of potential financial flows, but should not be confused
with the true values of the forests to society. Valuation for the
purpose of setting penalties for destruction of biodiversity is an
important legal question in Brazil and must take into consideration
additional factors. Conservation of biodiversity in Brazil includes
creation of various types of protected areas. The status of these
areas varies greatly, with practice frequently deviating from
official requirements. Creating reserves that include human
occupants has a variety of pros and cons. Although the effect of
humans is not always benign, much larger areas can be brought under
protection regimes if human occupants are included. Additional
considerations apply to buffer zones around protected areas. The
choice and design of reserves depends on the financial costs and
biodiversity benefits of different strategies. In Brazil, rapid
creation of lightly-protected paper parks has been a means of
keeping ahead of the advance of barriers to establishment of new
conservation units, but emphasis must eventually shift to better
protection of existing reserves. Indigenous peoples have the best
record of maintaining forest, but negotiation with these peoples is
essential in order to ensure maintenance of the large areas of
forest they inhabit. The benefits of environmental services
provided by the forest must accrue to those who maintain these
forests. Development of mechanisms to capture the value of these
services will be a key factor affecting the longterm prospects of
Amazonian forests. However, many effective measures to discourage
deforestation could be taken immediately through government action,
including levying and collecting taxes that discourage land
speculation, changing land tenure establishment procedures so as
not to reward deforestation, revoking remaining incentives,
restricting road building and improvement, strengthening
requirements for environmental impact statements (RIMAs) for
proposed development projects, and creating employment
alternatives.
2.2 Methodologies to assess EGS
Methodologies used to assess EGS are important as a first step
prior to monitoring, valuation and marketing. The assessment of EGS
includes the group of persons who benefit from certain EGS, the
quantification of EGS and their origin. Factors determining
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the supply (quantity and quality) play an important role for the
monitoring of EGS and should be assessed too..However, approaches
concentrating on EGS can only deal with one of these topics and
therefore do not provide an overall system to manage all aspects of
EGS supply. The documents I selected here are examples for the
assessment of provision or demand for a single EGS, their spatial
distribution and/or the interaction of EGS supply and alteration of
natural conditions.
11. Sheil D., et al. (2002): Exploring Biodiversity, Environment
and Local People's Perspectives in Forest Landscapes: Methods for a
Multidisciplinary Landscape Assessment. 93, Centre for
International Forestry Research (CIFOR), Jakarta, Indonesia.
(Report)
A set of tools that enable the user to assess EGS from different
units of the landscape under the participation of local
communities. We used the Multidisciplinary Landscape Assessment
(MLA) as a mythological frame for the NETFOP Project.
Introduction: Much of the global concern about tropical
rainforests derives from fears of major impending extinctions.
Considerable efforts have been focused on identifying the most
important sites for sensitive management. Biodiversity surveys have
become a major preoccupation of conservation agencies and are
increasingly included in impact assessments. However, the
information generated usually has little impact as most decisions
reflect other priorities. The notion that every species must be
maintained at all costs is not a view held by most relevant
decision makers. Decisions can only balance biodiversity goals with
other demands if the values and preferences of stakeholders,
especially local forest dependent communities, are addressed. As a
means to address the multiple interests and values of landscape and
natural resources, we developed a suite of survey methods to
identify what is important to some local communities in the
district of Malinau in East Kalimantan, Indonesia. This information
provides an initial diagnostic baseline of information to develop
deeper dialogue with these communities, to guide future research
and make recommendations on options about land use and policy to
decision makers. (Taken from the article
12. Grt-Regamey A., Bebi P., Bishop I.D. and Schmid W. (in
review): Linking GIS-based models to value ecosystem services in an
Alpine region.
Abstract: Planning frequently fails to include the valuation of
public goods and services. This can have long-term negative
economic consequences for a region. Especially in mountainous
regions such as the Alps, which depend on tourism, land-use changes
can negatively impact key ecosystem services and hence the economy.
In this study, we develop a semi-automatic procedure to value
ecosystem goods and services. Several existing process-based models
linked to economic valuation methods are integrated into a
Geographic Information System (GIS) platform. The model requires
the input of a digital elevation model, a land-cover map, and a
spatially explicit temperature dataset. These datasets are
available for most regions in Europe. We illustrate the approach by
valuing four ecosystem services: avalanche protection, timber
production, scenic beauty, and habitat, which are supplied by the
Landschaft Davos, an administrative district in the Swiss Alps. We
compare the impacts of a human development scenario and a climate
scenario on the value of these ecosystem services. Urban expansion
and tourist infrastructure developments have a negative impact on
scenic beauty and habitats. These impacts outweigh the benefits of
the developments in the long-term. Forest expansion, predictable
under a climate change scenario, favours natural avalanche
protection and habitats. In general, such non-marketed benefits
provided by the case-study region more than compensate for the
costs of forest maintenance. Finally, we discuss the advantages and
disadvantages of the approach. Despite its limitations, we show how
this approach could well help decision-makers balance the impacts
of different planning options on the economic accounting of a
region, and guide them in selecting sustainable and economically
feasible development strategies.
13. Proctor W. et al. (2002): Assessing Ecosystem Services in
Australia. In: 7th Biennial Conference of the International Society
for Ecological Economics, 6-9 March, 2002,
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Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organization
(CSIRO), Australia, Sousse, Tunisia. (Conference proceedings)
Abstract: The ecosystem services project focuses on the values
and opportunities that come from the relationships between people
and their natural environments. The quality of these relationships
is thought to be decreasing as ecosystems change worldwide. This
national project seeks to convey an understanding of services and
benefits that we receive from ecosystems. The project will also
seek to address the problem of traditional techniques and
approaches used to estimate 'value' as such techniques do not deal
well with goods and services that do not pass through markets, that
are publicly rather than privately owned, or that are of importance
to communities rather than individuals. In this first case study of
the project carried out in the Goulburn Broken Catchment of South
Eastern Australia, ecological, social and economic techniques are
used to give a detailed assessment of the goods and services from
ecosystems in an agricultural water catchment. These techniques are
designed to give estimates of the interactions and consumption of
those services, the economic and other benefits, and the
beneficiaries at a range of temporal and spatial scales. These
estimates are expected to help policy makers, planners and land
managers take account of the interrelationships among a wider range
of ecological, economic and social values. The scales of analysis
range from local through regional to national and international.
Central to this work will be techniques designed to acknowledge
priorities and values of a wide range of policy makers, planners,
land managers, industry and community groups. We seek in this first
case study to develop and promote the project outputs for
application elsewhere - in particular as one possible national
approach to assist sound resource management in Australia. This
paper outlines the specific techniques used including the use of
deliberative multi-criteria evaluation as a basis of overall
integration and decision-making framework.
14. AG 3 Methodology Report. Here now Methodology in Germany
Schmerbeck J., Machler T. and Schraml U.: Ecosystem Goods and
Services of Plantations and Other Forest Types in the Black Forest
a Methodological Approach (Project report)
Abstract: The importance and valuation of forest goods and
services, other than timber, that are in demand by human society,
are receiving increasing attention against a background of
shrinking resources and increasing pressures for the maintenance of
ecosystem functions. Methodologies for the qualitative and
quantitative analysis of these services are required. This paper
describes a methodology for quantifying the ecosystem goods and
services, from different forest types, for the households of two
communities in the Black Forest (south-western Germany). The aim of
the study was to determine the importance of even structure conifer
stands for the provision of ecosystem goods and services, compared
to other forest types.
In the two selected communities (one urban, one rural), persons
from 180 households were interviewed to identify and localise (on a
forest map) their mode of activities, and to assess the influence
of forest structure on these activities. To analyse the extent to
which different forest types were preferred by the communities, the
interviewed persons were asked to identify, on a map, the forest
areas they visited for individual activities. This map was then
digitised and combined with available data on the forest structure
by the state forest department.
The study clearly showed that recreation was the most important
forest service, with 70% of the studied households visiting the
forests for relaxation and sport. Surprisingly, fuel wood, which
was collected by 30% of the households, was the second most
important service mentioned. Although forest structure was a
determining factor for the selection of the sites visited, the
distance to the forest and the infrastructure were clearly more
important. Analysis of the areas identified by the interviewed
people supported these results, confirming that hot spots areas
most frequented - for recreation and fuelwood collection, were
close to the places where the people lived. Even structured conifer
stands were not frequented by the interviewed persons, however,
this can be attributed to the proximity of these stands to the
selected areas and, to some extent, to the preference for forests
with a higher degree of structural diversity.
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15. Roovers, P., Hermy M. and Hubert G. (2002). "Visitor
profile, perceptions and expectations in forests from a gradient of
increasing urbanisation in central Belgium." Landscape and Urban
Planning 59(3): 129-145. (Journal article)
Abstract: The forest complex of HeverleeMeerdaal, which consists
of two forest parts, is located on a gradient from a rural region
to an expanding urban area. Its vicinity to the city of Leuven and
the adjacent conurbation leads to intense recreational use by the
inhabitants. By means of counts an interpretation on congestion and
on spreading of visitors in time and space in the area was made. On
the basis of these counts questionnaires were carried out in the
forest throughout the whole year and among all activity groups. In
this context, little is known in depth about the interaction
between the structural characteristics of the recreation site and
recreation patterns in particular. The questionnaires deal with
socio-demographical characteristics of the visitors, preferences
and perceptions of the respective activity groups and their
interpretation of the forest area concerning structure and
infrastructure. According to this study, the geographical
distribution of the visitors in the forest is highly determined by
the position of the forest along a gradient relative to the
conurbation. A total of 69% of the visitors lives within a radius
of 10 km and almost 38% originates from Leuven itself. Therefore,
it can be considered to be an urban forest. The preferred activity
is walking, followed successively by biking and jogging. Most of
the people visit the forest on their own. Visit frequency and
length are negatively correlated and strongly determined by the
distance covered from the residence to the forest. Preferences and
perceptions are influenced not only by social characteristics but
also by the recreation activities and their specific interests and
demands. The overall quality of the visit to the forest complex is
evaluated very positive.
16. Kliskey, A.D. 2002: Recreation terrain suitability mapping:
a spatially explicit methodology for determining recreation
potential for resource use assessment. Landscape and Urban Planning
52: 129- 145. (Journal article)
Abstract: A geographic information system (GIS) based
methodology was developed for mapping recreation terrain
suitability using recreation terrain suitability indices (RTSI).
The methodology comprised four stages: (1) suitability variables
for a recreation activity were identified by principal component
analysis (PCA) of a recreation attitudinal scale, (2) a recreation
suitability model was developed using spatial criteria for each
suitability variable, (3) weight factors for each variable were
derived from the principal component scores for each component, (4)
suitability overlay mapping was implemented using GIS and the
spatial criteria. The output of the methodology was a recreation
suitability map portraying the spatial extent of recreation
suitability of the landscape for a recreation user group. The
approach is demonstrated for the example of recreational
snowmobiling in the North Columbia Mountains of British Columbia.
RTSI mapping provides a spatial approach to resource use mapping of
recreation activity that is robust and based on recreationists
attitudes
2.3 Valuation and marketing of EGS
There are many ideas surrounding and approaches with which to
valuate EGS and to find and mobilise markets for them. The
importance, that the scientific community and the public place on
this issue can be seen in the number of publications on the topic.
Not all authors agree on the importance and the ways in which
payments for environmental services can or should be installed. But
even there is a controversial discussion; there is certainly an
increasing trend towards the marketing of EGS in one or the other
form. I attempted to select papers introducing the topic (ITTO
2004) as well as highlighting different aspects in more detail
(Special issue of Ecological Economics 2002), representing case
studies (Whitten et al. 2003) and some mirroring the ongoing
discussions of EGS (Wunder 2005). More information, especially
concerning the presentations of case studies, are available in
Daily (1997, here #3)
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17. Costanza, R. et al. (1997). "The Value of the World's
Ecosystem Services and Natural Capital." Nature 387: 253-260.
(Journal article)
This paper is one of the key publications in the field dealing
with the economics of EGS.
Abstract: The services of ecological systems and the natural
capital stocks that produce them are critical to the functioning of
the Earth's life-support system. They contribute to human welfare,
both directly and indirectly, and therefore represent part of the
total economic value of the planet. We have estimated the current
economic value of 17 ecosystem services for 16 biomes, based on
published studies and a few original calculations. For the entire
biosphere, the value (most of which is outside the market) is
estimated to be in the range of US$16-54 trillion per year, with an
average of US$33 trillion per year. Because of the nature of the
uncertainities, this must be considered a minimum estimate. Global
gross national product total is around US$ 18 trillion per year
18. International Tropical Timber Organisation (2004): For
Services Rendered. The Current Status and Future Potential of
Markets for the Ecosystem Services Provided by Tropical Forests.
Technical Series, 72, International Tropical Timber Organization,
Yokohama, Japan. (Report)
This report explains why there is a current interest in the
valuation and marketing of EGS from tropical forests and introduces
the recent trends in this area. The benefits and risks of marketing
EGS as well as strategies for the Tropics are highlighted. The
document is nicely done and easy to assess.
Special Issue of Ecological Economics: The Dynamics and Value of
Ecosystem Services: Integrating Economic and Ecological
Perspectives, Ecological Economics 41, 3 (2002) P. 367-567:
Economic and Ecological Perspectives
19. Farber, S. C., R. Costanza, et al. (2002). "Economic and
Ecological Concepts for Valuing Ecosystem Services." Ecological
Economics 41, 375-392. 8 (Journal article)
Abstract: The purpose of this special issue is to elucidate
concepts of value and methods of valuation that will assist in
guiding human decisions vis-a`-vis ecosystems. The concept of
ecosystem service value can be a useful guide when distinguishing
and measuring where trade-offs between society and the rest of
nature are possible and where they can be made to enhance human
welfare in a sustainable manner. While win-win opportunities for
human activities within the environment may exist, they also appear
to be increasingly scarce in a full global ecologicaleconomic
system. This makes valuation all the more essential for guiding
future human activity. This paper provides some history,
background, and context for many of the issues addressed by the
remaining papers in this special issue. Its purpose is to place
both economic and ecological meanings of value, and their
respective valuation methods, in a comparative context,
highlighting strengths, weakness and addressing questions that
arise from their integration.
20. Gustavson, K., Lonergan, S. C. and Ruitenbeek, J. (2002).
"Measuring Contributions to Economic ProductionUse of an Index of
Captured Ecosystem Value." Ecological Economics 41: 479-490.
(Journal article)
Abstract: The production of an economic good derived from a
renewable natural resource base involves the extraction of
ecosystem function values as represented by the contribution made
to production by the originating ecosystem. The artisanal
mixed-species fisheries of Jamaica is used as a case study in the
development of a biophysically based index to account for captured
ecosystem values (or embodied ecosystem values) and an examination
of the extent to which those values are proportionately reflected
in monetary exchange values. The Index of Captured Ecosystem Value
(ICEV) is developed from a basis in information theory relevant to
an analysis of network flows in ecosystems. Technical coefficients,
describing the production relationship between ICEV values and
market values of catches associated with individual fishing efforts
in Jamaican fisheries, reveal that captured ecosystem function
associated with fisheries using distinct technologies (i.e. China
net, trap, hand line, palanca and speargun) are valued differently
by the
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market. This surplus value is rooted in the observation that
certain fisheries target species that are more connected within the
coral reef food web than those species typically captured by other
fisheries. Consideration of the biophysically based contributions
of coral reef ecosystems to fisheries production reveals
distortions between market and supply-side values, indicating that
the role of ecosystems is not being consistently treated. Comment
and direction is offered regarding the development of indices of
ecosystem function or value that can be applied to policy questions
concerning the extraction of a renewable natural resource.
21. Howarth, R. B. and S. Farber (2002). "Accounting for the
Value of Ecosystem Services." Ecological Economics 41, 421-429.
(Journal article)
Abstract: A value of ecosystem services (VES) may be calculated
by multiplying a set of ecosystem services by a set of
corresponding shadow prices. This paper examines the role of the
VES concept in measuring trends in human wellbeing. Under
conventional arguments from applied welfare economics, standard
measures of market consumption may be extended to include the value
of direct environmental services, which affect welfare in ways that
are not mediated by the consumption of purchased goods. The VES
concept does not capture values such as ecological sustainability
and distributional fairness that are not reducible to individual
welfare. And its operationalization is constrained by the
well-known limitations of nonmarket valuation methods. Nonetheless,
attempts to calculate the value of environmental services can
provide insights into the tradeoffs between market activity and
environmental quality that are implicit in the process of economic
growth. Such efforts can promote informed debate concerning the
achievement of sustainable development.
22. Patterson, M. G. (2002). "Ecological Production Based
Pricing of Biosphere Processes." Ecological Economics 41, 457-478.
(Journal article)
Abstract: Ecological pricing theory and method is reviewed, and
then applied to the valuation of biosphere processes and services.
Ecological pricing values biosphere processes, on the basis of
biophysical interdependencies between all parts of the ecosystem,
not just those that have direct or obvious value to humans. The
application of the ecological pricing method to the biosphere for
1994, indicates that the total value of primary ecological inputs
(services) to be nearly $US 25 trillion. This compares with $US 33
trillion obtained in the Costanza et al. (1997) study. Our analysis
also indicated a good correspondence between the shadow ecological
price and the observed market price for all marketable goods,
except fossil fuel which was undervalued by the market.
23. Sutton, P. C. and R. Costanza (2002). "Global Estimates of
Market and Non-Market Values Derived from Nighttime Satellite
Imagery, Land Cover, and Ecosystem Service Valuation." Ecological
Economics 41, 509-527. (Journal article)
Abstract: We estimated global marketed and non-marketed economic
value from two classified satellite images with global coverage at
1 km2 resolution. GDP (a measure of marketed economic output) is
correlated with the amount of light energy (LE) emitted by that
nation as measured by nighttime satellite images. LE emitted is
more spatially explicit than whole country GDP, may (for some
nations or regions) be a more accurate indicator of economic
activity than GDP itself, can be directly observed, and can be
easily updated on an annual basis. As far as we know, this is the
first global map of estimated economic activity produced at this
high spatial resolution (1 km2). Ecosystem services product (ESP)
is an important type of non-marketed value. ESP at 1 km2 resolution
was estimated using the IGBP land-cover dataset and unit ecosystem
service values estimated by Costanza et al. [Valuing Ecosystem
Services with Efficiency, Fairness and Sustainability as Goals.
Nature s Ser_ices, Island Press, Washington DC, pp. 4970]. The sum
of these two (GDP+ESP)=SEP is a measure of the subtotal
ecologicaleconomic product (marketed plus a significant portion of
the non-marketed). The ratio: (ESP/SEP)100=%ESP is a measure of
proportion of the SEP from ecosystem services. Both SEP and %ESP
were calculated and mapped for each 1 km2 pixel on the earths
surface, and aggregated by country. Results show the detailed
spatial patterns of GDP, ESP, and SEP (also available at:
http://www.du.edu/_psutton/-
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esiindexisee/EcolEconESI.htm). Globally, while GDP is
concentrated in the northern industrialized countries, ESP is
concentrated in tropical regions and in wetlands and other coastal
systems. %ESP ranges from 1% for Belgium and Luxembourg to 3% for
the Netherlands, 18% for India, 22% for the United States, 49% for
Costa Rica, 57% for Chile, 73% for Brazil, and 92% for Russia.
While GDP per capita has the usual northern industrialized
countries at the top of the list, SEP per capita shows a quite
different picture, with a mixture of countries with either high
GDP/capita, high ESP/capita, or a combination near the top of the
list. Finally, we compare our results with two other indices: (1)
The 2001 Enironmental Sustainability Index (ESI) derived as an
initiative of the Global Leaders of Tomorrow Environment Task
Force, World Economic Forum, and (2) Ecological Footprints of
Nations : How much Nature do they use ? How much Nature do they
have developed by Mathis Wackernagel and others. While both of
these indices purport to measure sustainability, the ESI is
actually mainly a measure of economic activity (and is correlated
with GDP), while the Eco-Footprint index is a measure of
environmental impact. The related eco-deficit (national ecological
capacity minus national footprint) correlates well with %ESP.
24. Wilson, M. A. and R. B. Howarth (2002). "Discourse-based
Valuation of Ecosystem Services: Establishing Fair Outcomes through
Group Deliberation." Ecological Economics 41, 431-443. (Journal
article)
Abstract: Discourse-based methods involving small groups of
citizens have yet to be thoroughly engaged in the practice of
ecosystem valuation. This remains true despite the fact that many
ecosystem goods and servicessuch as clean air, biodiversity, and
unpolluted lakes and riversare considered to be public goods. The
conventional application of ecosystem valuation relies heavily on
methodologies such as contingent valuation, in which individuals
are asked to express the value they attach to ecosystem goods and
services in social isolation. The difference between the public
nature of ecosystem services and their valuation through individual
expression has thus recently led to calls for more deliberative
forms of environmental valuation. Because the allocation of
ecosystem services directly affects many people and raises
normative questions about social equity, it is argued that
carefully designed discursive methods will help ensure the
achievement of social equity goals. In this paper, we examine the
theoretical and normative assumptions that rest beneath the
proposed turn towards discourse-based methods, and identify
procedures for testing their application in the field.
25. Murtough, G., Aretino B. and Matysek, A. (2002). Creating
Markets for Ecosystem Services. Canberra, Australia, Productivity
Commission: 60. (Research paper)
Key findings
o Ecosystem services are the functions performed by ecosystems
that lead to desirable environmental outcomes, such as air and
water purification, drought and flood mitigation, and climate
stabilisation.
o Markets rarely exist for ecosystem services. Typically, those
who supply ecosystem services are not rewarded for all the benefits
they provide to others, and those who reduce ecosystem services do
not bear all the costs they impose on others.
o Without markets, allowing parties to act in their own private
interest can result in fewer ecosystem services than is optimal for
society as a whole.
o In theory, governments can create a market for an ecosystem
service by defining a new property right that is both linked to the
ecosystem service and can be exchanged for reward. Two Australian
examples are:
the introduction of tradeable emission permits to limit saline
discharges into the Hunter River; and
state legislation separating title over the carbon sequestered
in forest plantations from ownership of the timber.
o This approach to creating markets is more likely to be
successful if the relevant property right has a number of
characteristics, including:
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ownership can be defined and enforced at reasonable cost;
and
trades are not significantly hindered by high uncertainty; a
lack of buyers and sellers; or a major imbalance in the information
held by buyers and sellers.
o It appears that climate change is the environmental problem
that is most suitable for market creation. The greatest
difficulties are likely to arise in creating a single market for
all aspects of biodiversity.
o A review of market creation schemes in Australia and the
United States indicated that creating markets can, under the right
conditions and with appropriate market design, be an efficient way
to achieve certain environmental goals.
o However, policy makers need to pay particular attention to the
issues of scientific uncertainty, market liquidity, and the role of
supporting regulation
26. Binning, C. (2002). Making Farm Forestry Pay - Markets for
Ecosystem Services. Canberra, Australia, Rural Industries Research
and Development Corporation Publication No 02/005. (Report)
Abstract: The environment supplies important services that
benefit human societies. A healthy environment provides rainfall,
productive oceans, fertile soil, clean air, clean water, waste
processing, buffering against extreme weather, and regeneration of
the atmosphere. The environmental services that trees supply
include carbon sequestration, groundwater recharge reduction,
surface water filtration, protection from wind and water erosion,
weed exclusion and habitat for nature conservation. Can
environmental services make farm forestry pay? Markets for
environmental services are not a panacea. They will only supplement
established commercial markets for wood products. Further, they
will not provide a total solution to Australias pressing
environmental problems. However, markets for environmental services
have the potential to add value to farm forestry projects and to
complement the suite of policy tools available to address
environmental degradation.
27. Whitten, S. et al. (2003). Markets for ecosystem services:
Applying the concepts. 47th Annual Conference of the Australian
Agricultural and Resource Economics Society, Fremantle.
(Report)
Abstract: In recent times, use of market-based instruments to
facilitate enhanced protection or production of ecosystem services
has achieved a high public profile. However, much work remains to
apply these tools in practice. Particular issues include definition
and measurement of ecosystem services, development of institutions
and mechanisms to facilitate trade and integration of these
instruments into the broader natural resource management agenda and
toolbox. In this paper these issues are explored with respect to
pilot markets for ecosystem services in three case study
catchments. Emphasis is placed on pilot selection rationale and
identification of key facilitative mechanisms and institutions.
28. Grieg-Gran, M. and J. Bishop. (2005). "How Can Markets for
Ecosystem Services Benefit the Poor?" Retrieved 14.04.2005, 2005,
from http://www.iied.org/docs/mdg/ MDG2-ch4.pdf. (Journal
article)
Introduction: There is growing interest in market-based
approaches to conserving ecosystem services. In both developed and
developing countries a range of measures have been introduced. The
basic concept is to create positive economic incentives for land
managers to behave in ways that increase, or at least maintain,
certain environmental functions. These include, among others:
o The sequestration of carbon in biomass or soils;
o The provision of habitat for endangered species;
o The protection and maintenance of landscapes that people find
attractive (such as cloud forest in Costa Rica, the veld in
Southern Africa or the patchwork of hedgerows, cropland and
woodland typical of southern England); and
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o A catch-all category of 'watershed protection' which involves
various hydrological functions related to the quality, quantity or
timing of fresh water flows from upstream areas to downstream
users.
Some schemes are recent and experimental, such as the Bush
Tender pilot scheme covering 3000 hectares in the State of
Victoria, Australia, under which private land owners are paid to
provide habitat conservation services to state agencies. Other
schemes are relatively well-established, such as the Payment for
Environmental Services (PES) scheme in Costa Rica, which has been
in operation for over eight years. While the primary goal of these
market initiatives has been environmental, there is growing
interest in their potential to meet development objectives as well.
The commitment to the United Nations Millennium Development Goals
(MDGs) raises the question as to whether these new markets for
ecosystem services can also help reduce poverty. In this respect,
the most obvious benefit of market initiatives is the potential to
bring new sources of cash income to previously marginalised
communities. But just as the formulation of the MDGs reflects a
view that poverty is multi-dimensional, so it is important to look
beyond cash income and consider how market initiatives affect other
dimensions of poverty. For example, the improvement of natural
resource management resulting from the use of such mechanisms may
bring benefits in the form of improved nutrition for those who
depend on wild foods. Similarly, the urban poor may benefit from
improved access to safe drinking water and reduced risk of floods,
as a result of payments for watershed protection upstream.
At the same time, there are also concerns that markets for
ecosystem services may be harmful to the poor, for example by
restricting their access to natural resources on which they depend
for their livelihoods or by exposing them to the risks of market
change. Much depends on how the initiatives are designed and the
context in which they are introduced. This paper explores the
various ways in which markets for ecosystem services could
contribute to the MDGs, as well as the possible pitfalls. Drawing
on some recent case studies it considers the experience of specific
initiatives.
29. Wunder S. (2005): Payments for environmental services: Some
nuts and bolts. CIFOR Occasional Paper No. 42. (Report)
Wunder assesses the payments for EGS from a grassroots
perspective and sees them as critical for the livelihoods of the
local people, and stresses the strengths and limitations of paying
for environmental services (PES).
Abstract: Payments for environmental services (PES) are part of
a new and more direct conservation paradigm, explicitly recognizing
the need to bridge the interests of landowners and outsiders.
Eloquent theoretical assessments have praised the absolute
advantages of PES over traditional conservation approaches. Some
pilot PES exists in the tropics, but many field practitioners and
prospective service buyers and sellers remain sceptical about the
concept. This paper aims to help demystify PES for non-economists,
starting with a simple and coherent definition of the term. It then
provides practical how-to hints for PES design. It considers the
likely niche for PES in the portfolio of conservation approaches.
This assessment is based on a literature review, combined with
field observations from research in Latin America and Asia. It
concludes that service users will continue to drive PES, but their
willingness to pay will only rise if schemes can demonstrate clear
additionally vis--vis carefully established baselines, if
trust-building processes with service providers are sustained, and
PES recipients livelihood dynamics is better understood. PES best
suits intermediate and/or projected threat scenarios, often in
marginal lands with moderate conservation opportunity costs. People
facing credible but medium-sized environmental degradation are more
likely to become PES recipients than those living in relative
harmony with Nature. The choice between PES cash and in-kind
payments is highly context-dependent. Poor PES recipients are
likely to gain from participation, though their access might be
constrained and non-participating landless poor could lose out. PES
is a highly promising conservation approach that can benefit
buyers, sellers and improve the resource base, but it is unlikely
to completely outstrip other conservation instruments.
30. Vedelt P. et al. (2004): Counting on the Environment -
Forest Incomes and the Rural Poor. Environmental Economics Series,
114, World Bank Environment Department, Washington, D.C.
(Report)
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This report presents many cases fort the importance of forests
for local communities and indicates possibilities for their
valuation.
Summary: Environmental income is defined as rent (or value
added) captured through consumption, barter, or sale of natural
capital within the first link in a market chain, starting from the
point at which the natural capital is extracted or appropriated.
The present study, which focuses on forest environmental income,
had two main objectives. The first was to investigate the extent to
which people in rural areas of developing countries depend on
income from forest environmental resources, and how this dependence
is conditioned by different political, economic, ecological, and
sociocultural factors. This is accomplished by a meta-analysis of
54 case studies. The second objective was to review research
methodology and make recommendations for best practices in
assessment of forest environmental income. Although there are
substantial variations in methodology and quality of case studies,
results indicate that forest environmental income represents a
significant income source with an average contribution to household
income of some 22 percent in the populations sampled. The main
sources of forest environmental incomes are fuelwood, wild foods,
and fodder for animals. Forest environmental income has a strong
and significant equalizing effect on local income distribution.
Cash income constitutes about half of total forest environmental
income. The report recommends the development of research
protocols, field methods, and simple analytical models to analyze
the role of environmental income in rural livelihoods. More
in-depth studies are needed to unravel the roles of local
heterogeneity and social differentiation. Extended studies that
generate time series data would assist in understanding the role of
environmental income in both individual household strategies and in
broader development strategies. The omission of forest
environmental income in national statistics and in poverty
assessments leads to an underestimation of rural incomes, and a
lack of appreciation of the value of environment. In areas where
environmental income is important, this omission may also lead to
flawed policies and interventions.
31. Wunder, S. (2006). "Are Direct Payments for Environmental
Services Spelling Doom for Sustainable Forest Management in the
Tropics?." Ecology and Society 11(2): 23-35. (Journal article)
Abstract: Over the past several decades, significant donor
funding has been directed to sustainable forest management in the
tropics, in the hope of combining forest conservation with economic
gains through sustainable use. To date, this approach has produced
only modest results in terms of changed silvicultural and land-use
practices in this area. Direct payments for environmental services
(PES) have been suggested as a promising alternative but still
remain widely untested in the tropics. This paper first provides a
conceptual assessment of PES, comparing the main features of this
practice with those of other conservation instruments. Second, the
paper discusses a series of critical questions that have been
raised about both the environmental and livelihood impacts of PES.
It is concluded that some ex ante judgments about the effects of
PES may have been overly critical, and that, based on preliminary
assessments, there is good reason to continue experimental PES
implementation for purposes of consolidating our knowledge.
32. Scherr, S. J., et al. (2006). Developing future ecosystem
servicws payments in China lessons learnd from international
experiance, Forest Trends.
(http://www.forest-trends.org/documents/publications/ChinaPES%20from%20Caro.pdf)
(Report)
Prologue: This paper captures the international evolution and
current status of major types of Payments for Ecosystem Services,
summarizes the lessons that international experience provides
regarding how best to design and implement PES schemes, and
synthesizes findings especially relevant for China. When adapting
international experience to the Chinese context, a number of PES
models appear most immediately applicable in China. These include
a) PES between drainage-area water users and upper watershed
service providers, b) biodiversity offsets to pay for the
unavoidable damage of development activities, such as mining, c)
improving upon current schemes, such as the Sloping Land Conversion
Program and Forestry Ecosystem Compensation Fund through innovative
targeting and design methods, d) carbon sequestration, both as part
of existing programs and also through the development of carbon
trading schemes as a means to engage the private sector. Though
these PES markets are still at various stages of development
worldwide, international experience already provides many valuable
insights for Chinese policymakers. In general, the key issues
regarding the effectiveness
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and efficiency of PES programs are: the importance of policy,
institutional and legal frameworks; improving the poverty reduction
impacts of PES by engaging local communities in the process of
negotiation, design and implementation; devising methods to improve
targeting; and the need to engage the private sector in order to
better capture the value of ecosystem services and to improve the
financial sustainability of current and future PES programs by
relieving the burden on public funds. Around the world,
policymakers and PES stakeholders highlight the fact that
developing successful PES schemes is a learning process which must
include platforms for dialogue. No single set of policy tools and
targets will provide a definitive solution to Chinas environmental
priorities and challenges, since these will change as its economic,
institutional and scientific capacity develop. International
experience also suggests that by bringing in local communities and
governments more closely into all aspects and stages of PES design
and implementation, China will be able to significantly improve
equity and efficiency issues in current and future PES schemes.
Thus, the process of building and revising PES instruments is
valuable in itself, since it stimulates the ongoing dialogue,
capacity-building and the institutional and legal reforms needed to
better identify and align the social costs and benefits of
environmental protection and ecosystem service provision. It is
through this process as much as it is through the adoption of any
particular set of market-based instruments that China can gain
greater flexibility and adaptability in reconciling the dual goals
of conservation and sustainable rural development.
2.4 EGS and forest management
The management of forests to enhance the provision of EGS is a
broad field which mainly addresses silvicultural measures on stand
and landscape level in natural forests as well as forest
plantations. As there exist a variety of forest types and a number
of situations under which forests appear, there are a number of
functions forests fulfil. Therefore, there is no general way to
manage forests to provide all EGS at the same time. Stakeholders
and decision makers have focused on prioritizing services and
manageing the forest accordingly. Here I present a sample of
literature describing forest management for the provision of
biodiversity, water regulation, carbon sequestration and NWFP. The
main good derived from the forest, timber, is not included here as
most of the silviculture literature is focused on this product.
33. Evans J. 1999 Planted forests of the wet and dry tropics:
their variety, nature, and significance. New Forests 17: 2536.
(Journal article,)
This article provides an overview of the varieties of
plantations including their significance for the provision of
EGS.
Abstract. Planting trees in tropical countries is an
increasingly important forestry activity. Although much attention
has been paid, and rightly so, to rapid deforestation in the
tropics, the contribution and role that planted forests can play
are now at the center of policy and planning in most national
forestry strategies. The changing emphasis from exploitative
management of natural forests to managed natural forests and
plantation forests, seen in temperate regions over the last 100
years, has been taking place in tropical countries largely over the
last 20 years. In neither temperate nor tropical regions has this
evolution finished. Planted forests will increasingly furnish wood
resources that meet domestic wood needs and provide many
environmental services. In this paper I seek to place in
perspective the contribution that planted forests will make in the
tropics. I emphasize (1) the wide variety of purposes that planted
forests serve; (2) the sustainability of plantation silviculture;
and (3) the overriding importance of due regard to peoples
participation. I am optimistic about the great value that planted
forests, rightly used, can provide for a great many hard-pressed
peoples across the tropics and beyond.
34. Koechli D.A. and Brang P. (2005) Simulating effects of
forest management on selected public forest goods and services: A
case study. Forest Ecology and Management 209: 57-68. (Journal
article)
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Shows how the change in the provision of selected EGS through
different forest management strategies can be simulated through a
case study in Switzerland.
Abstract: Silvicultural interventions alter forest
characteristics such as stand structure, tree species composition
and developmental stage. These forest characteristics in turn
influence the quality and quantity of public goods and services a
forest provides, such as space for recreation, clean water, and air
purification. In this paper, we use a forest growth simulator and a
geographical information system (GIS) to assess the effects of
three silvicultural strategies on recreational suitability, water
purification potential and air purification potential in a
peri-urban catchment in Switzerland. For each of the three
services, an index was developed to capture the suitability of a
stand for providing the service. The growth simulator SILVA 2.2 was
used to project forest development over 50 years under the three
silvicultural strategies BU business as usual (small patch cuts,
Swiss selection system), NI no intervention, and MA mass production
(clearcuts and plantations of Picea abies). In all three
strategies, road maintenance continued. The outputs of SILVA 2.2
were transferred into the GIS. Indices for the three services were
calculated and aggregated over the study area. The development of
the indices for all three services mainly reflected the changes in
developmental stages and in the spatial patch distribution as a
result of silvicultural interventions. No single strategy resulted
in maximum values for all three indices. Recreational suitability
was highest with the BU strategy and lowest with the MA strategy.
The latter was due to the conversion of broad-leaved forests into
plantations. Water purification potential was captured as nitrogen
(N) storage in tree biomass and N removal by timber harvesting. In
these nearly N-saturated forest ecosystems, the water purification
potential was generally highest with the BU strategy, and lowest
with the NI strategy. The air purification potential was higher
with the NI than with the BU strategy. With the MA strategy, it
rapidly decreased at the beginning, but increased after 30 years
and surpassed the other strategies as soon as most of the
plantations had reached the pole stage. The NI and MA strategies
presented are clearly extreme strategies, which could not
realistically be applied to the whole catchment as so many
different owners are involved. However, the results of our study
can be used to show to what extent management activities affect
goods and services. We propose using such tools more often in
forest planning processes to support the development of land-use
visions and policies on a regional scale.
35. Horne, P., Boxall P. C. and Adamowicz, W. L (2005).
"Multiple-use management of forest recreation sites: a spatially
explicit choice experiment." Forest Ecology and Management
207(1-2): 189-199. (Journal article)
Abstract: This study examined visitors' preferences for forest
management at five adjacent municipal recreation sites in Finland,
using a spatially explicit choice experiment. The study design
accounted for changes in scenery and biodiversity indices in the
forest environment resulting from forest management practices.
Respondents were asked to choose their preferred management option
from alternative management regimes for the sites. The options were
characterized by different levels of attributes, which included
site-specific species richness levels and forest scenery, costs of
management, and indicators of species richness levels over the
system of recreation sites. Results show that visitors have a
strong preference for the preservation of species richness and for
scenic beauty. However, when there is a trade-off between these
benefits, visitors chose their favourite scenery at their favourite
recreation site and prefer management options, which preserve
biodiversity at the other sites in the recreation system. The study
shows how modelling the sites as independent units of the forest
management regime permit policy-relevant conclusions to be drawn
regarding the specialisation and zoning of multiple-use objectives.
The approach also allows for the development of hypothetical
management scenarios and estimation of respective economic welfare
changes for visitors from these scenarios.
36. Lindenmayer, D. B. and Franklin J.F. (2002). Conserving
Forest Biodiversity, A comprehensive multiscaled approach.
Washington - Covelo - London, Island Press. (Book)
This book is a benchmark in the management of biodiversity in
forests. It covers all the relevant issues on the stand and
landscape level.
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37. Lindenmayer, D. B., Margules C. R. and Botkin D. B. (2000).
"Indicators of Biodiversity for ecologically sustainable forest
management." Conservation Biology 14(4): 941-950. (Journal
article)
Abstract: The conservation of biological diversity has become
one of the important goals of managing forests in an ecologically
sustainable way. Ecologists and forest resource managers need
measures to judge the success or failure of management regimes
designed to sustain biological diversity. The relationships between
potential indicator species and total biodiversity are not well
established. Carefully designed studies are required to test
relationships between the presence and abundance of potential
indicator species and other taxa and the maintenance of critical
ecosystem processes in forests. Other indicators of biological
diversity in forests, in addition or as alternatives to indicator
species, include what we call structure-based indicators. These are
stand-level and landscape-level (spatial) features of forests such
as stand structural complexity and plant species composition,
connectivity, and heterogeneity. Although the adoption of practices
to sustain (or recreate) key characteristics of forest ecosystems
appear intuitively sensible and broadly consistent with current
knowledge, information is lacking to determine whether such stand-
and landscape-level features of forests will serve as successful
indices of (and help conserve) biodiversity. Given our limited
knowledge of both indicator species and structure-based indicators,
we advocate the following four approaches to enhance biodiversity
conservation in forests: (1) establish biodiversity priority areas
(e.g., reserves) managed primarily for the conservation of
biological diversity; (2) within production forests, apply
structure-based indicators including structural complexity,
connectivity, and heterogeneity; (3) using multiple conservation
strategies at multiple spatial scales, spread out risk in wood
production forests; and (4) adopt an adaptive management approach
to test the validity of structure-based indices of biological
diversity by treating management practices as experiments. These
approaches would aim to provide new knowledge to managers and
improve the effectiveness of current management strategies.
38. Carnus, J. M. et al. (2006). "Planted Forests and
Biodiversity." Journal of Forestry. 104(2): 65-78. (Journal
article)
Abstract: Expansion of planted forests and intensification of
their management has raised concerns among forest managers and the
public over the implications of these trends for sustainable
production and conservation of forest biological diversity. We
review the current state of knowledge on the impacts of plantation
forestry on genetic and species diversity at different spatial
scales and discuss the economic and ecological implications of
biodiversity management within plantation stands and landscapes.
Managing plantations to produce goods such as timber while also
enhancing ecological services such as biodiversity involves
tradeoffs, which can be made only with a clear understanding of the
ecological context of plantations in the broader landscape and
agreement among stakeholders on the desired balance of goods and
ecological services from plantations
39. Bawa, K. S. and Seidler R. (1998). "Natural Forest
Management and Conservation of Biodiversity in Tropical Forests."
Conservation Biology 12(1): 46-55. (Journal article)
Abstract: As a reaction to the continued dwindling of tropical
forest resources, many research and development organizations have
turned to the idea of natural forest management in the hope of
making tropical forest lands more profitable while maintaining
biodiversity. Assertions of sustainability in logging practices
have been inadequately supported, however. We begin with a review
of the present knowledge of the effects of logging operations on
various organisms. Post-harvest surveys of a spectrum of tropical
forests indicate a range of logging effects from local extirpation
to substantial increases in local densities of some species. The
state of our knowledge does not permit quantitative predictions,
but logging at any level appears to have simplifying and
homogenizing effects on tropical forest diversity when examined at
community or regional scales. Furthermore, the social and economic
problems presented by natural forest management systems have not
yet been adequately addressed. We present alternatives to the
strong emphasis on "sustainable natural forest management" as a
means of retaining the diversity of tropical forest communities.
These alternatives include increased support for management of
secondary forest, restoration of degraded lands, plantation
forestry, nontimber uses for some forests, changes in accounting
procedures to reflect the true value of natural forests, and
support for forestry agencies charged with protecting forest
reserves
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40. Hartley, M. J. (2002). "Rationale and methods for conserving
biodiversity in plantation forests." Forest Ecology and Management
155(1-3): 81-95. (Journal article)
Abstract: Industrial forest managers and conservation biologists
agree on at least two things: (1) plantation forests can play a
role in conserving biodiversity, and (2) plantations will occupy an
increasing proportion of future landscapes. I review literature
from around the world on the relationship between biodiversity and
plantation management, structure, and yield. The dynamics of
plantation ecology and management necessarily differ by landscape,
geographic area, ecosystem type, etc. This review provides a broad
array of management recommendations, most of which apply to most
regions, and many patterns are evident. I suggest a new plantation
forest paradigm based on the hypothesis that minor improvements in
design and management can better conserve biodiversity, often with
little or no reduction in fiber production. There is ample evidence
that these methods do benefit biodiversity, and can also entail
various economic benefits. Adherence to these recommendations
should vary by plantation type, and depending on the proportion of
the surrounding landscape or region that is or will be planted.
Stand-level variables to consider include socio-economic factors,
native community type and structure, crop species composition, and
pest dynamics. During establishment, managers should consider
innovations in snag and reserve tree management (e.g. leave
strips), where mature native trees and/or understory vegetation are
left unharvested or allowed to regenerate. Polycultures should be
favored over monocultures by planting multiple crop species and/or
leaving some native trees unharvested. Native species should
generally be favored over exotics. Site-preparation should favor
methods that reflect natural disturbances and conserve coarse woody
debris. Plantations that have already been established by
traditional design can also conserve biodiversity via small
modifications to operations. Earlier thinning schedules or longer
rotations can strongly affect biodiversity, as can reserve trees
left after plantation harvest to remain through a second
rotation
41. Brown, S., Palola E. and Lorenzo M. (2006). The Possibility
of Plantations: Integrating Ecological Forestry into Plantation
Systems, National Wildlife Federation: 46. (Report)
Summary: Forests provide critical and irreplaceable habitat for
wildlife, as well as opportunities for recreation and spiritual
enrichment. Forest products are also a critical economic engine in
the global economy via the opportunity for harvesting, processing,
and manufacturing jobs and the provision of a wide array of
consumer products. Landowners choosing to manage their forests for
timber production must decide generally whether to use natural
forest or a plantation management system. Plantations generally
yield more product in less time than natural forests, yet they
often result in a simplified ecosystem. Wildlife species have
varying habitat requirements for food, water, shelter, and breeding
areas that cover a range of forest succession types, from very
young to very mature forests. Habitat diversity at the landscape
level generally offers better opportunities to meet wildlife needs
rather than striving to protect all diversity components within
each stand or management unit. During the decade spanning
1993-2003, the global forest plantation area increased by an
estimated 32 million hectares, while the area of natural forests
declined by 126 million hectares. This trend is expected to
continue. As plantation systems represent an increasing proportion
of our forested landscape, the need to incorporate biodiversity has
become more urgent. Can forest and plantation managers do a better
job of integrating biodiversity and non-timber values into
plantation systems? Yes! The National Wildlife Federation (NWF) has
found there are many examples from around the world where
plantation managers are actively experimenting with, if not
directly implementing, key biodiversity measures in their
plantation systems. However, these greener plantation systems have
not been broadly recognized nor have their techniques been
sufficiently mainstreamed into plantation management at the level
and pace of new plantation establishment.
As plantations systems are more widely adopted, NWF believes
that techniques which transcend the historically narrow and
intensive focus on productivity need to be more vigorously explored
and encouraged. These complex plantation models would help to
protect and retain the ecological resilience and economic
productivity of our plantation landscapes. Scientific research and
management experience have revealed a variety of strategies for
incorporating biodiversity considerations into plantation
management systems. NWFs report profiles the use of several
techniques, including those which emphasize the following:
Maintenance of landscape connectivity. Habitat fragmentation
creates
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barriers and gaps which inhibit the ability of fish and wildlife
to meet their habitat needs. An area with high connectivity allows
species to move through the landscape and readily fulfill their
habitat needs. Supporting strategies include the establishment of
corridors and stepping stones, the retention of biological
legacies, and careful consideration of road networkplacement.
Maintenance of landscape diversity. Wildlife species have varying
habitat requirements, and diversity at the landscape scale is
generally the best way to meet these needs. Strategies include
varying the size and shape of plantation stands, planting a variety
of species including native species as possible, establishing mixed
stands, retaining areas of native forest, and using prescribed or
controlled fire as appropriate. Maintenance of structural
complexity at the stand level. Managing for complexity and
diversity within forest stands meets different species habitat
needs and contributes to diversity at the landscape scale.
Strategies include varying the spacing between trees, or widening
the spacing, when planting occurs, retaining patches of native
ground cover, thinning, incorporating biological legacies leave
trees, coarse woodydebris, tall stumps - and extending harvest
rotations.
Maintenance of integrity and protection of aquatic ecosystems
and riparian zones. Lakes, streams, wetlands and other aquatic
ecosystems support much of the biodiversity in forested landscapes.
The establishment of streamside or riparian management zones,
protected wetlands and water bodies, and the rehabilitation of
degraded waterways will support water quality, water flow, and
decrease the likelihood of soil erosion.Variability in management
actions. Applying different strategies across an ownership allows
landowners to pursue the best fit for a specific situation in terms
of productivity and biodiversity. Implementing a variety of
strategies also diversifies a landowners risk if negative or
sub-optimal responses result from a strategy. Variability is
explicitly recognized in variable retention harvesting, variable
density thinning and forestland zoning programs, but can also be
the aggregate sum of many different strategies (such as those
listed above). As in any forest management operation, the specific
context and objectives of a plantation system must be considered in
order to identify appropriate biodiversity strategies. Not all
strategies are appropriate on all units. Ecologically progressive
plantation management operations already incorporate strategies to
support biodiversity conservation. While the primary objective of
owning and managing industrial forest plantations is the production
of timber and pulp, this does not preclude management which
supports both productivity and biodiversity. Case studies have
highlighted several examples from around the world where plantation
managers are actively experimenting with and implementing many of
these strategies. The results are companies that are financially
profitable while valuing the conservation of wildlife and ecosystem
services. Of course these companies must continuously monitor the
effectiveness of different strategies and adapt their management to
incorporate lessons learned. Carbon Sequestration The Role of
Plantations Natural carbon sequestration is the absorption and
storage of carbon from the atmosphere in plants, soils, and other
organic matter. It naturally occurs when trees are growing and
forests are maturing. Total carbon stocks vary considerably among
forest and vegetation types. Industrial plantation owners and
forest managers can structure their management activities to
generate net positive carbon sequestration through their
operations. However, growing trees for income and carbon uptake
alone is insufficient for maintaining biodiversity in many areas of
the world. Linking Plantations with Offsite Biodiversity Mitigation
The possibility that plantations can relieve pressure on natural
forests and enhance biodiversity through biodiversity exchanges or
offsets has been widely suggested. Theoretically, increasing the
output of wood fiber per unit of land can release forestland for
other conservation purposes. Such exchanges, properly constructed,
could create a win-win solution between wildlife and biodiversity,
and the benefits of continued forest product output and local
employment. These issues are examined, and a rough taxonomy for how
such landscape level bargains between plantation management and
conservation zones might go forward is explored. Meeting the Needs
of People and Wildlife On the whole, plantation systems can do
better in terms of managing for core wildlife and biodiversity
values. However, there are already many individual examples from
around the world that demonstrate the possibility for plantations
to be designed and managed in a more ecological manner. Such
practices can be implemented while maintaining economic returns. As
a supporter of incentivebased systems for improving forest
management, NWF hopes that the case studies and discussion in this
report will help nudge the process of plantation innovation and
experimentation towards systems that provide higher returns to
biodiversity and wildlife. Our interest is to see both the wildlife
and the people who dependon forests thrive together.
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42. Lhde, E., Laiho O. and Norokorpi Y. (1998).
"Diversity-oriented silviculture in the Boreal Zone of Europe."
Forest Ecology and Management 118: 223-243. (Journal article)
Abstract: This article presents the concepts and models of
diversity-oriented silviculture in the Boreal Zone of Europe based
on literature, Finnish national forest inventories and field
experiment data. The basic idea following the natural processes of
forest ecosystems in silvicultural practices has been known since
the last century but appropriate comparison materials for modelling
have been scanty previously. Stand structure classication used in
this study is based on the range and shape of stem distribution.
The two main groups are even-sized and uneven-sized. A subclass of
the latter, regularly all-sized, with dbh distribution resembling a
reversed J, forms the primary basis for treatment models. This kind
of structure, following the development and dynamics of natural
mixed stands, fulfils the requirements for biodiversity according
to international resolutions. Single tree selection and group
selection are primarily the main treatments and seed tree and
shelterwood cuttings are secondary treatments in diversity-oriented
silviculture. In addition, regimes aiming to diversify even-sized
stands in di