-
32
Eating Your Way to Immortality
Early Daoist Self-Cultivation Diets
SHAWN ARTHUR
Abstract
This paper examines health and bodyrelated claims made in the
LingbaoWufuxu
(ThePrefacetotheFiveLingbaoTalismansofNuminousTreasure),
anearlymedievalDaoisttextthatcontainsseventyrecipesforattaininghealth,longevity,andspiritualbenefit.Synthesizingthetextsmyriadclaimsandanalyzingtheirimplicitassumptions,Iworktodevelopanintegratedpictureofwhatwasconsideredcrucialforahealthybody,what
techniqueswereusedtoattainthisideal, and what goals were sought
using these practices. I examine the
textsclaimsaboutbecomingphysicallyandspirituallyhealthy,itsproposedstagesofpurificationandrefinement,andtherangeofindicatorsbywhichadherentscanmeasure
progress toward their ideal state.Not only does this study provide
anewinterpretationoftheWufuxusdietaryregimens,
italsoillustrateshowChinesemedical theories influenced the
textsauthors to present immortality as alogical evolution of
healthperfectingpractices. This analysis leads to questionsof how
the idea of perfecting ones health functionswithin theworldview
andritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.
Daoists arewell known for their emphasis on
selfcultivationpracticesaimed to attune them to theDaoand toachieve
longevity.Onesignificantpracticewhichhasreceivedrelativelylittleattentionisreligiousdietaryasceticism.AswithotherDaoistpractices,dietaryregimesintegrateawiderangeof
ideassuchascosmologicalcorrelation,medical
theories,andreligioussymbolismtodevelopabeneficialandcomprehensive
exercise that is expected to compliment other selfcultivation
andreligiousritualpractices.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/33
Thisproject focusesontheTaishanglingbaowufuxu(Preface to the
FiveMostHighNuminousTreasureTalismans),1whichwaswrittenandedited
from the second to the fifthcenturiesCE in theJiangnan region in
southeasternChina.TheWufuxus first juan (scroll/chapter) includes
instructions for
specializedbreathingpracticesaswellasadescriptionofthe idealized
lineageassociatedwiththetextanditstalismans
fromitsemergenceduringthegenerationofthecosmosthrough itsvarious
attributedowners
includingancientmythologicalfigures,MastersofEsoterica (fangshi),
and famous
immortals.ThetextsthirdjuanincludesadetailedtransmissionritualforthefiveLingbao
talismans, which are presented (3.9b111b) and which are
wellknownfortheirclaimedabilitytoprotecttheirwearerfromharmwhenexploring
wilderness areas in search of immortality elixir ingredients.2
Theformaltransmissionritual,firstpresentedinthisjuan(3.3a7b3),becametheritualmodeladoptedbyDaoistsfromthefifthcenturyforward(Raz2004,8,15,36381).3
Situated between these sections, the middle juan of this text
provides an extensive and detailed example of Daoist dietary
practices
manyofwhichareattributedtothefiguresdiscussedinearlierpartsofthe
text. This section, whose contents is the subject of this essay, is
atechnicalmanualofseventyrecipes(listedintheappendix)thatfocuseson
theattainmentofperfectedhealthandphysical immortality
throughtheingestionofherbal andvegetalbasedprescriptions.4
1DZ388;hereaftercitedasWufuxu.Thenumberingsysteminthisworkisbased
on that found in Komjathys Title IndextotheDaoistCanon (2002). For
adetaileddiscussionofthehistoryofthevariouseditionsofthistextanditscloserelation
to other earlymanuscripts such as theLingbaojing and Lingbaowufu
,seeRaz(2004,912,142150).
2Forexample,seeWufuxu 3.8b79a10;GeHongs Baopuzi
(BookoftheMasterWhoEmbracesSimplicity,DZ1185)11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796.
3Foracomplete listofthecontentsofthetexts firstand
thirdscrolls,seeRaz(2004,3137).
4 Although lacking an explicit explanatory statement, the
context
andplacementoftheserecipesalsoseemtoindicatethattheyfunctionaspreparatorypractices
for participation in the later formal ritual which relies on the
adepthavingattainedmanyofthegoalspresentedintherecipes,suchashavingonesenergypurifiedandstrengthened,havingtheabilitytofast,beingincommunicationwiththegods,andhavingtheprotectionoftheJadeMaidens.
-
34/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
TechniquesTointroduceDaoistdiets,itmustberecognizedthatalloftheWufuxusdietarypracticesandtheirexpectedbenefitsare
predicatedonearlyChinesemedicalunderstandingsof thephysicalbodyand
the food itconsumesinenergeticterms.Qi
(organic,materialessentialenergy)isthefundamentalenergythatisfoundineverythingthroughoutthecosmos,includingthehuman
body,whichrequires qi tomaintainhealthandlife.
ThisideaisreflectedthroughouttheWufuxu,especiallyinitsmanyrecipes
thatpresent benefiting and increasing qi as abasic selfcultivation
achievement.5For example, properly ingesting a
compoundofChinaRootfungus(fuling;Poriacocos),Rehmannia(dihuang;Rehmanniaglutinosa
Libosch),sesameseed(huma;Sesamumindicum),andasparagusroot(tianmendong;Asparaguscochinensis)powdersis
thought to strengthen ones qi in just thirty days and to double
itwithinonehundreddaysnecessaryattainmentsbefore
furtherrefinementcantakeplace(2.15a38;recipe20).
Oneresultofthisworldviewisanattempttoingestthemostefficaciousformsofqiinorder
tohave thebeststartingplace
forproficientlyrefiningandtransformingonesbodytoitsultimatepotential.Forexample,thetextstates:Eatingthatwhichiscleanandpurebringslonglife,andeatingthatwhichisuncleanandcorruptcausesoneslife(ming)to
be interrupted (2.23b2; recipe 28). Therefore, proper selection
andpreparation of foods is crucial to Daoist selfcultivation. In
fact,
theWufuxuisfilledwithadmonitionstoingestonlyingredientsthatareharvestedandpreparedonparticulardaysassociatedwithoptimalqi
conditionsandcorrespondences.
TheWufuxu contains seventythree different ingredients,
themostpopularofwhichareSesameseeds,Asparagusroot,Rehmannia,Chinarootfungus,Pinetreesap(songzhi;Pinus),Pokeroot(shanglu;Phytolaccaacinosa),Locusttreeseeds(huaizi;Sophorajaponica),Wolfberries(Gouqi;Lyciumchinense),andGinger(jiang;Zingiberofficinale).6Eachingredienthasitsownmedicinalproperties,manyofwhich
5Seerecipes1,2,7,12,14,20,25,27a,28,36,43,44,46. 6 The text
contains fortyone plantbased active ingredients, as well as
twelvevarietiesofrice(mi),wheat(mai),andmillet(chishumi,shu
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/35
arestatedexplicitlyinthetextandwhichcorrespondtootherearlymateriamedicainformation(seeArthur2006a,190213).
In addition to the ingredients innate qualities, the text
stipulatesthatadeptsmusttakeintoconsiderationvariousimportantcosmologicalcorrelationsespeciallydates,seasons,yinyangstates,andFivePhasesenergieswhen
collecting,preparing, and ingesting thevarious
ingredients.Forexample,ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLifeExpectancydiscussesharvestingthechrysanthemumplant(ju;Chrysanthemummorifolium),eachpartofwhichhasaspecialnameindicatingitskeyproperty,
and says:
Duringthecourseofthethreespringmonths,onthe jiayin day in
themiddle of the day, gather transform
lifeleaves.Duringthecourseofthethreesummermonths,onthebingyindayinthemiddleoftheday,gatherthereplenishandrefillstalkDuringthethreeautumnmonthsontheyuyi
dayintheafternoon,gatherthesunsessence . SunsEssence
isthechrysanthemumsflower.Alwaysinthewinterinthetenthmonthonthewuyindayatdawn,gather
the spirit essence These are the chrysanthemumsseedsInwinter
intheeleventhortwelfthmonthontherenyindayatsunset,gatherlongevity.Longevityisthechrysanthemumsroots.
(2.7a99a1;recipe12)7
Inotherwords, tomaximizeefficiency inattaining
theirgoals,adeptsmustremainawareofthemedicinalandqibasedpropertiesof
theingredientstheyareingesting.Thisisdoneinpartbecausethesecharacteristicscanchangedependinguponthetimestheplantsareharvested,prepared,and
ingested,butalsobecause
thisrequiresadeptstobecognizantoftheirownenergeticneedswhenchoosinganappropriatediet.
daomi )
thatarefermentedtoproducealcoholswiththeadditionofvegetalactive
ingredients.Additionally, there are a fewnonvegetal active
ingredients[mica(yunmu),deerantler(mijiao),mercury(shuiyin),andtin(xi)],andmanynonvegetal,nonactiveingredientssuchaswater,honey,andtheanimalfatsusedforfryingin
somerecipes.
7SeeArthur 2006, 605 andRaz2004,3612 for discussion of
theChinesecalendricalsystemanditsusageinthe Wufuxu.
-
36/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Ideally,normaleatinghabitsalsoshouldbeabandoned in
favorofingestingspecialelixirlikecompounds
andcosmicqi,sincethesecontainmore specialized and rarified qi than
normal foods. Accordingly, theWufuxu contains three basic types of
selfcultivation dietary regimen,eachrequiringadifferentlevelof
commitment.
The first of these I label mildly ascetic because it involves
eatingspecialvegetalandherbal formulasassupplements
tonormalmealsorslightly reduced food intake. Many of theWufuxu
diets proclaim
thatpractitionersshouldingestherbalmedicationsbefore(recipe16)orafter(recipes
12, 14, 34) eating meals, or with any other foods they
desire(recipes 9, 21, 47, 66). For example,
afterharvestingandpreparing theorchid RedArrow(chijian ;
Gastrodiaelata),thetextsays:
Asregardsthepropermethodofingestion,takea small spoonful
aftermeals.This generally retards old age.After tendaysyouwill know
its effectiveness.After thirtydaysyour
qiwillbecomegreat.Onceyouhavetakenitforover100days,inadditiontotheabove,yourbodywillbecomelight,andyourearsand
eyes will become astute and clear. After one year,
teethandhairwillregrow. (2.9b22.10b3;recipe14)
Theleastdemandingofthetextsregimens,thisdiettypeseemstofocusonimprovingoverallhealthandasanintroductiontomoresophisticated
techniques. Similar to typicalmedical practices, the
ingredientsused in thesemildly ascetic recipes are expected to
retain their efficacyregardlessofany additionalfoods that
areingested.
Second,manyof theWufuxusrecipesadvocatean asceticdiet
involvingfoodreplacementtherapy.Thispracticeinvolvessmallamountsofspecial
ingredientsandherbalvegetalcompoundsbeingconsumedintheformofpillsorcakesorherbinfusedalcohols
withoutadditionalordinary
foodstuffsotherthanwater.Forexample,ACommonRecipeforIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice,followingastring
of similar recipes, implies that adepts should not eat
additionalfoodswhenitsays:
Takeone dou (; apeck)ofnonglutinous rice(gengmi),three
douofalcohol,andcombinethetwothings.Soak[therice]until all
thealcohol hasdissipated; then stop and take it
out.Onlyeatalittleofit.Ifyouarethirsty,thendrinkwater.After
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/37
thirty days thiswill be used up, and you canmakemore
asabove.(2.35b46;recipe63)
Althoughonlytenrecipes8statethatthemedicinalpreparationsaretobeused
in lieuofnormal foodconsumptionduring
theregimen,thetenorofthetextcombinedwiththefactthatmostrecipesadvocatethecontinuedingestionofamedicinalcompoundindicatesthatthisformof
asceticism is the expected dietary norm. Subsequently, this type
ofasceticdiet functionsonmultiple levels forDaoistadepts:asan
important selfcultivation practice, as a basic fasting
purificationmethod forritual preparation, and as a useful survival
technique when food
wasscarceorwhentravellingaloneinthemountainsinsearchofspecialingredientsandspiritplants(excrescences,
zhi ) forimmortalityelixirs.
For example,whendiscussing thebenefits of ingesting SolomonsSeal
(huangjing ; Polygonatum sibiricum), the Wufuxu claims, Thegods
canbringaboutlongevityandcanextend[life],but[typical]
peopledonotsucceed.Eventhoughthegodsarebright,theyareeasiertoseeifyou
eat this food (18b89; recipe 27a). Furthermore,people can
ingestsmallspoonfulsofthespringharvestedrootoreggsizedportionsofthesummerharvested
root three timesdaily, and itwill function as
foodwhenthereisnotenoughtoeat.Inunfortunateyears,thisherbcanhelptheoldandyoungceaseeatinggrainsandcanfeedthem(22a45;recipe28).
Whilethisregimenwouldbedemanding,thethirdandmostimportant of
theWufuxus diets requires a strongly ascetic commitment
toextensivefastingpracticeswhichincludeavoidingdietarystaples,eatingnofoodatall,andingestingcosmicqithroughspecializedbreathingandvisualizationpractices.TheWufuxucontainstenrecipesthatusethetermbigu(lit.toavoidgrains)oritsequivalent.9Theoriginalintentionofthetermbiguwaslikelyarigorousfastingregimenthatrequiredthepractitionertostopeatingthefivemaingraindietarystaplesofrice,
8Recipes7,8,10,15,18a, 53, 59,60,61,64.
9Severalothertermsexpressthesamebasicideaasbiguandareusedinter
changeablyintheliterature.Theyincludeduangu(tocutoffgrains),quegu
(to eliminate grains), xiuliang (to cease cereals), and jueli
(toabandonthestaples).SeeArthur2006,10511.Recipes7,8,9,15,20,27a,28,43,65,66.
-
38/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
wheat,oats,millet,andbeans;however,notallusesofthetermindicatestrenuousortotalfasting.10
TheWufuxuusesthetermindifferentcontexts,typicallyinrecipeswhichprohibit
ingestinganyfoodsorwhichclaimthatadeptswill losetheir appetite
naturally and will be able to live without normal
foodstuffs.Forexample,APerfectedOnesRecipeforGrainAbstentionandEating
Sesame claims that mixing steamed andpounded sesame seeds with
China Root fungus and honey will
allowadeptstoobtainstrengthandincreaseitveryquickly.Youwillbeabletoreplenishyourvitalessence(jing)andmarrow(sui).Graduallyyouwillnothunger.Ifyouthirst,thenjustdrinkwater(2.6a106b1,recipe8).
Theothermajorpracticeassociatedwith bigu
isthemostasceticofDaoistdietaryregimens:qiingestion(shiqi).Inthispractice,adeptsutilizevariousbreathingandvisualization
techniques
toswallowtheqiofthesun,moon,stars,andFivePhasesinordertonourishtheirbodiesand
to enhance their connections to cosmic energies and deities.
Qiingestionpractices,duringwhichtheadeptforgoeseatinganyphysicalfood
substances, are discussed throughout the Wufuxu as superior
toingesting vegetal substances, which are thoughtmerely to function
ashealthrelatedpreparationswhichcanacclimate thebody tomore serious
and subtle energy regimens.As such, shiqiregimens
arenecessaryforproperselfcultivation,ritualpurification,andformaltransmissionofthe
Wufuxuanditstalismans.11
For example, in arecipe for thekey selfcultivationpracticeof
expelling theThreeWorms (sanchong)withChinaRoot Fungus andpokeroot,
an addendumstates: Locustseeds arealsogood
ifyouareabletoingesttheirqi.Donotusethese[earlierstatedpreparation]techniquesifyoucanalsoingest
theirqi.TheperfectedqiistheessenceoftheGreenSprout(qingya)oftheFiveDirections.Daoistsingestthisfor
10See Kohn 1993, 149; Arthur 2006, 94, 11417; Eskildsen 1998,
4344, 60;Zhang2003,288.
11Shiqi
isonlymentionedinrecipes28,29,and44,butitplaysaprominentrole in
other parts of the text (1.11b514b9; 1.18b826a8; 3.21a522a1). See
alsoHarper1998,3049;
Huang1987;Jackowicz2006,6888;Raz2004,382397.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/39
twentyonedaysandtheThreeWormsfleeand leave
(2.24b68;recipe29).
Although not consistent throughout, theWufuxu indicates that
qiingestionisthemostefficaciouspracticeforachievingthehighestlevelsof
immortality,suchaswhen itstates:Thosewhoareable tocultivatewuwei ()
and ingest qi and their own salivawill ascend
(2.23a34,recipe28).Asaresult,manyofthetextsselfcultivationorientedrecipespromotetheadoptionofanasceticlifestylewhilereplacingnormalfoodintakewith
special vegetal and herbal preparations.The text indicatesthatitis
throughthesustainedpracticeof theseregimensthatadeptscanbest attain
their religious goals, such as health, physical and
energeticperfection,communicationwiththegods,andimmortality.
Perfecting HealthIn spiteofanyhopes to thecontrary, theWufuxu
clearly indicates
thatachievingitsreligiousgoalsisnotasimpletask.Rather,thetextsrecipespresentimmortalityastheculminationofagenerallylengthyandarduousprocessthatbuildingontheideaofacontinuumbetweenprevailingmedicaltheoriesandreligiousperspectivesbeginswithperfectingoneshealththroughingestingthepropermedicinalsubstances.
Through a structuralist analysis (see LviStrauss 1966)
involvingtheconcurrentexaminationoftherecipesstructureandcontents,multiple
patterns and details become evident within the texts
presentationand organization of information; and these discernable
patterns, alongwith frequent attributions to important figures in
the texts lineagedtransmission, indicate the lengths towhich the
texts redactorswent inorder to produce a cohesive, consistent, and
unified text. Synthesizingthe texts myriad health and bodyrelated
claims and analyzing
theirimplicitassumptions,theremainderofthisarticleillustratestheincorporationofideasregardingwhatwasconsideredcrucialforahealthybodyandhowthisdirectlyrelatestotheperceivedstagesthatleadtoimmortality.
TheWufuxus recipes followauniformstyleandformatbeginningwith the
recipes title and ingredient list, followed by discussion
ofpreparationandingestionmethods,andendingwithdeclarationsaboutexpectedbenefitsthatwilloccurifanadeptproperlyadherestotherec
-
40/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ipesdirections.Oneofthe
mostconciseexamplesofthisformat,ARecipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity
,states:
Placeripelocusttreeseedsinacowsintestine(niuchang
),andputthisinadarkplacetodryforonehundreddays.Afterthat, swallow
one piece with your meal in the morning andevening. After ten days
your body will lighten. After thirtydays yourwhite hairwill revert
to black.After onehundreddaysyourfacewillbecomeradiant.After
twohundreddays,agallopinghorsewillnotbeabletokeepupwithyou.(2.16a9b2;recipe23)
Therecipesalsocontaindescriptionsofthevariouschangesthatareexpected
to occur within the body from having ingested the
recommendedmedicines.Also similar in style,
organization,andcontent,
therecipesmanyproclamationsbeginwithhealingthebody
asthefirstgoalofpractice;andthistypicallytakesplaceinthefirstfewyears.Afterthis,thebodyitsthoughttogainextraordinaryabilities,andonlythencanitbecomeperfectedandspiritualizedastheadeptcomesintocontactwiththecosmicandbodygodswhogive
theadeptsbodyevengreaterandmore miraculous powers. Finally, the
adept is expected to become
animmortalandtoascendtotheheavenlyrealminasfewasfivehundreddays(recipe30),butitmaytakeasmanyasfiftythousanddays(recipe17).Forexample,ThePerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagusAlcohol
says:
Ifyouingestthismedicinefor
threeyearsthehundreddiseaseswillallhealthemselves,andskindiseasesandwormswillallborethroughtheskinatthejointsandwillbeexpelled.Ingestit
for three [more] years andyour baldingheadwill
regrowhair.Ingestitfortenyearsandyouwillbeabletocontrolyourdestinyandthechaosofyourpreviouslife.Ingestitfortwentyyearsand
inthewinteryouwillnotbecold,and inthesummer youwill not behot.
Ingest it for thirtyyearsand an
oldmanofonehundredyearsofagewilllooklikeayoungmanoffifteen.
Afteringestingitforfortyyears,youwillbeabletocommunicatewiththegods;andatthistime,therewillbeaspiritmaidentobringmedicineandtoencourageyou.Ifyouobtain
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/41
it, ingest this spiritmedicine. Threedays later,youwill
shedyourbodylikeacaterpillarshedsitsskinandattainimmortality. Even
if you have already obtained and ingested a spiritelixir, obtaining
this alcohol stillwill be beneficial andauspicious. (2.31a6b5;
recipe49)
My analysis of the text indicates thatpurifying thebody
andperfectingitshealthcanbedividedintofourmajorcategories,thefirstthreeofwhicharecuringdisease,expellingtheThreeWorms,andeliminatinghunger
all indicative of strengthening the physical bodys
structureandinternalfunctionalcomponents.Thefourthhealthcategoryinvolvesrefining
the external physical body and its components,
especiallythroughattention to transforming thebodys abilities
andoutwardappearance.
Curing DiseaseTobegin thepath towardperfectionand
immortality,adeptsmust
firstattainhealthandridthebodyofdisease,whichhasphysiological,energetic,andparanormalorigins.Inall,morethanhalfoftheWufuxusrecipesdirectlyrefertocuring
illness inthebody includingthe
twentyonerecipesmakingthegeneralclaimthattheyareabletocurethehundredillnesses
(baibing; i.e., all illness) and the eight
recipesclaimingtomakethebodyhealthybynaturallybenefitingit(yi
)andnourishing it (yang).12 In fact,health issuescomprisea
largerproportionofWufuxusrecipesthananyotherconcern. This
indicatesthat
thehealthofthebodyisofparamountimportancetoattaininganymajorreligiousgoals;andsubsequentlytherearetwobasicclassesofillnessthatneedtobecured:energeticissuesandailmentsofdailylife.
ClearlyindicatingthatthetextsredactorshadatleastbasicknowledgeofChinesemedicalideasanddiagnosticterminology,theidealpattern
of qiflow is presented as balanced, strong, and
smoothflowingthroughout the body. One central form of illness that
is essential toeliminateiswaywardandpathogenic(xie)qiflow,which
involvesqi
12Recipes1,7,8,12,16,21,25,28,35,37,40,44,45,46,47,49,50,51,52,53,57
for curing illness; and recipes 1,2, 10, 17, 26,27a, 35, 52 for
benefiting andnourishingthebody.
-
42/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
blockagesandexcessiveflow,especiallyduetotheeffectsoftheSixPerniciousInfluences:excesscold,dampness,heat,wind,dryness,summerheat(see
Kaptchuck1983,14657;Despeux2001,126).Forexample,referring to
cakesmade of amixture of pine sap, ChinaRoot fungus,
andhoney,thetextclaims:
Afterahundreddaysyourbodywillbecome
light.Aftertwohundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldorheat.Afterthreehundreddaysyouwillhavenomorewindyheadandblurryeyes.After
four hundred days youwill have nomore of
thefivetroubles(lao)ortheseveninjuries(shang).Afterfivehundreddaysyouwillhavenomorecoldbelly,indigestion,orconcealedobstructionsof
qi. (2.12b810;recipe17)
Supposing that previous exercises had rid the body of
heteropathic qiandhadbalanced and strengthened the internalbody,
another facet ofhealth in theWufuxu involves refining
thebodysothercrucial internalenergy:jing
.Oftentranslatedasvitalessence,jingisthesexualenergyassociatedwith
thekidneyandreproductivesystem,andsevenrecipesfocuson protectingand
increasing jingbecauseoncejing isexhausted,deathoccurs.13
Thesecondtypeofdiseaseemergesfromtheproblemsofdailylife.ThirteenWufuxurecipespurporttoalleviatejointpainsandrheumatism,to
counteract the five troubles and seven injuries associated with
lifeand work, and to deal with womens gynecological and
birthrelatedproblems.14
Infact,onerecipestitleexplicitlystatesthatthemedicineisthoughttobeparticularlyusefulforlabororientedandwomenshealthissues:
The Recipe for Expelling the Three Worms; Killing the
ConcealedCorpses;HealingBlackFacial
[Disease];BenefitingWisdomandRemembering;andCuringAlloftheFiveTroublesandSevenInjuriesofMenandWomen,WivesBreastMilk,BearingOffspring,ExcessBelowtheBelt
Illnesses,andRedandWhiteSecretions
13Recipes1,2,8,14a,17,27a,36.SeeUnschuld1985,1267.
14Foralleviatingjointpains,seerecipes25,52,54.Forhealingthefivetrou
blesandseveninjuries,seerecipes15,17,40,43,54.Forgynecologicalissues,seerecipes:4,14,15,43,45.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/43
(2.10b102.11a7;recipe15).15
The focus of curing common ailments and pregnantwomen
indicatesthatsomeoftheserecipeslikelyoriginatedamongsourcesoutsidetheLingbaoDaoistschool.The
lineageassociatedwith thecompilationof theWufuxu was predominately
comprised ofmale members of
theliteraticlassmeaningwelleducatedandwelltodopatronswith
timeandmoneytopracticetheoftenasceticregiments found
intheLingbaocorpus(Yamada2000).
Originally,theWufuxusrecipeswerepropagatedbyfangshi,whosesocial
roles included acting as wandering doctors and magic
workersthroughout eastern and southern China. These fangshi are
thought
tohavesoldtheirrecipestoaristocrats,merchants,andfarmers,andpossiblyusedrecipessuchasthoseinthe
Wufuxu
tocurethegeneralpopulace(seeRaz2004,3849;Campany2002,6).Recipesfocusedoncuringissuescommon
to laborers and women indicate that they were culled andadapted
from extant recipes and medical treatment techniques
beingpropagatedby fangshi
ratherthanoriginatingwithliteratiDaoists.
Expelling the Three
WormsTheothermaincomponentsofstrengtheningthephysicalbodysstructureandfunctionalcomponentsinvolveintestinalissues.Previousstudies
of the Wufuxu (such as Yamada 1989) have focused on the
ThreeWorms(sanchong)ascentraltothetext;however,onlyelevenrecipesmentionexpelling
theThreeWormsand ConcealedCorpses (fushi)fromthebody.16
Thesemalevolentcreaturesareunderstoodtobebothparasitesandspiritualagents
that live inpeoplesbodies,feedondecayingmatter inthe
intestines,andhastentheirdeathbycausingdiseasessuchasthoseemphasized
throughout the text,by rendering foodandmedicine ineffective, and
by causing peoples destined lives (ming ) to be short
15The names of these womens problems Excess Below the Belt
Illnesses;andRedandWhiteSecretionsrefertovenerealdiseases,genitalinfections,menstrualproblems,andotherissues.
16Recipes15,16,17,18,22,27a,28,29,34,43,49.
-
44/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ened.17ThelaterhappenswhentheThreeWorms,actingasmoralagents,emergefromtheirsleepinghostonthegengshendayjustbeforethenewmoon(thefiftyseventhoftheChinesesexagesimalcalendricalcycle)andreportthepersonstransgressionstotheheavenlyDirectorofDestinies(Siming)whothendecreasesthelengthofthepersonslifebytheproperamountaccordingtotheinfraction.
One method for expelling the Three Worms involves
fermentingChinaRootfungus,pokeroot,alcohol,wheatflour,andyeast,andthenmaking
largepills(dan)whichare ingested thricedaily
foronehundreddays.Therecipeexplains:
These three Corpses are born together with the person,
andtheyoftendesiretocausethepersontodie.Whenthelastdayof
thedarkmoon and the first day of thenewmoon arrives,they will want
to ascend toHeaven [in order to report] thetransgressionsof
commoners.When the lastdayof themoonarrives, youmust grasp your
heavenly soul (hun) and restrainyourearthlysoul (po)and thenguard
themthroughthe nights gengshen hour. Through this action, the
ThreeCorpseswillbeunabletorousetoactionTheThreeCorpsesgenerallydesire
theperson to die; therefore, theywant
toattackandsnatchawaythatwhichisbeingdiscussed [i.e.,souls].
Generally,Daoists(Daoshi
)arealsodoctors;howevertheyknowhowtocultivatethebodywithrecipesbutdonotknowthat
the Concealed Corpses that live in peoples
abdomenslimitthedrugspowersandcausethemedicine tobe
ineffective.18This isall
causedbytheThreeWormsIfyouareunabletoexpungethem;however,youjustcheatyourself.Onceyou
expel them, then you will not again have hunger. Your
17See Wufuxu2.24a; Arthur2006,1024;
Campany2002,4952,166;2005,434;Yamada1989,10710;
Kohn1993,149;Eskildsen1998;andForke190711,2.363.Aninthcenturytext,theChusanshijiuchongbaoshengjing(TheScripture
onExpelling theThreeCorpses andNineWorms to Protect
Life;DZ871),provides one of themost comprehensive
anddetaileddiscussions of thisphenomenon.
18ThiscriticalreferencetoDaoistsalsoindicatesthatDaoistsdidnotcreatetherecipe.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/45
heart/mind(xin)willbepeacefulandwithoutthoughts,andyouwillbeabletoobtainandfollowthelifeofaPerfectedPerson(zhenren
). (2.24a3b3;recipe29)
According to theWufuxu, progressing towards a healthy state
requires that theThreeWormsmustbe eliminated. Ridding thebody
ofthese parasites, and keeping them from returning through
ingestinganthelmintic,parasiteremoving,
medicineorperformingbigufastingisalso equated with the adept being
able to retain a high level ofmoralthought andaction, thus
introducingan importantmoraldimension toDaoist selfcultivation. In
addition to allowing the adept to live
outhis/heroriginallifespan,killingtheThreeWormsisalsoacrucialsteptocalmonesheart/mind,
to attempt advanced selfcultivation, and
togetridofhungeralsoaweaknessofthebodythatcanbecuredbyfollowingthe
Wufuxusregimens.
Physical
ImprovementsInadditiontocuringdisease,refiningthebodysenergies,andexpellingthe
Three Worms, theWufuxus redactors included fortyfive
differentclaims that explainways to improve thephysicalbodyand
itspsychological attributes through furtherdevelopmentof thebodys
integratedphysical and energetic components. Interestingly, the
aspects of
thephysicalbodythataresubjecttoproposedimprovementscanbedirectlycorrelatedtothemostapparentcharacteristicsofayoungperson,suchasclear
eyesight, acute hearing, strong bones and muscles, supple
flesh,blackhair,beinglight,beinginvigorated,andhavingallofonesteeth.Inother
words, these Daoists were explicitly concerned with
overcomingthemanifestationsofanagingbody.
The most common enhancements are to the adepts eyesight
andhearing with eleven and ten recipes respectively.19 Besides
healthrelatedbenefits, eyesightandhearingalso are important
toDaoist
religiouspracticessuchasbeingabletoreadatextduringanighttimeritual,honing
ones ability to see various spirit beings and excrescences, and
19Recipes2,5,12,14,15,17,25,27,28,43,45foreyesightimprovement,andrecipes1,2,5,12,14,15,25,27,43,45forhearingimprovement.
-
46/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
beingabletolistentocommunicationfromspiritbeingsandgods.20Additionally,wecaninterpretclaimsabouttheeyesandearsintermsoftheFivePhasescorrelativetheoryusedthroughoutthetextinordertohighlight
another level ofpossiblemeaning forbasichealth
improvements.Accordingly, eyesight improvement is related to
lessening anger andincreasing courage; while curing hearing loss
can be related to kidneyissuessuchasincreasing
jing,perfectingwisdom,andlesseninganxiety(see Kohn 2006, 57). Thus,
health of the physical body corresponds tomentalhealthaswell.
The other major aspect of perfecting the physical body relates
toimprovingthebodysappearance.Analyzing the text indicates
thatappearanceisoneofthemostimportantsignsofbeinghealthyandhavingstrong
qi. In fact, of all of theWufuxus specific healthrelated
claims,morearerelatedtorejuvenatingthecomplexion;makingtheskinlookglossy,
smooth, shiny, and youthful; andmaking thewhitehair of
oldageregrowandreturntoblack thantoanyotherissue. 21
For example,onerecipewhichadvocateseating smallcakesmadeof pine
tree sap, China root fungus, alcohol, and honey addresses
improvements to thebodyand its appearance;and readerscan
easilydeducethathealthandyouthfulnessarebutinitialstepsalongthelengthypathtowardsimmortality.The
recipesays:
After six hundred days your facial complexionwill be
stabilized.Aftersevenhundreddays,youwillhavenomoreblackfacialskin.Aftereighthundreddaysnewblackhairwillgrow.After
nine hundred days burns and scarswill be
eradicated.Afterathousanddaysbotheyeswillbecomeclear.Aftertwothousanddays
the complexionwill change.After three
thousanddaysyouwillbeabletowalkwithoutleavingatrace.Afterfourthousanddayseverymark[onthebody]willbeeliminated.After
five thousanddaysnighttimewillappear illuminated.
20See Baopuzi 11.3a18a2;trl.Ware1966,p.1796. 21Recipes 1, 2, 4,
12, 13, 15, 17, 20,20a, 28, 36, 43, 45 for rejuvenating the
complexion;recipes2,4,5,12,14,17,23,27,28,35,45,48,49forregrowingblackhair;andrecipes4,12,15,17,28,39,43,45,48,49,50forskinimprovements.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/47
Aftersixthousanddaysthemusclesandskinwillchange.Afterseventhousanddaystheskinandpulseswillbeabletobeconcealed.Aftereightthousanddaysthejingandshenwillbestrong.Afterninethousanddaystheyouthfulnessofachildwillbereached.Aftertenthousanddays[27+years]thebodywillbenaturallyhealthy.(2.12b10
13a6;recipe17)
Here,intheoverallprogresstowardsimmortality,thereisevidenceof
someconceptsof reversalbutonly to arightfullyhealthy state.
Inotherwords,toothloss,hairloss,wrinkles,andwhitehairareallsignsofunnecessaryagingandbodilydecaywhichwilldisappearonceahealthystate
is regained. This seems to signify that the intended audience
forthese recipes would have been the older generations, especially
of thearistocracyamongwhich the textcirculated,whowouldhave the
timeandabilitytoadoptasceticpractices.Agereversal,itwashoped,wouldalso
give interestedpeople additional time and an increased chance
ofachievingtheirreligiousgoals.
Overall,theWufuxusproposedhealthimprovementscorrespondtocommonailments
and limitationsof thebody as it grows older.
Thus,Daoisthealthdoesnotmerelyindicatealackofdisease.Thetextsredactors
includedmany examples of aggressively seeking to combat
problemsassociatedwithold ageanddeathonall fronts: from its
outwardmanifestations inbodilyweaknessanddegradation to
internalstatesofdisease and energy imbalance. Indicating that
theadept
isprogressingtowardimmortality,thisstateofperfectedhealthmustbesuccessfulforfurthercultivationandrefinementtooccur.
-
48/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Extraordinary
AttainmentsTheWufuxupresentstheadeptsnextstageofdevelopmentasanaturalextension
of the continuum of medicallyoriented theories about
thebody:ifthephysicalbodycanachieveahealthystateandretardtheaging
process, then with sustained religious ascetic selfcultivation
practices, it should be able to completely transcend normal
capabilities.Theseadvancedattainmentsareexpectedtoincludeextremehealth,protective
characteristics, and extraordinary abilities.22Based on the
extentto which Chinese medical and correlative theories can be
applied, extraordinaryabilitiesarepresentedasthe likely,
reasonable,andnaturalproducts of religious selfcultivation regimens
as presented in theWufuxu.
Forexample,thetextclaims:Thosewithacleannature(xing)receiveperfected
qi. For thosewhoare clean, longevity is theirnatural(ziran
)destiny(2.23b45).
Byextremehealth,Irefertotheextensionofearliermedicallybasedhealth
attainments to levels beyond the scope of traditional
medicalideas.ItisherethatIargueidealreligiousexpectationsreplacemorelimitedmedicalpossibilities.
For example, five recipes claim tobe able
toradicallyimprovesightandhearing somuchsothatadeptswillbeableto
see things a thousandmiles away, tosee in thedark, tohearvoicesthat
are ten thousandmiles away, and tohave clairvoyance (yuanzhisifang
;lit.farreachingknowledgeofthefourdirections;
2.3b6;recipe2;seealsorecipes12,16,17,27a).Thisseemstorepresentametaphoricalclaimtoanabilitytoseetheearthlyspiritsandcosmicgodsintheirabodesandtoheartheircommunication.
Additionally, the text contends that strengthening ones qi
shouldcontinue until it is so concentrated that thebody obtains
onehundredtimesnormal strength,
thestorehouseorgansneverbecomeexhausted,andvariousbodilyparts(suchastheeyes,hands,andgallbladder)begin
to radiate qias light. Furthermore, continued selfcultivation is
expectedtoleadtothebodysprotectionfromallmannerofpossibleproblemssuchasdrowningwhileunderwaterandbeingphysicallyorspiri
22Iusetheterm extraordinary rather than
supernaturalbecausetheancientChinesethoughtthatthegods,spirits,souls,andghostswereanaturalpartofthecosmos,notseparatefromorbeyondtherealworld.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/49
tually
injured,poisoned,andattacked.ThebasicwardingoffoftheSixPerniciousInfluencesisextendedsothattheadeptbecomesimpervioustoanyextremeexternalconditionsuchasfire,extremecold,heteropathicenergies,
andmalevolent spiritbeings.Other extraordinaryabilities
includetravelingbyunconventionalmeanssuchasflyingorrunningfasterthanahorse,consciouslyroamingaboutwithyourspiritwhiledreaming,becoming
invisible,communicatingwith thegodsof thebodyandcosmos,controlling
spiritbeings,andbeingabletocontrolonesdestiny.
A Recipe for Lengthening Your Years and Extending Your
LifeExpectancy offers a useful example of the texts range
ofextraordinary benefits, which are expected to occur after the
adeptachievesahealthystate.Thischrysanthemumbasedrecipestates:
Ifyouingestitforanentireyear,thehundredillnesseswillallleave,
your earswill becomemore astute, your eyeswill seeclearly, your
body will become lighter, and your qi will
increase.Also,youwilladdtwoyearstoyourlife. Ifyouingestitfor two
years, your face and complexion will be joyous andsmooth, your qi
andstrengthwill increase onehundredfold.Anywhite hairswill return
to black, and any lost
teethwillgrowagain.Also,youwilladdthreeyearstoyourlife.
If you ingest it for three years, when you walk in
themountainsyouwillnotneedtoavoidsnakes,dragons,ghostsand spirits.
You will never encounter warriors or
weapons.Unlesstheyareflyingbirds,noonewilldaretoovertakeyou.Also,
youwill add thirteen years to your life.If you ingest itfor four
years, your namewill be reported to the gods
(shenming)aswellastheFivePhases.Also,youwilladdfortyyearstoyourlife.
Ifyouingestitforfiveyears,yourbodywillbringfortharadiant
light(guangming),youreyeswill
illuminatebothdayandnight,andtherewillberadianceinyourinnerparts,bridges,
intersections, and joints. Your body will be so
lightthateventhoughyoudonothavefeathersorwings,bymereintention
youwill be able to travel by flying. Ingest it for sixyears in
order to increase your longevity by three hundredyears.
Ifyou ingest itforsevenyears, theDao inyour
shenwilldesireperfectionandyourlongevitywillincreasebyonethousandyears.
Ifyou ingest it for eight years, your eyeswillbe
-
50/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
abletoseeforonethousandmiles(li
),yourearswillbeabletohearfortenthousandli,andyourlongevitywillincreasebytwothousandyears.
Ifyouingest
itfornineyears,yourshenwillbeperfectedandwillbecomelikegoldenstone.Atdeathyouwillbeabletocomebackto
life.Your longevitywill increasebythreethousand years. On your left
will be the green dragon, on
yourrightwillbethewhitetiger,andgoldwillbecomeyourchariot.(2.8abrecipe12)
These abilities are presented as the culmination of extensive
selfcultivationworkonthepartoftheadept,andarebasedontheearlymedieval
worldview that humans could transcend normal limitationsthrough
selfcultivation andmagicoreligious practices, and that
valorizedpersonswhoattemptedthiswork.23However,thesepowersarenotmeant
to be a goal for the adept; they aremerely indications that
theadepts inner spiritual cultivation is progressing and that the
bodysphysical,mental, andspiritualcomponents arebeing thoroughly
transformed.However,theextraordinaryabilitiesandgreatlyincreasedqi
areintegral to the adepts journey toward immortality because it is
thesecharacteristicsthatseemtobenoticedbythecosmicdeities,whoeventuallywillcontacttheadeptandleadtheadeptintothenextstageofcultivation:spiritualizationorselfdivination.
Spiritualizing the BodyThe Wufuxus penultimate stage of
selfcultivation signifies that
theadepthasbeencleansedandpurified,hasadoptedalifeofquietude,andhas
developed a tangible connection to the spirit realm that
propelshim/hertowardevenmoreadvancedtransformationofthephysicalandspiritualbodies.Shen,spiritenergy,ispartofthebodysinherentenergetic
cosmicconnection frombirth, and six recipes claim to increaseand
nourish the shen.24 It seems that adepts strive to store and
purifytheirqi inordertoallowtheirshen
tobecomemoreprominentandactive.
23SeeRaz2005,117;theargumentthroughouttheBaopuzi; see Ware1966.
24Recipes1,17,25,27a,37,46.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/51
Shen,a moresubtle
manifestationofqi,isthenamplifiedandfurtherrefinedto
takeonnuminouscharacteristics indicating thatadeptsareattempting to
spiritualize or divinize the physical body.25 One
lotusbasedrecipe,forexample,integratescosmologicalcorrelationsandplantpartstoprepareamedicinalcompoundmeanttoenhancethe
shen.
Everythingisfromthesameplant.Onthe7th dayofthe7th lunarmonth
collect sevenparts lotus flowers (ouhua).Onthe8th dayofthe8th
lunarmonthcollecteightpartslotusroot(ougen).Onthe9th dayofthe9th
lunarmonthgathernineparts
lotusseeds(oushi).Mixtheplantstuffstogethertoprepare them.When
complete, ingest an inchsquare spatulafull.(2.16b79)
Ingest for onehundreddays then stop.Your inner lord(zhu ) will
arrive and your inner being will be
enhanced.Yourqiwillgetstrongandwillnourishyourshen.Youwillnothungerandwill
expeltheonehundred
illnesses.Afteralongtimeofingesting,yourbodywillbecomelight.Youwillextendyouryears,notgrowold,andthenturnintoaspiritimmortal(shenxian
). (2.17a89;recipe25)
The result of the completion of this final stage of preparation,
then,
isconsideredaperfectedbody,whichisphysicallysimilartoearlierstagesbutisrepletewithasignificantlymoresubtlequalityofessentialenergy.
Atthispoint,Daoistsadeptsexpecttohaveanintimateconnectionwith
cosmic energies and direct knowledge ofhow towholly
embodyandsynchronizeearthlyandcosmicprinciples;thustheybegintomanifestcharacteristicsofspiritbeings.Thisadvancedlevelofspiritualization,in
turn, is expected to attract the attentionof spiritsguardians. For
example,fiverecipesclaimthatingestingmedicinesofsesame,Solomonsseal,orasparagusroottincturewillattractSpiritMaidens(shenn),
25There is nodiscussion of transmuting qi into jing and then
into shen aswith later internal alchemy; however, the organization
of the texts
myriadclaimsindicatesthatpurifying,harmonizing,andstrengtheningonesqiandjingisnecessarybeforetheadeptisabletomoreactivelycultivatetheir
shen andalignitwiththatofthegods.
-
52/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
JadeMaidens(yun),andthesixArmoredSpirits(jiashen
)whowillserveandprotectthepurifiedadeptfromharm.26
Withthisdefensivespiritretinueinplace,itisanticipatedthatvariouscosmicdeitiessuchasTaiyi
(;GreatUnity)willvisitandcommunicatewiththeadept.27Buildingontheimportanceofcommunicatingwith
various gods discussed throughout the full text, and its focus
ondetailed and lengthy selfcultivation, theWufuxu implies that the
pathbeyondhealth and longer life eventually requires some form
ofdivineinterventiononbehalfofadepts.
Thefirststepinthisprocessistoattracttheattentionofthecosmicdeities,
who are expected to recognize when an adept has
sufficientlypurified him/herself. After contact has been
established to verify
theadeptspreparationiscomplete,threerecipescontendthataspectsofthecosmicdeitieswill
descend from their celestial abodes to take up residence in the
adepts internal palaces the energy centers in the
bodywhichincludethevariousorgansaswellasthelowerdantian (;
lit.cinnabar/elixir field) just below the navel, the middle dantian
at
theheartlevel,andthenineroomNiwanPalace()intheupperdantianinthehead.28Eventually,itishoped,thatthesegodswillinvitetheadeptto
live in theheavenly realmas an immortal.For example a
SolomonsSealrecipeclaims:
Ingestandeatthisherboverthefourseasons,anddonotstop.Itcanbringaboutanextensionofyouryearsifyouareabletocast
aside society and its customs and live a hermit life on
afamousmountain.Ifyouingestandeatthisherb,youcanliveaslongasHeavenandEarth.Themultitudeofgodswillconvene
together, and Taiyiwill be expecting
andwillwelcomeyou.Youwillascendandbepromotedto[therankof]OfficerofHeaven.
(2.19a35;recipe27a)
26Thejiashenareassociatedwiththesixcalendricaljiadates,whicharethefirstofthe
tenHeavenlyStems(tiangan),
thatoccurduringeachsixtydaycycle(seeArthur2009,forthcoming).
Recipes2,8,27a,30,49.
27Recipes10,15,17,27,27a,28,49. 28 Recipes 2, 25, 27a. According
to the Wufuxus first chapter, the three
dantian are the corporeal offices of the Three Ones Heaven,
Earth, and
theCrimsonChildwithinthebody(1.22b2b7;seeRaz2005,3523).
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/53
Daoiststhoughtthatthecorporealdeitiesoriginallywerepresentinpeoples
bodies but normal lifes stressors and extreme emotions
hadsulliedthebodytosuchadegreethatthegodsweredrivenaway.Thus,it
takes a great deal of cultivation andpurification to coax
thevariousbodygods toreturntotheir rightfulplaceswithin thecomplex
internallandscape of the adepts body. For example, tasting the
strong
flavors,smellingputridodors,hearingloudsounds,andseeingsexordefecationallcannegatively
impact the adepts sensitiveconstitutionand its
rarifiedsubtleenergies,andcanthusupsetthebodygods,causingthemtoflee
from the adept. The Wufuxu says: As you practice consistently,avoid
foods like fresh fish,pork,scallions,andstrongvegetables [asallhave
strong smells and tastes].Also avoid gazing uponmourners
andcorpses,aswellasdogsandpigsintheprocessofgivingbirthor
defecating.Beverycareful!(2.2b103a1;recipe2).
Thevariousmanifestations of the cosmicdeities that take up
residence in the adepts body signify the adepts complete
transformationfrombasehumantothefullembodimentofthesacredmacrocosmicreality.29Oncethecorporealdeitieshavetakenupresidence,theadeptsmicrocosmicbodyhasbecomeadirectcorrelatetothemacrocosmos.Withthisattainment,anotherabstractmysticalexperienceisthoughttooccur:the
capacity to leave the obscure and enter the profound (chuyaoruming
;2.1a5;recipe1) toachieveunionwiththeDao.
ImmortalityAt this point in the adepts development, the final
major goal of
theWufuxusdietaryregimesismet:theadeptattainsextendedlifeandimmortality.Justbehindcuringillness,extremelongevityisthemostcommonbenefitpromotedby
the text.Nearly half of the texts recipes
declarethatpractitionerscanattainvaryingdegreesoflongevityandeventually
become an immortal being (xian ). Although numerous,
theclaimsaboutextremelongevity lackspecificity; thereareno
fewerthanthirtysixdifferentphrasesemployed in the texttodenote
lifeextendedbeyondnormalexpectationsforexample,toobtainlonglife(),
29ThisideaisnotuniquetotheearlymedievalDaoism;itoriginatedinthepreQineraandbecomeprominentduringtheHandynasty(Raz2005,34041).
-
54/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
to livemanythousandsofyears (), tohalt
theprogressionofyears(),andtolengthenexistence()(2.1a22a10;recipe1).
For claritys sake, I have divided the texts ideas about this
phenomenon into three categories: minor longevity, major longevity,
andimmortality. Seven recipespurport to lead tominor longevity
i.e., toextend the adepts life by a few years, but less than an
additional
fulllifespan,ortoretardoldage().30Forexample,AnotherRecipeforRepellingOldAgedoesnotexplainwhatismeantbyitstitlewhenitsays:Beginningonthefirstsi
dayofthetenthlunarmonth,ingestlocustseedsoncedaily.Increasethedosebyone[eachday]untilyoureachtendays.Again,returnandrepeatfromthebeginning.Todocorrectlyyoumustbegineatingthemonthefirstsi
day(2.16b316b5;recipe24).
Iclassifyexplicitclaimsofincreasinglifetoatleastdoubleanormalpersonslifeexpectancyasmajorlongevity.Here,thebodysnaturallifeand
death processes allegedly are transcended. For example, a
recipethat combines mica, curly cypress (juanbo ; Selaginella
tamariscina),waterplantain(zexie;Alismaorientalis),EdibleGreensFruit(xianshi;
Aramanthus),andpinetreesapclaimsthatingestingthiscompoundforsevenyears:Yourbodywilllivefortythreethousandyearsandwillnot
die (2.14b515a2; recipe 19). Similarly, avoiding death
(),endlesslongevity(),andlivingaslongasHeavenandEarth()areusedas
synonymsfortheideaofimmortality.
It seemsthat the textsmanyclaimsofextreme longevityare
ideologically similar to those of immortality where the adept
continues
toresideonearthorintheheavensforanextensiveperiodoftimeinapurified
formof their originalphysical body.Whetherornot these statements
signify anabsolutepermanentexistence (seeRaz2005,
110n176),theycertainly indicatea life that is far longer
thanthenorm,and thereare thirteen recipes that couple the term
immortality with claims ofdramatically increasingthe
lengthofthepractitioners lifehence
Iarguethattheyshouldbeconsidereda formof immortality.31
Inadditiontoachievinganelongatedlifespan,thetextalsomentionsfourexamples
30Recipes1,12,14,16,24,25,27a.
31Recipes1,2,5,12,13,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,32,44,46,47,48.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/55
ofadeptstranscending(dushi)thephysicalworldandascendingtoreside
intheHeavenofGreatClarity (Taiqing)where theymaybereceivedby
thegodTaiyiandbegiventherankof
ImmortalPersonorOfficerofHeaven(tianfu ).32
TheWufuxudoesnotprovideaconciseexplanationofwhat
itsredactorsmeantbythetermimmortality,andanalystsarelimitedtoinferring
ideas frompassageswhich contain the term, from the texts
shorthagiographical accounts of immortals,33 and from the
presentation ofimmortalityas
theculminationofattainingsufficientpurityandrefinement through
extensive selfcultivation and longterm maintenance
ofasceticdietaryregimens.Thetextdoesnotincludeahierarchyofimmortal
achievements as found in Ge Hongs Baopuzi, which
differentiatesbetween celestial immortals, earthly immortals, and
corpseliberatedimmortals(2:9a;Ware1966,478).Yet,otherexamplesintheBaopuzidonot
discuss this hierarchy because all immortals supposedly have
attained the crucial benefit of longevity.34 These instances
support theWufuxus implication that there is little significant
difference betweenforms ofmajor longevity and immortality other
than the adepts finalplaceofresidence.
32Recipes1,2,17,27a.TheideasoftheHeavenofGreatClarityandthegodTaiyi
first featured in the Shangqing school of the 4th century (Hu 1995,
1457;Robinet2000,215).FordiscussionontheascenttoTaiyi,seeBokenkamp1990.
33Recipes2,6,7,13,16,17,19,25,26,27,27a,28,30,32,36,49.Theseshortaccounts,
of figures such asMaster RedPine in recipe 17, are similar to
thosefound in other narratives andmajor hagiographic collections:
the
Liexianzhuan(;BiographiesofImmortals;Kaltenmark1953);theShenxianzhuan
(;Biographies ofSpirit Immortals;Campany 2002); andchapter 82 of
theHouhanshu(;HistoryoftheLaterHan;Fangshuliezhuan;TraditionsoftheEsotericArts;Ngo1976andDeWoskin1983);also
Raz2005,43n14).
34SeeBaopuzi3.52;Ware1966,65;Campany2002,77,181,29294;Raz2005,11012.
-
56/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
ConclusionAlthoughmissingmanynecessarydetailsforanallinclusive,contextualunderstanding,
the Wufuxu does provide a great deal of
informationaboutthepathofearlymedievalDaoistselfcultivationandthemechanicsofitsdietaryprocedures.Amalgamatingthetextsvariousclaimsandanalyzing
their implicit and explicit suppositions, I have developed
arelativelycomprehensivetypologyregarding
theWufuxusexpectationsforahealthybody,forlongevity,andforachievingitsspecificreligiousgoals.
This analysis leads to questions of how the idea of perfection
especially of ones health and ones energies functions within
theworldviewandritualpracticesofearlyDaoists.
The structureandorganizationof themajorityof the texts
entriesillustrateatimeconsumingstepbysteptransformationofallaspectsofthe
adepts body. This process first requires balancing, purifying,
andrefining the mundane aspects of the body. Demonstrating the
holisticnature of Daoist claims of perfection throughout the text,
the bodysphysical, energetic, and spiritual components are
interconnected andrelated to prevalent medical and cosmological
correlative theories.
Inotherwords,adeptsbeginbybalancingandtransformingthebodysmicrocosmbasedonperceivedpatterns,correlations,andideasabout
qi.
Eventually, the text indicates that integratingcharacteristics
of
themacrocosm,especiallyintheformoftheFivePhasesenergieswhichareinternalizedduringqiingestingpractices,willcosmicizeandspiritualizethebodytosuchadegreethatlongevityandimmortalityaretheresult.In
fact, the texts extraordinary abilities andachievements,which
indicateabeliefthatnormalhumanlimitationscanbetranscendedthroughasceticdietary
and religiouspractices, arepredicated onperfecting thehealth,and
inmanycasestheyalsocanbedirectlycorrelated to
fundamentalconceptsofhealthaspresentedinthetext.
Interestingly,allofthetransformativeprocessesmentionedintheserecipesareorientedtowardadeptsstrengtheningandharmonizingtheirown
internalphysical,mental, andenergeticprocesses
andcharacteristics.Thetextonlydiscussesonecrucialexternalagentialinfluencethecosmicgods,whoareattractedtotheadeptbecauseofhis/hercontinuedinternalselfcultivation.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/57
Onamorepracticallevel,theimprovementofhealthisparamountintheWufuxussecondchapterbecause
itallowstheDaoistswhopractice itsdietaryregimenstomore
fullyembodycentralreligious idealssuchascommunicationwith thegodsas
they takepart in the
formaltalismantransmissionritualinthetextsthirdchapter.Furthermore,thelonglistsofbenefitsfoundinthetextsrecipesseemtobeintendedtobeamapofkeyindicatorsthatadeptscouldfollowastheyprogressedfromanormallifetowardtheiridealstate.
Although the Wufuxu was compiled as a synthesis of
longevityideas andpractices fromdisparate groups (seeYamada 1989,
114; Raz2004, 912), the coherence of themes and patterns within the
text is astrongindicationthatitsredactorsdiligentlyworkedtodevelopa
coherentandunifiedsetofpracticesofwhichingestingherbalconcoctionsforfacilitatinghealth,perfecting
thebodyand its essential energies,developing a connection with the
divine realm, and achieving immortalitywasanintegralpart.
Appendix The Wufuxus
Recipes1.TheNuminousTreasureIngestionoftheEssenceoftheFiveWonderPlants.
2.1a22a102.TheRecipeoftheThreeHeavensoftheNuminousTreasure.
2.2b14a73.VariousLingbaoRecipesInvolvingSesame.
2.4a84b24.DivineMethodsofExtendingtheLifeExpectancyandIncreasingLongevity.
2.4b35a15.RecipeforSesameCakes.
2.5a25a106.SesamePaste.
2.5b15b57.APerfectedOnesAbstentionfromGrainRecipe.
2.5b66a28.APerfectedOnes
MethodforGrainAbstentionandEatingSesame.
2.6a36b19.APerfectedOnesRecipeforLighteningOnesFoodIntakeandAvoiding
GrainsWithoutHunger. 2.6b26b5
10.
ARecipeofIngestingFoodtoProvideExtraordinaryBenefittotheBody.
2.6b67a2
-
58/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
11.ARecipe toDifferentiatethe Ju (Chrysanthemum)andYi
(100,000PetalledFlower). 2.7a37a8
12.ARecipeforLengtheningYearsandImprovingLifeExpectancy.
2.7a99a1
13.ARecipeforApricotSeedCakes. 2.9a29b1
14.TheRecipeofaPerfectedPersonasReceivedbyYuoftheXia.
2.9b210b3
14a.NoTitle. 2.10b410b915.
TheRecipeforExpellingtheThreeWorms,etc.
2.10b1011a7
16. TheRecipeforCausingPeopletoNotGrowOld,HaveaLongLife, etc.
2.11a811b9
17.APerfectedPersonsRecipeforLengtheningOnesLife,ExpellingtheThreeCorpses,ProlongingOnesYears,andTurningBackWhiteness.
2.11b1014a7
18.ARecipeofMasterRedPine. 2.14a814a9
18a. A
RecipeforEnteringtheMountainsandNeverEatingAgainUntiltheEndofOnesLife.
2.14a1014b4
19.TheFourSubstancesforImmortalityRecipeAsReceivedBytheYellowEmperorfromHuangQing.
2.14b515a2
20.APerfectedPersonsFourIngredientMedicinalPowdertoEliminateGrains.
2.15a315a8
20a.NoTitle
2.15a915b721.AnotherRecipetoIngestFoodandtoHealIllness.
2.15b816a422. AnotherMethodtoExpeltheThreeWorms.
2.16a516a823.ARecipeforExtendingtheYearsandIncreasingLongevity.
2.16a916b224.AnotherRecipeforRepellingOldAge.
2.16b316b5
25. APerfectedOnesAdditionalLotusPowderstoRetardAging.
2.16b617b2
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/59
26.ARecipetoArrestAging. 2.17b317b8
27.TheRecipeforIngestingandEatingMuskDeerAntler
toGreatlyExtendtheYears;andIfYouTakeMore,toMaketheEarsandEyesAstuteandClearandtheHairBlack.
2.17b918a4
27a.NoTitle.
2.18a520b3(Thisportionseemstobethefirsthalfofthefollowingrecipe.)
28.ALingbaoRecipeforSolomonsSeal. 2.20b423b5
29.AnImmortalsMethodforExpellingtheThreeWormsandConcealedCorpses.
2.23b624b8
30.LezichangsMethodforRefiningSesamePaste. 2.24b925a3
31.LezichangsMethodforIngestingSesame. 2.25a425a7
32. TheTalismanfor HidingtheLivingin
theGreatMysteryoftheNuminousTreasure. 2.25a825b8
33.MedicineforCorpseLiberation. 2.25b926a7
34.ARecipeforExpellingtheConcealedCorpsesandThreeWorms.
2.26a826a10
35.ASpiritImmortalsRecipefor CultivationandNourishing[Oneself].
2.26b126b6
36.ASpiritImmortalsMethodofFermentingAlcohol. 2.26b727a4
37.ARecipeforShu (Atractylodesmacrocephala)Alcohol.
2.27a527a9
38.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol. 2.27a1027b3
39.ARecipeforSesameAlcohol. 2.27b427b7
40.ARecipefortheSpiritAlcoholofRehmannia. 2.27b828a4
41.ARecipeforPineSapAlcohol. 2.28a528a9
42.AnotherRecipe. 2.28a1028b2
43. ARecipeforPokeAlcohol.
-
60/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
2.28b328b1044.ARecipefor WolfberryAlcohol.
2.29a129b245.ARecipeforFiveEggplant(Acanthopanax)Alcohol.
2.29b329b946.ARecipeforAsparagusRootLiquor.
2.29b1030a847.ARecipeforFriedAsparagusRoot.
2.30a930b748.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingtheNuminous.
2.30b831a549.APerfectedOnesRecipeforFermentingAsparagusRootAlcohol.
2.31a631b550.ARecipeforImmortalityAlcoholtoStrengthentheBody.
2.31b632a251.ARecipeforCuringtheHundredDiseaseswithSpiritAlcohol.
2.32a332a852.ALingbaoRecipeforIngestingandEatingRehmanniaandWolfberry.
2.32a932b1053.ARecipeforAsparagusRoot.
2.33a133a754.ARecipefor Wolfberry Alcohol.
2.33a833b255.AFermentingMethod.
2.33b333b856.ARecipeforProducingSpiritAlcohol.
2.33b934a457.ARecipeforSpiritAlcohol.
2.34a534a858.ASpiritImmortalsMethodforDryingAlcohol.
2.34a934b359.ASpiritImmortalsRecipeforIngestingandEatingGreenMillet.
2.34b434b1060.AnotherRecipe.
2.35a135a561.YetAnotherRecipe.
2.35a635a862.AMethodforDryingAlcohol.
2.35a935b363.ACommonRecipeforIngestingandEatingNonGlutinousRice.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/61
2.35b435b664.ARecipeforIngestingandEatingRicefromthePaddy.
2.35b735b1065.ARecipeforCeasingGrains.
2.36a136a566.LezichangsRecipeforHoldingaJujubeNutinOnesMouth.
2.36a636b3
BibliographyArthur,Shawn.2009.ImmortalityIsPerfectlyNatural:CorrelatingDaoistDiets
andExtremeHealth. TheJournalofReligion,Nature,andCulture.
_____. 2006. LifeWithout Grains: Bigu and the Daoist Body.
InDaoist BodyCultivation,editedbyLiviaKohn,91122.
Magdalena,NM:ThreePinesPress.
_____.2006a.AncientDaoistDietsforHealthandLongevity.BostonUniversity,Ph.D.Dissertation.
Bokenkamp, Stephen R. 1990. Death and Ascent in LingPao Taoism.
TaoistResources 1.2:120.
Campany, Robert Ford. 2002.
ToLiveasLongasHeavenandEarth:ATranslationandStudyofGeHongsTraditionsofDivineTranscendents.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
Despeux,Catherine.2001.TheSystemoftheFiveCirculatoryPhasesandtheSixSeasonalInfluences(wuyunliuqi),aSourceofInnovationinMedicineundertheSong
(9601279). In
InnovationinChineseMedicine,editedbyElisabethHs,12165.Cambridge:CambridgeUniversityPress.
DeWoskin,Kenneth J.
1983.Doctors,Diviners,andMagiciansofAncientChina:BiographiesofFangshih.NewYork:ColumbiaUniversityPress.
Eskildsen,Stephen.1998.AsceticisminEarlyTaoistReligion.Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress.
Forke,Alfred.190711.Lunheng:Part1:PhilosophicalEssaysofWangChung.London:Harrassowitz.
GuGuanguang,ed.2002.Shennongbencaojing.Beijing:HerbalStudiesPublishers.
Harper, Donald. 1998. Early Chinese Medical Literature: The
MawangduiMedicalManuscripts.NewYork:KeganPaulInternational.
-
62/JournalofDaoistStudies 2(2009)
Hu Fuchen, ed. 1995. Zhonghuadaojiaodacidian.
Beijing:Zhongguoshehuikexuechubanshe.
Huang, Jane. 1987.
ThePrimordialBreath:AncientChineseWaysofProlongingLifethroughBreath.Torrance,Calif.:OriginalBooks.
Jackowicz,Stephen.2006.Ingestion,Digestion,andRegestation:TheComplexitiesofQiAbsorption.InDaoistBodyCultivation,editedbyLiviaKohn,6890.
Magdalena,NM.:ThreePinesPress.
Kaltenmark,Max.1953. Le
Liesientchouan.Pekin:UniversitdeParis.
Kaptchuk,TedJ.1983.TheWebThatHasNoWeaver:UnderstandingChineseMedicine.NewYork:Congdon&Weed.
Kohn,Livia.
ed.1993.TheTaoistExperience:AnAnthology.Albany:StateUniversityofNewYorkPress
_____.2005.HealthandLongLife:TheChineseWay.Cambridge,Mass.:ThreePinesPress.
Komjathy,Louis.2002.TitleIndextoDaoistCollections.Cambridge,Mass.:
ThreePinesPress.
Kuriyama, Shigehisa. 1999. The Expressiveness of the Body and
the Divergence ofGreekandChineseMedicine.NewYork:ZoneBooks.
LviStrauss,Claude.1966.TheRawandtheCooked:AnIntroductiontoaScienceofMythology:1.trans.byJohnandDoreenWeightman.NewYork:Penguin.
Ngo,VanXuyet.1976.Divination,MagieetPolitiquedanslaChineancienne.Paris:PressesUniversitairesdeFrance.
Porkert,Manfred,andChristianUllmann. 1988.
ChineseMedicine:AsaScientificSystem,ItsHistory,PhilosophyandPractice,andHowItFitsWiththeMedicineoftheWest.NewYork:OwlPublishing.
Porkert, Manfred. 1988a. Chinese Medicine. New York: William
Morrow andCompany.
Raz, Gil. 2004. Creation of Tradition: the Five Talismans of the
NuminousTreasure and the Formation of Early Daoism. University of
Indiana atBloomington,Ph.D.Dissertation.
Robinet,
Isabelle.2000.ShangqingHighestClarity.InDaoismHandbook,editedbyLiviaKohn,196224.Leiden:E.Brill.
-
Arthur,EatingYourWaytoImmortality/63
Roth,HaroldD.1992.TheTextualHistoryoftheHuainanTzu.AnnArbor:AssociationforAsianStudies.
Schipper,KristoferM. 1993. The Taoist Body. Berkeley:University
of CaliforniaPress.
Unschuld,Paul.1985.MedicineinChina:AHistoryofIdeas.Berkeley:UniversityofCaliforniaPress.
Ware,James.1966.Alchemy,MedicineandReligionintheChinaofA.D.320:TheNeiPienofKoHung(Paoputzu).Cambridge,Mass.:MITPress.
Winn, Michael. 2006. Transforming Sexual Energy with
WaterandFire Alchemy.In
DaoistBodyCultivation,editedbyLiviaKohn,15178.
Magdalena,NM.:ThreePinesPress.
Yamada, Toshiaki. 2000. TheLingbao School. InDaoismHandbook,
edited byLiviaKohn,22555.Leiden:E.Brill.
_____. 1989. Longevity Techniques and the Compilation of the
LingbaoWufuxu.InTaoistMeditationandLongevityTechniques,editedbyLiviaKohn,99124.AnnArbor:UniversityofMichigan,CenterforChineseStudies.
ZhangXingfa.2003.Daojiaoneidanxiulian
Beijing:Zongjiaowenhuachubanshe.