Danziger, Chapters 9 - 12

Danziger, Chapters 9 - 12

Presented byAngela Oberbauer 2011

Danziger, Chapter 9

Politics as a Value Politics as a Value Allocation ProcessAllocation Process

Public Policy: is any decision or action by a governmental authority that results in the allocation

of a value (Danziger p.232)• Policy Process:

• Problem Identification• Problem Definition• Specification of alternative responses• Policy selection and enactment• Policy implementation• Policy Evaluation• Policy continuation/modification/termnation

The Elite Approach

• Key Concepts:1. Politics is defined as the struggle for

power.2. The Political World is characterized by

Political Stratification.

The Italian Application of the Elite Approach

Mosca, et al “The Ruling Class”(1896/1939)All Political systems have two strata:

a. The Political Class (the elite): controls all political functions, holds virtually all political power, and

dominates the allocation of values.Primary base of Elite domination: military power, then

religious control, then economic power, and most recentlytechnical knowledge.

b. The nonpolitical classthe mass.(Danziger, p. 239)

The American Application of theElite Approach

C. Wright Mills, et al (1956):a. The Power Elite in American Society are:1. The “warlords” in the military establishment.2. The “corporation chieftains” in the economic sector.3. The “political directorate” at the top positions in the political system. (Danziger, p. 239)

Ruling Elite

Understructure (government)

The Mass

The Value Allocation (policy) Process

1. The active elites are subject to little direct influence from the mass or even from the understructure of government.2. The understructure follows the elite’s instructions because its members depend wholly on

the elite’s power and resources for having and keeping their positions, and for any authority the understructure maintains in the eyes of the Mass.3. The mass is politically apathetic and impotent and policy is imposed upon them.

The Class Approach

Concepts within the Class Approach:1. Stratification, the basic fact of“structured inequality”.2. Class: a. The ruling class or capitalist class (Karl Marx, 1818-1883).b. The proletariat class or non-ruling class.3. Class Conflict: inevitable rebellions by the suppressed class, even possible revolution because of continued disparities between classesand the allocation of values.

The Group Approach

Key Concepts:1. A group is made up of members with shared or common interests.2. All group members may belong to multiple groups. 3. Individuals are not stratified.4. The groups or individual’s resources may be used to influence the political system.5. Politics can be understood as the interaction or competition among groups to have access to government and achieve their political interests through beneficial policymaking.

Functions of Government in the Group Approach

• To establish the rules of the game for the group struggle.• To determine the interests of competing groups and the

levels of political resources the competing groups have to offer and can be utilized.

• To find a public policy that balances the positions ofall active groups.

To enact public policy that balances these positions. To implement the resulting value allocations.

Danziger, Chapter 10: Change andPolitical Development

Characteristics of “More Developed” SocialSystems must include:1. The organizational dimension: 2. The technological dimension:3. The attitudinal dimension:

The Process of Development: economic, social, and political.

• Stage Development: traditional and modern, mechanical and organic, folk and urban, less developed and more developed.

Marx: “…society’s particular stage of development depends upon which individuals share control jointly over any available productive resources…” in other words, history or logic reveals a single, inevitable sequence of stages.

Response to Key Challenges as part of the process of development:

Macro-level structural dynamics and how they occur:

1. The tension between traditional ideas and values and modern ones.

2. The transition from a rural, agrarian society to an urban, industrial society.

3. The transfer of social and political power from traditional elites to modernizing ones.

4. The fit among geographical territory, national identities, and state boundaries (Barrington Moore (1966), in Danziger)

Processes of Development, continued• Micro-level dynamics/or individual-level change (Danziger: in other words, the

attitudinal dimension:--this perspective emphasizes the social-psychological factors of the individual that might account for variations in rates and patterns of development.Inkeles and Smith 1999; Inkeles et al 1985 conducted studies in six countries (Argentina, Bangladesh, Chile, India, the Oriental Jews of Israel, and Nigeria) and concluded there is remarkable similarity in beliefs among modern men in all six societies relevant to:1. openness to new experiences regarding both people and behaviors; 2. A shift in allegiance from traditional authority structures;3. Confidence in modern technologies.4. Belief in the value of planning and punctuality.5. Desire for social mobility for oneself and one’s children.6. Interest in local politics and community affairs.7. Interest in news, especially national and international affairs.

Processes of Development, continued• A Civil Society: When individuals create new patterns and attitudes of

interaction at the group or societal level by having (in Danziger:a. Tolerance of differences in opinions and

behaviors.b. Willingness to cooperate with others.c. Inclination to negotiate in order to achieve a

consensus, and desire to avoid using violenceto resolve differences.

d. A sense of shared identity with others.Analysts conclude the prevalence of these values of civility is crucial for

sustaining effective community and democracy.(Diamond et al. 1997; Stepan and Linz 1996; Putnam 1993)

Processes of Development, continued• Culture and the process of Change:Max Weber’s study (1958a): implies linkage between the culture of Protestant religions and the rise of capitalist political economies.

--Weber suggested Protestantism motivated people to makesubstantial, even irrational, sacrifices of material consumption and the pleasure of life. To work extra ordinarily hard and accumulate wealth rather than spend it.--Weber suggested in India and China the absence of development was an affect of the linkage between culture and religion. (Danziger, pp. 266-267)

However, development has grown in Asia since the 1980s, and recent explanations emphasize how Asian culture has “facilitated” development (Davis 1987; Huntington 1987: 21-28, 1991; Pye 1985; in Danziger, p. 267)

The Dynamics of Economic Development

Competing Styles of Economic development:1. Statism, (Danziger, p. 274):

a. Emphasizes the importance of strong actions by the state to support the system of production and distribution of goods.b. The state extensively regulates the market and the actions of firms and households.c. The state protects firms from external competition.d. Many important areas of production are publicly owned and operated as state enterprises (transportation, power, banking).e. The state also controls the prices of certain basic goods (foods, fuel).f. The state distributes many free or subsidized goods and services.

Processes of Development, continued2. Neoliberalism, (Danizger, p. 275)

a. To maximize the economic freedom of individuals, households, and firms.b. The state’s economic actions are limited severely. Restrictions against the free market enterprises are perceived as underminingand distorting the efficiency of the free market.c. Public expenditure is minimal.d. Little government regulation of the economy.e. Direct foreign investment and free trade across state boundaries are encouraged.f. The state is mainly concerned with maintaining fiscal and monetary discipline (not spending much, keeping currencies stable)and facilitating the dynamics of the local, national, and global marketplaces. (Stepan and Linz 1996 in Danziger, p. 275)

continued

3. The “developmental-state” approach(Danziger p. 268).

a. State-supported, export-oriented capitalism:

b. Targeting market niches:

c. Agrarian support:

The Dependency Approach

The Core Actors:Developed States, Firms, and Financial Institutions

The Semi-periphery:National Economic Actors

The Periphery: the villages with local and regional actors

Political Development

Characteristics of Political Development:Four Dimensions of a Political System’sDevelopment, (Danziger, p. 280):1. Concentration of power in the state:2. Specialized political structures:3. “Modern” forms of political behavior:4. Extensive capabilities of the political system:

Models of Political Development

• Model “A”: Social mobilization tourban areas (Urbanization) createsEconomic and Technological Development which allows Modernization whichmay allow Political Development.(Danziger, p.281)

continued

• Model “B”: Political Development supports Urbanization, Social Mobilization, and Economic Development allowing Modernization to develop, which maybe significant in more/continued PoliticalDevelopment.

Democratization used as a tool to measure Political Development?

Does a political system have to exercise democratic electoral practices to bedeveloped?There are 121 electoral democracies atpresent from approximately 200 states.--63 percent 2003 from previous 40 percent.(Danziger p. 282)

Economic Development a Necessary Prerequisite for Democracy?

• First, the level of economic development has long been presented as a crucial factor.

• Second, external actors have been an important force in the shift toward democracy, e.g. The World Bank and U.S.

• Third, the breakdown of Authoritarian and totalitarian remimes has provided a window of opportunity for democratization.

• Fourth, the expansion of democracy might be enhanced by changing norms that favor democracy.

• Fifth, nonviolent “people power” movements have beome a crucial force for change in amost 3/4ths of the countries that have democratized.

• Sixth, another key factor is often the presence of political leadership committed to democracy (Danziger pp. 286-287).

World of Changes• System transformation:

• Most political change is modest: new policy decisions, alterations in the way existing policy is implemented, or variations in the in puts from the internal or external environments ( P. 280).

• A major change would be a major change from a dominant party to a multiparty system, or authoritarianism to electoral democracy, or from a period of war to a period without military hostilities, or from a statist political economy to a neo-liberal one, or from male-only to gender-neutral political rights, or finally, from an elected leader to a military dictatorship (pp. 285-291)

Political Institutionalization and Political Decay

• Political Institutionalization: are political organizations and procedures that have acquired value in the eyes of the population and the stability to withstand significant pressure (Samuel Huntington (1968, 1987 in Danziger, p. 290).

• Political Decay: There is a significant decline in the capabilities of the political system, and especially in its capacity to maintain order (p. 290).

Additional goals of Political development:

• Political Institutionalization• Democratization: those chages that deepen and

consolidate democratic process (p. 283, Diamond 2003; Wilensy 2020)

• Economic growth and development: the increasing capacity and complexity of the economic system and the production of a large array of goods and services for consumption are the essence of economic development

(p. 283).

Chapter 11: Politics Across BordersPolitical Realism: States “Motives, values, and actions pursue an

international environment”, (Danziger pp. 299) 1. Politics between states occurs in an international system that is

“anarchic” (without an overarching authority that can impose order and good behavior on all the states in their relations with each other and with other actors.

2. People are naturally selfish, therefore, states act the same.3. The fundamental goal of each state is to ensure its own security and

survival.4. Security maximizes its powers: economic, knowledge, military.5. States are in constant competition for power, because power is a“zero-sum” commodity”.6. There is no expectation that another state can be trusted, will avoid

violence, or act ethically.7. A state makes treaties and breaks them; makes war or cooperates for

only one reason, to maximize its security goals.

continuedPolitical Idealism, (Danziger p. 299):1. Human nature is basically good.2. People and the states they construct can be altruistic and cooperative.3. Aggression and power-maximizing behavior is not inevitable by

States.4. If a states actions reduce the welfare of people in any country or

increase interstate conflict and war, it is usually because of poorly designed institutions (governments, economic systems, legal systems), but not because people are innately selfish or evil.

5. It is possible to establish an international system in which well-designed institutions can achieve and encourage cooperative behavior among states.

6. If such an international system is exercised, states can create a “positive sum” environment.

Three Major Goals of States(Danziger, pp. 294-295)

I. Security:1). Survival:

2). Autonomy:3). Influence:4). Prestige:

5). Dominance:

continued

II. Stability:1). Order maintenance:

2). Establishment violence:

3). Political Development:

continued

III. Prosperity:1). Economic Development:

2). Political Economy’s capacities to:

3). Welfare Distribution:

Mechanisms of Cooperation Between States (Danziger pp. 279-282)

• Diplomacy:

• Alliances:

• International Regimes:

International Law, Legal Structures, and International Organizations (pp. 306)

On the Laws of War and Peace, by Hugo Grotius (1625): Grotius emphasized“natural law” -- sensible forms of behaviorthat should guide states behavior and actions with each other.

By the 19th Century, “positivist law” is being used:--explicit written agreements that define both appropriate and

unacceptable behaviors between states in the form of treaties orconventions, e.g. “the Helsinki Agreement”. (Danziger p. 306)

The International Court of Justice (World Court) located in The Hague

Responsibilities and accomplishments:1. Interprets international law.2. Adjudicates disputes between states.3. Hears cases on human rights violations and genocide by states or individuals with state authority. 4. Makes rulings (decisions) on trials. 5. Holds states and national leaders accountable for ultra-violence perpetrated by the state on other states.6. Is a valuable mechanism for conflict resolution between states.7. It issues numerous advisory opinions (p. 307)

World Court continuedWeaknesses of the World Court:

1. Even if states sign an agreement with other states and break or abuse the agreement, the court can rule, however, the court has jurisdiction and binding decision authority only if both parties disputing accept its ruling.2. Less than one-third of the United Nation’s state members have agreed to accept automatically the court’s jurisdiction in matters affecting them.3. Most of those states who have not agreed to automatically accepta ruling concerning them by the court have added qualifications to their acceptance.4. With ruling pertaining to political or economic importance or repercussions to states, states have refused rulings out of the court.5. Most states hold their own judicial systems and their laws supreme over the International Court of Justice.

International Organizations

• Intergovernmental Organizations (IGOs)

• Nongovernmental Organizations (NGOs)

• Multinational Corporations (MNCs)(p. 307-312)

Competition Among States• Balance of Power among states:

• When there is a rough equality in the power of resources (political, economic, and especially military) that can be exercised by sets of competing states (Kaplan 1957; Morgenthau 1993 in Danziger pp. 313-314).

• An attempt to maintain a general stability in the relations among states and to preserve the status quo.

• Peace can be ensured only by a balancing of contending states because potential aggressors will be deterred only by overwhelming opposing power.

• Typically a few major power states [4-to-6] that are decisive in ensuring that the balance is sustained.

• These states and others, constantly create shifting alliances based only on self-interest and system equilibrium, never on friendship or ideology.

• To prevent actions that threaten the overall balance of system one or more power states must intervene in the affairs of a single state or the relations between states.

• There will be periodic political violence and war because states must use force to preserve themselves and because the system is not always in such balance that all conflict between states is deterred (p. 309)

continued• Balance of Terror:

The enormous destructive capacity of modern military technologies of competing states. (Danziger p. 315)---from mutual deterrence, a state expands its destructive capacity, number of weapons, and technical sophisticationto a point where it…can inflict catastrophic and unacceptable damage on a rival---Mutually Assured Destruction.

Domination and Dependence

Three different forms of “leverage” powerful states exercise on dependent states:1. Economic leverage:2. Military leverage:3. Political leverage:

(Danziger pp. 316)

continued

Dominant states have employed three different “styles” of domination over dependent states:1. The “Segregationist Style of colonialism2. The Assimilationist Style3. The Style of Indirect Rule(Danziger p. 317)

continued• Neocolonialsim:

Since World War II, new forms of domination and dependence has evolved:--primarily by economic leverage, e.g. loans, technology transfer, military

support. --Also through the dominate states subtle alliance of a

small internal elite, transnational corporations, and financial institutions, e.g. The World Bank and International Money Fund.(Danziger pp 317)

Globalization

Globalization is the increasing integration of diverse economic, socio-cultural, military, and environmental phenomena by means of dense networks of trade, action, and information that span vast distances around the world. (Danziger p. 319)

Chapter 12: Political Violence: the use of actual physical violence or very serous threats of such

violence to achieve political goalsTypes of Political Violence:

1. State Violence against Individuals or Groups through:a. order-maintenance -- a state acts as police, judge and executer of punishment when individuals break the law.b. establishment violence -- the excessive reliance on force and oppressive laws to maintain public order. (pp. 331-332)

Types of Political Violence, continued(Danziger pp. 334-344)

2. Individual Violence against an Individual.3. Group Violence against an Individual:

a. Terrorism4. Group Violence against a Group:

a. Nation-based violence (ethnonationalism).b. Class Conflict

5. Individual or Group Violence against the State:a. Riot.b. Rebellionc. Separatist Violenced. Coup.e. Revolution

Revolution: is the rapid and fundamental transformation of the political system [p. 344]

• The explicit objective of revolution is to destroy the existing political system and replace it with a new one. (p. 344)

Four Broad Strategies that can be employed to achieve a revolution

Strategy I: Terrorism

Strategy II: Revolution from above

Strategy III: Guerrilla War

Strategy IV: Democratic Revolution (Danziger pp. 345-346)

Conditions for Revolution:• What is the “J-curve” theory? Disparities between

the values that the population expects to enjoy from the government and the actual value distribution the population receives. (p 346/47)

• Understand the three post-revolutionary phases as identified by Crane Brinton (1957) [p. 344]:1. Rule of the moderates:2. Rule of the radicals:3. Reaction and moderation:

Six uses of Force between States

• Blockade• State-sponsored terrorism• A brief, single use of force• A Clash• A low-intensity conflict• War

(Danziger pp 347-348)

What Causes War?• Newer nations.• States that have effectively socialized their citizens to

accept the government’s actions on national security.• Most warlike states have rising prosperity, but are

relatively poor.• Countries with desirable geopolitical features: resources

and location.• Countries not well linked to the global economy.• States most highly militarized and expanding their military

power.• Countries whose political culture reflects a high degree of

nationalism.

Evaluating Political Violence

• The normative [or Conservative] perspective on political violence: it is unacceptable, deviant behavior. The only legacy of violence is to undermine order in the society; violence is part of an erroneous belief that radical social change can lead to lasting improvements.

• The contrary perspective argues: Political violence is often the best or even the only mechanism for liberation from oppression and tyranny. Dominant elites who manipulate the state to serve their interests, not the collective good, need to be rid of. And if government and its leaders refuse to be constrained by a limited mandate and are not responsive to the citizens, then the people have the right to overthrow them (John Locke 1631-1704 in Danziger p. 335).