D1.2 State of the Art Runway and airport design, ATM procedures, aircraft The Endless Runway project intends to design a circular runway that enables aircraft to always operate at landing and take-off with headwind. In this document, existing work on circular runways is reviewed: previous theoretical work is analyzed, and live trials of circular runway are mentioned. Design elements and figures on conventional runways are given; current regulations and aircraft physical considerations are identified. Future aspects of airport, aircraft and ATM developments are addressed and the relevance to the endless runway outlined. Other alternatives to the straight runway are presented. Project Number 308292 Document Identification D1.2_WP1_Background Status Final Version 3.0 Date of Issue 11/04/2014 Authors M. Dupeyrat, S. Aubry, P. Schmollgruber, A. Remiro, S. Loth, M. Vega Ramírez, H. Hesselink, R. Verbeek, J. Nibourg Organisation ONERA, INTA, INSA, NLR, DLR
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D1.2 State of the Art Runway and airport design, ATM procedures, aircraft
The Endless Runway project intends to design a circular runway that enables aircraft to always
operate at landing and take-off with headwind. In this document, existing work on circular runways
is reviewed: previous theoretical work is analyzed, and live trials of circular runway are mentioned.
Design elements and figures on conventional runways are given; current regulations and aircraft
physical considerations are identified. Future aspects of airport, aircraft and ATM developments are
addressed and the relevance to the endless runway outlined. Other alternatives to the straight
runway are presented.
Project Number 308292 Document Identification D1.2_WP1_Background Status Final Version 3.0 Date of Issue 11/04/2014
Authors M. Dupeyrat, S. Aubry, P. Schmollgruber, A. Remiro, S. Loth,
M. Vega Ramírez, H. Hesselink, R. Verbeek, J. Nibourg
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Document Change Log Version Author Date Affected Sections Description of Change
0.1 DLR, ONERA, INTA, NLR 11/09/2012 All Creation of document (merging of documents)
0.2 DLR 15/09/2012 All Reordering sections review of original D1.2 part
0.3 DLR 15/09/2012 All Version for review 0.4 ONERA (S. Aubry) 27/09/2012 All Review comments incorportated 1.0 NLR 30/09/2012 All Version for delivery to EC 1.1 ONERA 31/10/2012 All Including peer review comments
by ONERA management 2.0 NLR 13/11/2012 All Version 2.0 for delivery to EC 2.1 NLR 18/02/2014 6.1 Review from EC + final meeting 3.0 NLR 11/04/2014 All Version 3.0 for delivery to EC
Document Distribution Organisation Name EC Ivan Konaktchiev NLR Henk Hesselink
Carl Welman René Verbeek Joyce Nibourg
DLR Steffen Loth ONERA Maud Dupeyrat
Sébastien Aubry Peter Schmollgruber
INTA Francisco Mugñoz Sanz María Antonia Vega Ramírez Albert Remiro
ILOT Marián Jez
Review and Approval of the Document Organisation and Persons Responsible for Review
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Table of Contents Document Change Log 2 Document Distribution 2 Review and Approval of the Document 2 Table of Contents 3 Acronyms 6 Definitions 9
1 Introduction 12 2 Background on circular runways 13
2.1 History of the concept 13 2.1.1 Popular Science Monthly and Backus concepts (1919-1921) 13 2.1.2 Winans and Tempest concepts (1955-1957) 13 2.1.3 U.S. Navy concept (1960-1965) 15 2.1.4 Final thoughts 16
2.2 Various designs proposals 17 2.2.1 Backus landing station for aircraft using a circular trackway 17 2.2.2 Conrey’s simple circular runway 18 2.2.3 Bary’s circular runway 20 2.2.4 Bary’s circular runways with three straight segments 21 2.2.5 Bary’s circular runway with straight inlet runways 23 2.2.6 Scelze’s coupled circular runways 26
2.3 Circular runways initiatives 27 2.3.1 Take-off and landing live trials on circular runways 28 2.3.2 Human factors 31
2.3.2.1 Pilots 31 2.3.2.2 Passengers 32
2.3.2.2.1 In flight 32 2.3.2.2.2 On ground 34
2.4 Physical theory 34 2.4.1 In-flight 34 2.4.2 On-ground 36
2.4.2.1 With friction 37 2.4.2.2 Without friction 38
3 Alternative runway designs 42 3.1 The airport/runway at sea 42 3.2 Airports with runways in many directions 45
4 Vision of the Air Transport System of the future 48 4.1 Demand for air travel 50 4.2 Research agenda’s 50 4.3 Technology 51
5.2.4 Runway safety areas and protection zones 68 5.2.4.1 Runway safety area 68 5.2.4.2 Runway protection zones 69 5.2.4.3 Runway dimensions overview 74
5.2.5 Maximum runway slope 74 5.2.6 Transversal runway profile 75 5.2.7 Roadway characteristics and contamination risks 76
5.3 Navigation aids for runway operations 77 5.4 Environmental and societal considerations 80
5.4.1 Noise 81 5.4.2 Water quality 85 5.4.3 Wildlife 85 5.4.4 Air pollution 85 5.4.5 Third party risk 86 5.4.6 Future Environmental Aspects 87
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6.2.4.3 Automated aircraft 119 7 Background on aircraft 121
7.1 Aircraft characteristics 121 7.2 The commercial aircraft fleet 125
7.2.1 Aircraft fleet categories 125 7.2.2 Evolution of the Aircraft Fleet 128 7.2.3 Evolution of aircraft configurations 129 7.2.4 New technology infusion into current configurations 129 7.2.5 Innovative configurations 131
7.3 New scenarios 132 7.3.1 Personal Air Transport 132 7.3.2 Small commercial Air Transportation 133
9 References 138 Appendix A Classification codes and design standards 142 Appendix B Acoustics measurement 143 Appendix C Regulations 145
Appendix C.1 Organisations for regulations 145 Appendix C.2 Basic regulation 147 Appendix C.3 Regulation on aerodromes, air traffic management and air navigation services 148 Appendix C.4 Regulation related to runway pavement 149
Appendix D Intermediate computation 152 Appendix D.1 Equations of the circular banked track with friction 152 Appendix D.2 Resolution of the primitive for the computing of Ymax 153
Appendix E Airport passenger traffic statistics 155 Appendix E.1 World 155 Appendix E.2 United Kingdom 156 Appendix E.3 Spain 157
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Acronyms ACARE Advisory Council for Aviation Research and Innovation in Europe A-CDM Airport - Collaborative Decision Making ADF Aircraft De-icing Fluid ANP Air Navigation Provider APU Auxiliary Power Unit AS Aircraft Approach Speed ASDA Accelerate-Stop Distance Available A-SMGCS Advanced Surface Movement Guidance and Control System ATC Air Traffic Control ATM Air Traffic Management ATS Air Traffic System BADA Base of Aircraft Data BWB Blended Wing Body CAA Civil Aviation Authority (UK) CAVOK Cloud And Visibility OK CC(O) Continuous Climb (Operations) CDA Continuous Descent Approach CO Carbon Monoxide CO2 Carbon Dioxide CONSAVE Constrained Scenarios on Aviation and Emissions CTR Control Zone DG Directorate General DGAC Direction Générale de l’Aviation Civile DGAC Direction Générale de l’Aviation Civile DLR Deutsches Zentrum für Luft- und Raumfahrt DME Distance Measuring Equipment DNF Data Not Found EC European Commission ER Endless Runway EREA Association of European Research Establishments in Aeronautics ETOPS Extended-range Twin-engine Operational Performance Standards FAA Federal Aviation Administration FAR Federal Aviation Regulations GBAS Ground Based Augmentation System GLONASS Globalnaja Nawigazionnaja Sputnikowaja Sistema
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GM General Motors GNSS Global Navigation Satellite System GPS Global Positioning System GRAS Ground-based Regional Augmentation System HC hydrocarbons HLTC High Level Target Concepts HMI Human Machine Interface Hz Hertz ICAO International Civil Aviation Organization IFR Instrument Flight Rules IIT-JEE Indian Institute of Technology Joint Entrance Examination ILOT Instytut Lotnictwa ILS Instrument Landing System INSA Ingeniería y Servicios Aeroespaciales INTA Instituto Nacional de Tecnica Aeroespacial JATO Jet Assisted Take-Off KOM Kick-Off Meeting kt knots LDA Landing Distance Available LDEN Day Evening Night Sound Level LDL Landing Length LVC Low Visibility Conditions M Mach (speed) MLS Microwave Landing System MRO Maintenance Repair Overhaul MTM Management of Aircraft Trajectory and Mission MTOW Maximum Take-Off Weight NDB Non-Directional Beacon NLR Nationaal Lucht- en Ruimtevaartlaboratorium NOx Nitrogen Oxides NWEF Naval Weapons Evaluation Facility OFA Object Free Area OFZ Obstacle Free Zone OMG Outer Main Gear ONERA Office National d’Études et de Recherches Aérospatiales ONZ Grosse Ile Municipal Airport PAT Personal Air Traffic
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PBN Performance Based Navigation PM Particulate Matter QFU Aviation Q-code for Magnetic Heading of a Runway RESA Runway End Safety Area RFID Radio-Frequency Identification RFL Requested Flight Level / Required Field Length RNAV Radar Navigation RNP Required Navigation Performance RSA Runway Safety Area RVR Runway Visual Range RW Runway SBAS Satellite Based Augmentation System SEL Sound Exposure Level SESAR Single European Sky ATM Research SID Standard Instrument Departure SMAN Surface Manager SOx Sulphur Oxides SRA Strategic Research Agenda STAC Service Technique de l’Aviation Civile STAR Standard Arrival Routes SWIM System Wide Information Management SWY Stopway TMA Terminal Manoeuvring Area TOD Top Of Descent TODA Take-Off Distance Available TOL Take-Off Length TOR Take-Off Run TORA Take-Off Run Available UAS Unmanned Aircraft System UK United Kingdom US United States USAF United States Air Force USN United States Navy VFR Visual Flight Rules VOC Volatile Organic Compounds VOR VHF Omnidirectional Range WS Wing Span
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• An inner edge horizontal and perpendicular to the centre line of the runway and located at a specified
distance after the threshold.
• Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge and diverging uniformly at a specified rate from
the vertical plane containing the centre line of the runway.
• An outer edge parallel to the inner edge and located in the plane of the inner horizontal surface.
Conical surface
The conical surface is defined as a surface sloping upwards and outwards from the periphery of the inner
horizontal surface. The limits of the conical surface comprise on one hand, a lower edge coincident with the
periphery of the inner horizontal surface and, on the other hand, an upper edge located at a specific height
above the inner horizontal surface. Its slope shall be measured in a vertical plane perpendicular to the
periphery of the inner horizontal surface.
Inner horizontal surface
The inner horizontal surface is located in a horizontal plane above an aerodrome and its environs. Its radius
shall be measured from a reference point or points established for such purpose. Its height shall be measured
above an elevation datum established for such purpose.
Take-off climb surface
The take-off climb surface is an inclined plane or other specified surface beyond the end of a runway or
clearway. Its elevation shall be equal to the highest point on the extended runway centre line between the end
of the runway and the inner edge, except that when a clearway is provided the elevation shall be equal to the
highest point on the ground on the centre line of the clearway. In the case of a straight take-off flight path, the
slope of the take-off climb surface shall be measured in the vertical plane containing the centre line of the
runway. Regarding a take-off path involving a turn, the take-off climb surface shall be a complex surface
containing the horizontal normals to its centre line, and the slope of the centre line shall be the same as that
for a straight take-off flight path. Its limits comprise:
• An inner edge horizontal and perpendicular to the centre line of the runway and located either at a
specified distance beyond the end of the runway or at the end of the clearway when such is provided
and its length exceeds the specified distance.
• Two sides originating at the ends of the inner edge, diverging uniformly at a specified rate from the
take-off track to a specified final width and continuing thereafter at that width for the remainder of
the length of the take-off climb surface.
• An outer edge horizontal and perpendicular to the specified take-off track.
Clearway A clearway (CWY) is a rectangular area, whose width must be at least 150 m (according to ICAO recommendations), beginning at the end of the runway and centred on the runway’s extended centreline, over which an airplane can make the initial portion of its flight on take-off.
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Stopway A stopway (SWY) is a rectangular area, at least as wide as the runway, beginning at the end of it and centred on its extended centreline, which has been prepared as a suitable area where an aircraft can be stopped in the case of an aborted take-off without suffering structural damage. TORA The TORA (Take-Off Run Available) is the length of runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aircraft taking off. TODA The TODA (Take-Off Distance Available) is the length of the take-off run available (TORA) plus the length of the existing clearway, if any. The TODA is greater than the maximum distance between TOD1 and TOD2, with:
• TOD1 (Figure 1): 115% of the distance needed by the aircraft to reach a height of 35 ft (10.7m) with all engines assumed available throughout.
Figure 1 TOD1 calculation
• TOD2 (Figure 2): distance, from the start of the take-off run, needed for the aircraft to attain an altitude of 35 ft (10.7 m) if it continues to take-off when one engine fails.
Figure 2 TOD2 calculation
ASDA The ASDA (Accelerate-Stop Distance Available) is the length of the take-off run available (TORA) plus the length of the existing stopway, if any. LDA The LDA (Landing Distance Available) is the length of the runway declared available and suitable for the ground run of an aircraft landing. For turbine-powered aircraft, the aircraft must be able to stop within at most 60% of the landing length of the runway (LDA). It is assumed that the aircraft flies over the threshold of the runway at a height of 50 ft (15 m).
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directly over the runway throughout the landing, preventing landing undershoot or overshoot. The visibility of
the runway and the proximity of the control tower during the approach (457 meters) were seen as useful
assets for the pilot especially in bad weather condition.
2.1.3 U.S. Navy concept (1960-1965)
In 1960, Navy Pilot Lt. Cmdr. James R. Conrey from the U.S. Navy seriously thought of the circular runway,
having in mind the ability to land in any wind condition. He put his results on paper and won a U.S. patent [11].
After his death in a plane accident, a project dedicated to the circular runway was launched by the U.S. Navy.
In 1965, Officer Commander Lloyd Smith published a technical report on circular runways [18], which
theoretical results are described in detail in paragraph 2.3.1.
The airport design (see Figure 6) consists of a main runway in the form of a banked track constituting the
perimeter of the airport. At the centre of the circle is the control tower (N) housing radar and navigation aids.
It is surrounded by an open parking and gardens (M), themselves encircled by a ring-shaped passenger
terminal building (L). The entire outer wall of the terminal faces the runway. It provides a maximum of parking
and loading positions for planes (K). The parking and loading area is connected with the runway by taxiways for
departing aircraft (I) and high speed turn-off ramps for arriving aircraft (H), 24.4 meters wide and arranged like
spokes on a wheel. Finally, a roadway (J) passes under the airport for passengers’ access to the terminal
building.
Figure 6 Circular runway airport design,US Navy report
The circular runway, to accommodate aircraft with broad speed ranges (e.g. up to 151 kt), would need to be 98
meters wide. It would be about 9,400 meters long, which corresponds to a diameter of about 3,000 meters.
N
A – 1600 meters radius B – 1582 meters radius C – 1567 meters radius D – 1543 meters radius E – 1519 meters radius F – 1509 meters radius G – Radial markers 305 meters apart H – High speed turn-off I – Taxi out for departure J – Auto access (under runway and ramp) K – Aircraft parking and loading ramp L – Airport terminal building M – Open park and gardens N – Control tower radar and navigation aids
visibility procedures would increase airport capacity. Considering efficiency, the optimum control tower
position (unobstructed view of every portion of the runway), installation of navigation aids in the control
tower, and passenger access to and from aircraft from the centre building complex were other assets from this
design. Compactness derived in the building complex would have a positive effect on land use, cost, and
efficiency. From the environmental perspective, noise abatement procedures could be defined thanks to the
runway’s lateral geometry. For military purposes, fragmentation by enemies would require a plurality of well-
placed craters before making the runway unusable.
Interest to the concept was even expressed by aviation authorities in Sydney, Australia, in 1965 [6].
2.1.4 Final thoughts
One of the reasons why the circular runway remained at experimental level was probably the cost of such a
runway and the need for new procedures and techniques. Construction costs would be higher than for
capacity-equivalent conventional runways because of the requirement for precise banking of the runway and
for larger runway width (98 meters instead of maximum 60 meters) and length (10,000 meters versus
maximum 4,000 meters). Another reason was that the design studies of these concepts study did not involve
1 A flameout refers to the failure of a jet engine caused by the extinction of the flame in the combustion chamber. A deadstick landing is a type of forced landing when an aircraft loses all of its propulsive power and is forced to land (Wikipedia)
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devising new landing techniques and procedures, which are necessary for implementation in the air traffic
environment.
Even though aircraft do not take off on circular runways today, it appears that the unmanned Falconet
subsonic aerial target from Flight Refuelling Ltd. (see Figure 7) can take off from a circular runway, which is
considered to be more economical than with Jet Assisted Take-Off (JATO) [22].
Figure 7 Unmanned Falconet subsonic aerial target taking-off on a circular runway
Circular airports are coming back to designers’ mind conceiving for the airport of the future. During the
“Fentress Global Challenge: Airport of the Future” launched in the Spring 2011 and awarded early 2012, two
students (one from Stanford university and the other one, Thor Yi Chun, from Malaysia's University of Science)
proposed both a circular runway concept (see 5.5.1).
2.2 Various designs proposals In this section, existing patents proposing more elaborated designs for circular runways are described in depth.
2.2.1 Backus landing station for aircraft using a circular trackway
P. J. Backus, in 1920, patented a circular trackway [23], which in essence is a basic configuration of a circular
runway. P.J. Backus proposal is meant for landings only, during both day and night operations. The flat circular
trackway has a 482 meters radius and is at least 91.4 meters wide, so that two aircraft can land
simultaneously2. It is surrounded by two inclined and lighted walls, see Figure 8. A strip on the centre of the
trackway indicates where to land and allows the pilot to stay on this line during the roll. The tower at the
centre of the trackway comprises a wind vane and a beam of light at its top, used after nightfall or in degraded
weather conditions to show the location of the trackway. The colour of the beam tells the pilot whether the
track is available or not. The vane, indicating the direction from which the wind is blowing, helps the pilot
landing into the wind. During the night, a beam of light originating from the vane is emitted towards the
trackway, indicating to the pilot where to land.
2 “In practice it is preferred that the trackway T be of a width not less than three hundred feet so that it may be possible for two aeroplanes to make a landing at substantially the same time.” [23]
The infrastructure involves a network of taxiways aimed at connecting the airport building at the centre of the
circle with the runway. The arrival taxiways (high speed exits) are curved while the departure taxiways are
straight lines. High speed exits are banked at 1.5° to the left in the left hand motion. They are approximately
24.4 meters wide.
2.2.3 Bary’s circular runway
In 1965, Woldmar Bary patented a Closed track airport [12] which only brings few updates to the previous one:
it describes take-offs and landings in headwind conditions using a sloped runway.
Figure 12 A. Woldemar Bary's closed track airport plan and sectional views
11 – Ring area (182 hectares) 12 – complex of buildings (control tower, hangars, baggage storage and freight storage facilities, waiting rooms for passengers, etc.) and cars parking 15 – circular runway (457 m to 914 m radius, 61 m to 91 m width, bank angle increasing from 0,15 to 0,2 m per m) 16 – hard surface (paving) 18 – outer peripheral portion of the runway (18 m height and 30° bank angle) 20 – aircraft 22 – apron (emergency surface) 24 – ramp (for emergency only, gradual slope) 31, 32 – tunnels for pedestrian, cars; trucks, buses, other small vehicles 34 – roads 36 – circles at the end of the roads for turnarounds 41-48 – sections of the runway identified by different colour paving 51-58 – Signs identifying each runway sections 62, 64 – runway circles marking
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Figure 13 Closed track airport with straight runways for instrument landing and take-off plan view
The three chordal tracks are located symmetrically on a triangular pattern in accordance with prevailing winds
or other local requirements. Their length is such that 𝐿𝑐ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑑𝑠 ≤ √2𝑅.
Figure 14 Closed track airport with straight runways for instrument landing and take-off enlarged sectional views
10 – airport (260 hectares) 12 – curved banked and paved closed track airstrip (bank from 0° to 30° corresponding to a 50 feet outwards elevation, width 250 feet, outside diameter 5000 feet) 18 – ramp for aircraft towing along the ground 21-23 – straight and level chordal tracks (2000 feet long and 100 to 200 feet wide) 25 – arcuate section of the inner ring track 34 – row of concealed radar reflectors 40, 42, 44 – course of a landing aircraft 50 – aircraft in approach 60 – inner ring 61-63 – pavilions of debarkation 65 – aircraft parked on pavillons 61, 62 and 63 67 – hangars 69 – roadways 70 – tunnel under the track 75 – control tower Around 75 – 3 parking lots 72 – tangent course
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between the circular strip (8) and the circular arrangement of circles (17). The aircraft decelerates on runway
C, L or R before making a right turn to join circular runway 10, where it continues to slow down. Once the
speed has decreased sufficiently, a left turn into circular runway 9 completes the landing and the aircraft ends
up taxiing until the parking area.
Figure 21 Robert Scelze coupled straight and circular runways
Parallel runways C, L or R can accommodate three aircraft simultaneously. By convention, centre and left
runways are preferably used for landing while centre and right runway are used for take-offs.
In night operations, only the heading markers (12) corresponding to the operating runways L, C and R
headings, are illuminated by floodlights (20) and strobe lights (13). Reciprocal heading markers are illuminated
only by floodlights. The circles (17) and the centre bulls eye circle (19) are illuminated all the time (by lights
18).
2.3 Circular runways initiatives Circular runways were not only studied on paper, they were also experimented in the US between the Second
World War and the 70s. This section gives an overview of experiments on circular runways.
5 – circular area made of concrete, asphalt, or sod, located on a square plot of land (16,2 hectares) 6 – circular stripe delineating the circular area (diameter: 1300 feet) 8 – circular stripe concentric to 6 9 – circular runway (50 feet width) 10 – annular area (landing and take-off runway) 11 – circular area 12 – conventional heading markings (every 30°) 13 – high intensity strobe light 14 – painted series of arrows pointing couter-clockwise 16 - painted series of arrows pointing clockwise 17a-17l – painted circles 18 – inrunway light 19 – bulls eye circle 20 – flood light 21-22 – imaginary parallel lines 23 – imaginary radial line corresponding to the heading marking best fitted to current wind parameter C - centre runway (200 feet width) 24 – imaginary line L – left runway 26 - imaginary line R - right runway
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We can consider that the aircraft is in balanced4 turning flight and that the speed V is constant (thrust and drag
are equal). The bank angle is 𝜃, the radius of the turn is R, the mass of the aircraft m. Two forces act on the
aircraft: the weight 𝑊���⃗ and the lift 𝐿�⃗ , the last one being divided into its horizontal component, the centripetal force 𝐹𝐶����⃗ , and its vertical component 𝐿𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝚤𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑐𝑜𝑚𝑝𝑜𝑛𝑒𝑛𝑡������������������������������������⃗ , opposed to the weight. The centrifugal force and the
resultant load are represented for clarity reasons, as those terms are commonly used when speaking of turns.
Note that the centrifugal force is the apparent but fictitious force that draws a rotating body away from the
centre of rotation. It is inversely proportional to the radius of the turn (see Figure 31).
Figure 31 Forces operating on the aircraft in flight in a balanced banked turn
We can use the Newton’s second law in the upward and radial direction.
The vertical component of the lift balances the aircraft weight as follows:
𝑊 = 𝐿𝑐𝑜𝑠𝜃 (4)
The centripetal force causing the aircraft to turn is equal to:
𝐹𝐶 = 𝐿 sin𝜃 (5)
From the two previous equations (4) and (5), we deduce:
tan𝜃 = sin𝜃cos𝜃
= 𝐹𝐶𝑊
= 𝑚𝑎𝑐𝑚𝑔
(6)
The centripetal acceleration is given by (see [24] chapter 7.4 for the complete demonstration):
𝑎𝑐 = 𝑉2
𝑅 (7)
4 During a balanced turn, the aircraft does not skid nor slip. During an unbalanced slipping turn, the centrifugal force is lower than the horizontal component of the lift (i.e. the centripetal force), whereas during an unbalanced skidding turn, it is greater.
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We also find the maximum speed at which the aircraft can successfully operate the curved track for given R, µ,
and θ (see Appendix D.1):
𝑉 = �𝑅𝑔 � 𝜇+𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃1−𝜇𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃
� (20)
For given θ and R, the optimum speed in terms of tyres’ wear is obtained when friction is not needed at all. In
that case, we can simplify equation (20) and we get:
𝑡𝑎𝑛𝜃 = 𝑉2
𝑔𝑅 (21)
The value of the friction coefficient is empirical. It has been observed that it is a function of the type and condition of the track surface, the condition of the tyres, the weather conditions, the temperature of the track, etc. Table 2 indicates average friction coefficients observed on contaminated and non-contaminated runways.
Runway contamination Track status µ
Runway not contaminated Dry and clean 0,8 to 1,00
Wet 0,6 to 0,7
Wet concrete (less than 1 mm) 0,45 to 0,55
Compact snow 0,4 to 0,5
Strong (> 3 mm) but non-stagnant rain DNF
Contaminated runway Stagnant water (> 3 mm) or slush (> 2 mm) 0 to 0,05
Powder snow (>15 mm) 0,15 to 0,25
“New” surface Ice 0,05 to 0,1
Table 2 Friction coefficient values for aircraft wheels on contaminated and non-contaminated runway surface
2.4.2.2 Without friction
In condition of no lateral force e.g. the friction �⃗� is neglected6, the forces applied to it are the weight 𝑊���⃗ and
the reaction of the track on each wheel of the landing gear, summed up as 𝑁��⃗ .
6 The coefficient of friction for tires in rudder on a dry flat concrete is an approximation. It decreases below 0.2 if the track is wet or icy.
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4 Vision of the Air Transport System of the future In order to analyse the different aspects of the Endless Runway, that is a prospective project that may not
emerge before 2050, it is first important to investigate what the future of air transport will look like and in
what direction travel, aircraft, and airport developments will evolve. In this chapter, a general vision on air
transport and ATM is provided. A good starting point is [70], on which the text of this chapter is largely based.
For this vision, the following sources have been consulted:
• the Vision and second Strategic Research Agenda of the Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in
Europe (ACARE8) [71] [72] [73]
• the Vision and Phase 2 studies of the Association of European Research Establishments in Aeronautics
(EREA9) [63] [65]
• the Flightpath 2050 Vision document of the High Level Group on Aviation Research of the European
Commission (DG for Research and Innovation, DG for Mobility and Transport) [66]
ACARE presents, through the work of a “group of personalities”, the avionics research agenda for Europe, by
identifying challenges and opportunities for research and technology development. The EREA study, funded by
the Association of European Research Establishments in Aeronautics (EREA), aimed at providing to the
European aeronautical community the vision of the European research centres on the Air Transport System
(ATS) of the far future by the year 2050. In Phase 1 of the study, the vision of EREA is presented, based on the
four CONSAVE (Constrained Scenarios on Aviation and Emissions scenarios) of the ATS 2050 [74]. Phase 2, built
on these four scenarios, aims to further investigate the technical options identified in phase 1. The four
scenarios, see Figure 49 to Figure 52, are defined as follows:
• The scenario “Unlimited Skies” (ULS) represents a world that is not fundamentally constrained by
energy availability: the world is not governed by shortages, and as a consequence, aviation undergoes
explosive growth, with the development of many different types of aircraft.
• The scenario “Regulatory Push & Pull” (RPP), places emphasis on the public interest through a series
of constraints and regulations. These constraints are primarily in terms of energy (both the cost and
availability of fossil fuels becomes a deterrent) and the environment. This is a world dominated by
electricity largely produced by nuclear plants but also by wind and solar power and any other
technology using a natural resource in ecological fashion.
• The scenario “Down to Earth” (DTE), presenting a radical situation, reflects a political commitment to
eliminate fossil fuels usage. These fuels are not necessarily depleted, but society has decided to stop
tapping nature, and to freeze the remaining reserves as they are.
8 ACARE presents, through the work of a “group of personalities”, the avionics research agenda for Europe, by identifying challenges and opportunities for research and technology development. 9 The EREA study, funded by the Association of European Research Establishments in Aeronautics (EREA), aimed at providing to the European aeronautical community the vision of the European research centres on the Air Transport System (ATS) of the far future by the year 2050.
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5 Background on Airport Design Airports are and, in the Endless Runway period, will still be the location where aircraft take off and land.
Airports are expanding and continuously improving their services to aircraft and passengers. Studies like [66]
[84] [85] indicate that in 2050 there will be the need for 25 million commercial flights in Europe, which all have
to be served by a growing number of airports. However, the number of airports in Europe will not grow with
the pace of the increase in number of flights, so that efficiency becomes an important aspect for serving this
anticipated growth.
In this chapter, typical airport design aspects of relevance to operating the Endless Runway are examined.
General consideratons of airport design that appear relevant to the Endless Runway are given, like
construction of buildings (inside the runway circle) and access to the airport, including multi-modal transport.
Then, runway surface characteristics and regulations for the construction of runways are described.
Environmental aspects are mentioned in section 5.4. Indeed, they are in Europe a major issue to ensure that
people living near the airport do not experience too much noise or suffer from emissions and can live safely
with aircraft overflying their communities. The final part of this chapter presents ideas on future airport design
in line with the 2050 visions of ACARE and EC. An overview of airport design regulations and regulatory
organisations can be found in Appendix C.
5.1 Airport design considerations This section discusses current aspects of airport design. The most important elements are the design of the
infrastructure of the airport, and the access to the airport, including intermodality aspects. The following
paragraphs describe these elements focusing on aspects that can relate to the design of a circular runway.
Airport design involves several complex aspects and has to be performed taking into account global transport
goals and strategies. A good design should also provide enough space for future airport expansions and allow
for new aircraft types and configurations to operate.
Airports can be considered as a system that comprises three main functions:
1. Move passengers and cargo to and from airports.
2. Prepare passengers and cargo for air transportation on the landside.
3. Oversee the physical movement of aircraft at airports airside.
5.1.1 Infrastructure aspects – general overview
The airport area is divided into the airside10 and the landside11. The majority of the land area is taken up by the
airside (between 80 and 95%) whereas 5-20% is dedicated to the landside. Due to this, main aspects of airport
design are the number of runways, their orientation and length, the geometrical configuration of the runway
system, and the land area set aside for operational safety and future airport expansions. The latter is 10 The airside is composed of the ground traffic area (apron) and of the manoeuvring area (runways, taxiways). 11 The landside is a public area composed of the passengers and freight terminals, intermodality facilities, etc.
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In the forthcoming years, European ground infrastructure will be in place for all airspace users. It will comprise
major hubs, secondary airports, vertiports, and heliports, all of them being seamlessly connected within a
multimodal transport system [66].
Interconnections within this network will be provided by multimodal transport, including high-speed trains for
the national or international network, trains, subways, tramways or suburban trains at regional airports,
electric ground vehicles, environmentally friendly ships, or even air-buses. A major goal for the future
intermodal transport system is to reduce dependence on the automobile as the major mode of ground
transportation and increase the use of public transport, especially in the context of the future air transport
system. To do so, one should have in mind that the Door to door journey has the user comfort as main driver.
Underground railway stations built below terminals reduce the need for private cars and limit the
environmental footprint. In 2050 the airport will be connected to a railway station integrated with the
landside. High Speed train for the national or international network will be available in all continental hubs as
well as secondary airports. Subway, tramway, or suburban train for the regional airport connected to the
nearby cities centers will be available.
5.2 Runway characteristics and regulations The construction of a circular runway will require the application of the same rules and regulations as are in
place in current runway construction, although some aspects will require further investigation and will need to
change. An obvious example is the proposed bank angle in the Endless Runway, something currently not
allowed, even more, not advisable when operating a straight runway track. Just as well, runway signs like the
runway number indicated on the strip’s surface will not be possible when on the Endless runway any position
of the runway can be used to land on.
The following sections give an overview of aspects of runway construction.
5.2.1 Runway orientation
Runways should ideally be aligned with the prevailing wind, to allow take-off and landing with headwind12. The
most critical wind in terms of safety is crosswind, especially for smaller aircraft with narrow landing gears. 12 Aircraft can also take-off and land with tail wind below a certain limit.
A move in airport access can be observed nowadays. Transport by car shall no longer be the major
means to arrive at the airport. A train station shall connect the airport to nearby cities and other
regional airports. High speed trains shall serve locations (cities and airports) further away.
The Endless Runway airport layout would have as one of the main requirements the connection with
the other transport means mentioned above, and the facilitation of the direct transfer from those
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- The obstacles that the aircraft needs to overfly with a 35 feet vertical margin [49].
Aircraft manufacturers provide for each aircraft a take-off run (TOR), a take-off distance (TOD) and a landing
distance for non-standard conditions. Airport designers must look at those published performances to
establish an optimal runway distance (runway + stopway + clearway).
Since published aircraft performance is given for standard conditions of temperature (15°C), pressure (sea
level), slope (null), a dry runway and in absence of wind, some correction factors need to be applied.
The aircraft flight manuals provide through dedicated charts the different landing and take-off lengths,
depending on temperature, slope and altitude. If the designer doesn’t have the manuals, the following
formulas are used to estimate the corrections needed [51]:
𝐹𝑎 = 1 +0.07𝑎300
𝐹𝑡 = 1 + 0.01(𝑡𝑟 − 𝑡𝑠ℎ)
𝐹𝑆 = 1 + 0.1𝑠
where: Fa = correction in altitude Ft = correction as a function of temperature Fs = correction as a function of slope a = altitude tr = reference temperature tsh = corresponding standard atmosphere to every altitude s = slope
If 𝐹𝑎 × 𝐹𝑠 × 𝐹𝑡 > 1.35, the preceding formulas are not applicable and a specific study must be done.
Therefore, once the take-off and landing lengths are known, the final runway length will be the largest
between the take-off and the landing length with the corrections Ft, Fs and Fa applied.
As an example, let’s suppose that the take-off and landing lengths in standard conditions are 1,550 m and
1,700 m. The altitude of the airport is 500 m, its effective slope 0.5%, the reference temperature is 23°C and
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5.2.3.3 Runway width
Loads transmitted by aircraft are distributed up to 30 m. The excess paved area is used for safety reasons.
The width of a runway shall be not less than the appropriate dimension specified in Table 7, in meters (for
code numbers and code letters definition, refer to Appendix A) ([26]).
Code number
Code letter A B C D E F
1 18 18 23 - - -
2 23 23 30 - - -
3 30 30 30 45 - -
4 - - 45 45 45 60
Table 7 Runway widths
One can see that widths vary from 18, 23, 30, 45 to 60 meters (e.g. necessary for the A380) for a paved
runway. For an unpaved one, widths are different, varying from 50 to 80 meters.
With regard to military airports, runway widths shall be at least:
- 45 m for fighter and training planes, - 60 m for light and medium transport and bomber aircraft, - 90 m for heavy transport and bomber aircraft or for simultaneous take-off of two fighters.
Declared distances will be available without problems on the Endless Runway. The construction of
runway exits will depend on stopping distances and need to be considered in relation to prevailing
winds.
Width of the runway is an important factor for the Endless Runway. As the aircraft will have to make
maneuvers on the runway (make a turn), probably, for safety, the runway needs to be wider than the
minimum requirements specified above. As indicated in chapter 2, when using a bank angle, the
runway width will also depend on the aircraft’s landing speed and even more space needs to be
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As far as width is concerned, they extend symmetrically on each side of the runway so that the overall width of
it and its shoulders is not less than:
3. 60 m for code letters D and E. 4. 75 m for code letter F.
Another characteristic of a runway shoulder is that its transverse slope shall not exceed 2.5% and the surface of it that abuts the runway shall be flush with the surface of the runway.
The goal of a blast pad is to protect the runway against the damage made by jet blasts. They should extend
across the full length of the runway and its shoulders.
5.2.4.2 Runway protection zones
According to FAA, the obstacle free-zone (OFZ) (see Figure 62) is aimed at providing clearance protection for
aircraft landing or taking off and for missed approaches. It is centred above the runway and extends to 45 m
above the established airport elevation. It is subdivided into three parts:
1. Runway OFZ: the airspace above a surface centred on the runway centreline. 2. Inner-approach OFZ: centred on the extended runway centreline and applicable only to runways with
an approach lighting system. 3. Inner- transitional OFZ: the airspace above the surfaces located on the outer edges of the runway OFZ
and the inner-approach OFZ.
Runway blast pads will not be necessary for operations on the Endless Runway as behind the aircraft,
there will always be more runway. Possibly, however, the runway safety area can be prone to jet
blast, as the aircraft is making a turn, creating jet blast over the runway shoulder, see figure below.
Shoulders and runway safety areas around the circle should also be taken into account, especially on
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5.2.4.3 Runway dimensions overview
In Table 10, an overview of the runway dimensions and the dimensions of the runway safety area and runway
object-free area is given. The figures refer to lengths which begin at each runway end, when a stopway is not
provided; if not, they begin at the stopway end.
Aircraft design group I II III IV V VI
Runway width 30 m 30 m 30 m 45 m 45 m 60 m Runway shoulder width 3 m 3 m 6 m 7.5 m 10.5 m 12 m Runway blast pad width 36 m 36 m 42 m 60 m 66 m 84 m Runway blast pad length 30 m 45 m 60 m 60 m 120 m 30 m Runway safety area width 150 m Runway safety area width beyond RW end 300 m Obstacle-free zone width 120 m Obstacle-free zone length beyond RW end 60 m Runway object-free area 240 m Runway object-free area length beyond RW end 300 m
Table 10 Dimensional standards for runways (source: FAA)
5.2.5 Maximum runway slope
On one hand ([51]), according to FAA standards, for categories C, D and E, the maximum longitudinal grade
allowed is ±1.5%. Nevertheless a ±0.8% grade may not be exceeded in the first and last quarter of the runway
length. At the same time, the maximum allowable grade change is ±1.5%. The longitudinal grades applied to a
runway should be applied to the entire runway safety area (RSA).
On the other hand, according to ICAO Annex 14 [26], longitudinal slope changes allowed are summarized in
the following table for ICAO code element 1.
Code number 1, 2 Code number 3 Code number 4
Max-Min elevation centre line/runway length 2% 1% 1%
Longitudinal slope along any point 2% 1.5%14 1.25%15
Slope change between 2 consecutive slopes 2% 1.5% 1.5%
Transition to one slope to another 0.4% per 30 m16 0.2% per 30 m17 0.1% per 30 m18
Table 11 ICAO longitudinal runway slope
14 except that for the first and last quarter of the length of the runway, in case of precision approaches Category II and III, the longitudinal slope shall not exceed 0.8%. 15 except that for the first and last quarter of the length of the runway the longitudinal slope shall not exceed 0.8%. 16 a curved surface with minimum radius of curvature of 7500 m 17 a curved surface with minimum radius of curvature of 15000 m 18 a curved surface with minimum radius of curvature of 30000 m
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Where slope changes cannot be avoided, they shall be such that there will be an unobstructed line of sight
from:
• Any point 1.5 m above a runway to all other points 1.5 m above the runway within a distance of at
least half the length of the runway where the code letter is A.
• Any point 2 m above a runway to all other points 2 m above the runway within a distance of at least
half the length of the runway where the code letter is B.
• Any point 3 m above a runway to all other points 3 m above the runway within a distance of at least
half the length of the runway where the code letter is C, D, E or F.
5.2.6 Transversal runway profile
According to FAA [51], for airport categories C and D, the runway or taxiway grades shall not exceed 1% to
1.5%, the grades for shoulders 1.5% to 5% and the rest of the runway or taxiway safety area shall not exceed
1.5% to 3%.
As far as ICAO is concerned [26], the transverse slope shall be:
• 2% for code letters A and B.
• 1.5% for code letters C, D, E and F.
It has to be mentioned that, in any event, the transverse slope shall not exceed 1.5% or 2%, as applicable, nor
be less than 1% except at runway or taxiway intersections where flatter slopes may be necessary. Besides, the
slope on each side of the centre line shall be symmetrical. It shall be substantially the same throughout the
length of a runway except at an intersection with another runway or taxiway where an even transition shall be
provided taking account the need or adequate drainage.
Apart from the proposed bank angle on the Endless Runway, the area for constructing the runway is
larger than for straight runways of three to four kilometers. The consequence of this may be that a
slope is necessary. The same regulations as given in this section will apply for the Endless Runway.
The designer has to take into account the force 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛Φ (with φ: runway longitudinal slope angle and W: aircraft weight), especially for large aircraft. Given that slopes are small, 𝑊𝑠𝑖𝑛Φ~WΦ.
Aircraft performance along the circle must be as even as possible. Therefore there shall not be
significant slope variations along the circle (in opposed areas). For this, the surface where the
circular runway is located should not be inclined.
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5. Signs: these are visual aids over the surface located near the edge of pavements (Figure 74). Their
usual abbreviations are: APRON, RAMP, FUEL, GATE, PARK, etc.
Figure 74 Airport signs (reference [59])
Table 12 summarizes the possible navigation aids on airports.
Navigation aid Type
Indicators and signalling devices Wind direction indicators Landing direction indicator Signalling lamp Signal panels and signal area
Markings Runway designation Runway centre line Threshold Aiming point Touchdown zone Runway side stripe Taxiway centre line Runway-holding position Intermediate holding position VOR aerodrome check-point Aircraft stand Apron safety lines Road-holding position Mandatory instruction Information
Lights Emergency lighting Aeronautical beacons Approach lighting systems Visual approach slope indicator systems Circling guidance Runway lead-in lighting systems Runway threshold identification Runway edge
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Runway threshold and wing bar Runway end Runway centre line Runway touchdown zone Stopway Taxiway centre line Taxiway edge Stop bars Intermediate holding position De/anti-icing facility exit Runway guard Apron floodlighting Visual docking guidance Aircraft stand manoeuvring guidance lights Road-holding position light
Signs Mandatory instruction Information VOR aerodrome check-point Aerodrome identification Aircraft stand identification Road-holding position
Markers Unpaved runway edge Stopway edge Edge markers for snow-covered runways Taxiway edge Taxiway centre line Unpaved taxiway edge Boundary
Table 12 Airport visual navigation aids
5.4 Environmental and societal considerations Nowadays society is highly concerned about the environmental impact of airports. The growth of the main
cities around the world has led to an increase of the number of people exposed to airport environmental
Runway navigation visual aids will be an important aspect to consider when a circular runway will be
actually constructed. Some elements, like landing signals, will not be relevant as the aircraft can land
anywhere in the circle. Other elements will need reconsideration, e.g. beacons and the runway entry
sign that indicates the runway orientation. As the Endless Runway will have several entries, the
orientation will need to be indicated at the entry. Besides, as aircraft will certainly not take off in the
direction of the entry because it will accelerate over the circle for some time before taking off, a
digital signal showing the expected takeoff direction would be useful. The air traffic controller would
introduce certain aircraft parameters, such as MTW, aircraft model, etc., and this new visual aid
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that the equivalent of 1,300 new international airports will be required worldwide by 2050 with a doubling in
the commercial aircraft fleet.
Therefore, the major aviation challenge is to meet the predicted growth in demand for air travel (increasing 4-
5% per annum over the next 20 years) but to do so in a way that ensures minimum impact on the
environment.
Aviation industry in Europe has long recognised this challenge. As a consequence, in 2001, the Advisory Council
for Aeronautical Research in Europe (ACARE) [67] established the following targets for 2020 (compared to
2000):
• Reduce fuel consumption and CO2 emissions by 50% per passenger kilometre • Reduce NOx emissions by 80% • Reduce perceived noise by 50% • Make substantial progress in reducing the environmental impact of the manufacture,
maintenance, and disposal of aircraft and related products
In addition, ACARE has identified the main contributors to achieving the above targets. The predicted
contributions to the 50% CO2 emissions reduction target are:
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6 Background on ATM procedures This chapter provides information on ATM procedures and on the ATM system. The aim of air traffic control is
to organise and guide the traffic in the air and on ground. For The Endless Runway project, the most important
are the procedures around the runway.
The first part of the chapter gives an overview of the current TMA and airport operations. Starting with the
transition from the cruise phase, down to the final approach to the threshold with a possible go-around,
procedures and commonly used systems are described briefly. As the final approach to the Endless Runway
needs to be redesigned, additional attention is paid to the current situation here. In addition, some topics
relevant for actual developments that have direct relation to the Endless Runway are addressed.
The second part of the chapter is looking into the future of ATM. Short term initiatives from EUROCONTROL
and the CAA are mentioned as well as the main programme for the future ATM in Europe SESAR. New
concepts like 4D-trajectories and free flight are presented and some developments in systems highlighted.
Finally automation is looked at as this might become one of the most relevant part future air traffic, enabling
ATM actors to become managers rather than operators.
6.1 TMA and airports operations In the Terminal Manoeuvring Area (TMA) and Control Zone (CTR), aircraft climb and descent between the
airport surface and the air routes. Climbing and descending traffic, but also passing over flights, are safely
separated by air traffic control. ATC uses standard inbound (STARs) and outbound routes (SIDs), radar
vectoring, flight level separation, speed control, tromboning19, and procedures to separate traffic.
To assist the pilot in approaching the runway, special navigation equipment is available. The most commonly
used is ILS (Instrument Landing System), but alternatives are available using MLS (Microwave Landing System),
and GPS (Global Positioning System). Furthermore, modern navigation equipment also allows for precise
navigation throughout the TMA using RNAV (Area Navigation).
In terms of fuel consumption, the most efficient inbound and outbound trajectories are the Continuous
Descent Approach (CDA) and Continuous Climb Operations (CCO). In case an aircraft is not able to perform a
nominal landing, it has to perform a missed approach or balked20 landing. In case an aircraft has a non-nominal
departure the aircraft can choose to go-around and return to the airport.
Because of the very different layout of the Endless Runway it is expected that current operations, procedures
and systems might have to change. Therefore an overview on the relevant phases of arriving and departing
aircraft is given.
19 Tromboning consists of adjusting the moment an aircraft turns to base to intercept the final approach path. 20 A balked landing is a very late missed approach.
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6.1.3.1 Landing load and vertical speed
Some constraints due to airworthiness standards need to be taken into account when designing the operations
on the circular runway. In FAR 25.473 (Structural design limitations for landing gear, large aircraft), §25.473
“Landing load conditions and assumptions”, it is mentioned that: “For the landing conditions […] the aircraft is
assumed to contact the ground […] with a limit descent velocity of 10 fps at the design landing weight (the
maximum weight for landing conditions at maximum descent velocity), and with a limit descent velocity of 6
fps at the design take-off weight (the maximum weight for landing conditions at a reduced descent velocity).”
6.1.3.2 Low visibility conditions
Low visibility conditions reduce the runway capacity, according to local criteria and the availability of ILS
equipment. Low visibility conditions are divided into different categories, like the conditions given in Table 15
as applicable for Amsterdam Airport Schiphol (LVC = Low Visibility Conditions; RVR = Runway Visual Range):
Visibility condition Criteria CAVOK (Cloud And Visibility OK) >= 5000m
Marginal visibility visibility < 5000 m and/or cloud base < 305 m LVC phase A 550 m <= RVR <= 1500 m and/or 61 m <= cloud base <= 91 m LVC phase B 350 m <= RVR < 550 m and/or cloud base < 61 m LVC phase C 200 <= RVR < 350 m
LVC phase C+D possibility of RVR < 200 m
Table 15 Low visibility conditions
Marginal visibility and LVC limit the runway operations in such a way that no intersection take-offs are
allowed, runway crossings are avoided as much as possible, non-essential traffic is not allowed, combinations
of crossing runways is avoided, and separation is increased.
6.1.3.3 Wind limitations
Weather aspects that have an influence on runway operations are first of all the wind speed and direction.
Limitations on head wind and crosswind conditions are defined in accordance to local procedures as
recommended according to the information provided in [26], paragraph 3.1.3:
These vertical speed limits should be considered when designing the Endless Runway specific
procedures.
Low Visibility Conditions will have to be considered when describing the concept of operations of the
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6.2.3.2 Overarching airport management system
In the future, airports will need to be coordinated as a whole considering every aspect of the operation.
With A-CDM, a first collaborative decision making process is introduced that will be much more important in
the future. Ideas like Total Airport Management 21(TAM) are in line with the performance based approach of
the future ATM and will support the integration of all aspects of air transport. Instead of point to point
communications and messages exchange a tailored information sharing and coordinated decision finding is
needed. In combination with more interaction on local and regional level, much more system integration and
advanced support tools are needed for the stakeholders.
A number of support and management systems will be in place to plan and optimize the traffic at and around
airports. Arrival and Departure manger will coordinate queuing and spacing of the airspace users in the
terminal area. Surface management systems (SMAN) are responsible for taxi operations and turnaround
management systems will link the ground based operations with the gate to gate profile. All systems are
interconnected with the SWIM network and have access to all relevant information at any time.
With highly dynamic change of the airport system (dynamic touchdown points) and a flexible airspace and
ground operations, high performance requirements for the systems are needed. Arrival and departure
managers have to be very flexible taking into account actual and predicted weather data. As there is a direct
impact on runway entry and exit points as well as on the timing, the surface management systems should have
a high performance. Predictable On/Off block times are necessary to optimize the taxi operations.
21 Total Airport Management defines a concept of performance driven airport operations. Based on a collaborative decision making process involving all stakeholders at the airport, an optimized usage of available resources is achieved (see also http://www.eurocontrol.int/eec/public/standard_page/EEC_News_2006_3_TAM.html).
Having only one runway in the Endless Runway concept, an optimized use of this resource is essential.
Allowing the simultaneous use of runway sections needs a high level of coordination and optimization,
keeping safety on the highest level. The highly dynamic and flexible operation of the runway requires
new automation and support systems. As the SORM concept covers some of the required functions
like tactical and strategic runway management, it could be an approach to enable the dynamic
utilization of the limited runway resource.
Information management related to A-CDM, TAM, and SWIM will be implemented at airports, offering
the possibility to be used for optimization of traffic in planning and information management. This will
be essential for the operation of The Endless runway, as a high degree of system support will be
needed and the data exchange between the systems will be essential to coordinate the different areas
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7 Background on aircraft This chapter will provide an overview of aircraft related aspect to the application of the Endless Runway.
As indicated in several studies [66] [84] [85], the demand for air travel is continuously growing and in 2050,
there will be about 16 billion passengers annually (in 2011, there are about 2.5 passengers annually). In
Europe, this increase translates to 25 million of commercial flights. With the goal of reducing the number of
aircraft accidents or incidents [66], future aircraft will then have to further improve their reliability and safety
level. In addition, the more and more stringent requirements on noise and emissions [67] will lead to
important modifications regarding aircraft. In this section, the objective is then to present possible aircraft that
would take-off and land on an Endless Runway.
However, in order to limit the categories of aircraft to be investigated, it is important to make some
considerations: to take-off and land safely on a circular runway requires a complete control of the aircraft
attitude and speed. It would then be preferable to perform these critical segments of the mission in an
automated manner. General aviation aircraft generally used for leisure and driven by low cost requirements
would certainly be reluctant to integrate the necessary onboard equipment. This category of aircraft is
therefore not considered in the following fleet assessment. Regarding the business jet category, prospective
studies [65] indicate that future airplanes would fly supersonic. A consequence of this change is that the low
speed handling of the vehicle will be a true challenge. In addition, because of the associated configuration,
takeoff and landing speeds will be high. It is thus considered that business jets would not be the primary
customers for circular runways because of a higher risk. As for military aircraft, reliable information on the
characteristics of potential future vehicles is not available.
For these reasons, this deliverable concentrates on the evolution of the commercial fleet and presents its
associated future airplanes. Where data on business jets and military aircraft is found, it is presented
nonetheless. This chapter also identifies airframes that are evolutions of the current configurations as well as
revolutionary ones, characterized by a real discontinuity with today’s shapes. To conclude, new missions
foreseen for 2050 and their specific planes are presented.
7.1 Aircraft characteristics The circular runway sizing is dictated by aircraft requirements. The foreseen use of the Endless Runway airport
(e.g. commercial or military operations, manned or unmanned aircraft), and the operational and geometrical
characteristics of the design22 aircraft to be accommodated, will dictate the shape and the sizing of the
runway.
22 Design aircraft or critical aircraft = aircraft most demanding on airport design that operates at least 500 annual operations on the airport. There can be more than one design aircraft for one airport.
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The following tables present performance figures for current-day aircraft. Table 16 presents nominal and
maximum bank angle values for both civil and military aircraft on take-off and landing given by EUROCONTROL
[48].
Bank angle description Value (°)
Nominal bank angles for civil flight during TO and LD 15
Nominal bank angles for military flight (all phases) 50
Maximum bank angles for civil flight during TO and LD 25
Maximum bank angles for military flight (all phases) 70
Table 16 Bank angle values for civil and military aircraft during take-off and landing
In Table 17, take-off and landing speeds and take-off and landing lengths are extracted from BADA 3.1023.
More information can be found in the flight manuals of the aircraft, which provide the following figures:
• The take-off speed for various aircraft weight, in chapter Performances/Climb Performance – Take-off
climb
• The approach speed for various aircraft weight, in chapter Performances/Landing distance – flaps LDG
• The take-off distance (corresponding to the TOL24) for various temperature, take-off mass, wind
component, obstacle height conditions and flaps position, in the chapter Performances/Take-off
distance,
• The landing distance over a 50 feet obstacle (corresponding to the LDL25) for various temperature,
take-off mass, wind component, obstacle height conditions and flaps position, in the chapter
Performances/Landing distance – flaps LDG,
• The range of admissible bank angles, in chapter Performances/Stalling speeds,
• The maximum admissible crosswind component, in chapter Performances/Wind components. Smaller
and slower aircraft are more subject to crosswind, which can be seen from the crosswind limit. In
Table 17, the maximum demonstrated crosswind is indicated. It must be noted that during a Cat II and
CAT III automatic landing, the maximum allowed crosswind is lower.
23 Another possible source is provided in reference [29] (Jane’s database). 24 The TOL (FAR Take-Off Length [m]) corresponds to 115% the distance required to accelerate, lift-off and reach a point 35 feet above the runway with all engines operating, with aircraft weight at MTOW, on a dry, hard, level runway under ISA conditions and no wind. 25 The LDL (FAR Landing Length [m]) corresponds to 166% the distance from the point at which the aircraft is 50 feet above the surface to the point at which the aircraft is brought to a complete stop, with aircraft weight at MLW on a dry, hard, level runway under ISA conditions and no wind.
Table 17 Today's aircraft TO and LDL performances and crosswind limitations
In civil engineering, for roads construction, the stopping distance in a tight turn is increased since braking is
less energetic (ref [47]). When the turn radius is lower than 5 times the speed of the vehicle, expressed in
km/hour, the stopping distance is increased by 25%. We can assume this will apply to aircraft decelerating on a
circular runway as well.
Figure 92 Geometrical constraints on a banked runway
Another aspect to look at when investigating the sectional shape of the track is the wingspan and the height of
the wingtips of the aircraft when on the curved banked track. Indeed, wing tips should never touch the runway
during the aircraft roll, take-off, and landing. A certain clearance should be adopted (e.g. 1.8 meter clearance
26 As given by the flight manuals in chapter Performances/Stalling speeds. 27 Data source: BADA 3.1. 28 Crosswind during take-off. 29 Crosswind with gusts. 30 Data Not Found 31 Data source: Airplane flight manual DA 40
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9 References [1] Description of Work – The Endless Runway, version 1.1, June 20th, 2012 [2] Roosts for City Airplane : Would This Circular Track Solve the Landing Problem?, in Popular Science,
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Woldemar, June 1967 [14] US Patent 3333796, Closed Track Airport with Straight Runways for Instrument Landing and Take-off, A.
Woldemar, August 1967 [15] Translation curves for highways, United States. Bureau of Public Roads, Joseph Barnett, U.S. Govt. Print
Off., 1938 [16] Concrete pavement manual, Portland Cement Association, 1955 [17] US Patent 3701501, Two Circular Runways, Robert G. Scelze, Oct 1972 [18] “The circular Runway” report, U.S. Navy, Apr 1965 [19] Landings on a Round Runway!, Naval Aviation News, March 1965 [20] Circular Airport Runways and Other Neat Solutions for "Airport of the Future" Design Comp, Core 77
Design Magazine and resource, 22 Feb 2012 [21] Circular Runway at ONZ, How Does It Work?, airliners.net forum, Sept 2006 [22] UK aerial targets, Chris Davis, July 24, 2008 [23] US Patent 1388319, Peter James Backus, Landing Station for Aircraft, Filing date Dec. 27, 1920, Issue
date Aug. 23, 1921 [24] College Physics, Raymond A. Serway, Jerry S. Faughn,Chris Vuille, Cengage Learning, Jan 2011 [25] Course in Physics for IIT-JEE, Tata McGraw, Hill Education, 2011 [26] ICAO Annex 14, Volume I, Aerodrome design and operations [27] ICAO Annex 16, Environmental Protection, Volume I, Aircraft Noise [28] ICAO 9157 – Aerodrome Design Manual [29] Jane’s database (http://jawa.janes.com/public/jawa/index.shtml) [30] US Patent 1854336, Clarence W. King, Floating Landing Stage, Filing date Feb. 10. 1931, Issue date Apr.
19, 1932 [31] US Patent 2430178, Selby H. Kurfiss et. Al., Floating Airplane Field, Filing date Mar 9, 1946, Issue date
Nov. 4 1947 [32] US Patent 5398635, Durando, A.R. and H.M. Weiss, Floating Airport, Filing date Nov. 18, 1993, Issue
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[33] US Patent 5588387, Wentworth J. Tellington, Floating Platform, Filing date Mar. 14, 1995, Issue date Dec. 31, 1996
[34] US Patent 5906171, Per Herbert Kristensen et.al, Floating Runway, Filing date Sept. 24, 1997, Issue date May 25, 1999
[35] US Patent 6651578, Patrick H. Gorman, Floating Structures, Filing Date Mar. 27, 2002, Issue date Nov. 25, 2003
[36] Foundations for the development of the airport Schiphol – report issued by the commission for studying the extension of the airport Schiphol, chairman: U.F.M. Dellaert.
[37] US Patent 2342773, Samual K. Wellman, Landing Platform for Airplanes, March 28, 1942 [38] US Patent 2399611, E.R. Armstrong et. Al, Submersible Seadrome, Filing date May 14, 1942, Issue date
May 7, 1946. [39] US Patent 6341573, Jon Buck, Ship to Platform Transformer, Filing date Mar 9, 2001, Issue date Jan. 29,
2002. [40] US Patent 5368257, Harry E. Novinger,Variable One Way Airport, Filing date Jan. 13, 1993, Issue date
Nov. 29, 1994 [41] “Thinking ahead”, FENTRESS ARCHITECTS, Airport World, April-May 2012 [42] http://wikimapia.org/9385276/ONZ-Runway-Circle-Remants [43] Pilot’s handbook of aeronautical knowledge (chapters 4, 5, 13 and 16), FAA, FAA-H-8083-25ª, 2008 [44] Advisory_Circular 150/5300-13 Airport Design, FAA, 30/12/2011 [45] Instruction technique sur les aérodromes civils, DGAC-STAC (Service Technique de l’Aviation Civile),
01/03/2002 [46] US Patent 1,388,319, P.J. Backus, Landing Station for aircraft, Filing date Dec. 27 1920, Issue date Auf
23, 1921 [47] Comprendre les principaux paramètres de conception géométrique des routes, Service d’Etudes
Techniques des Routes et Autoroutes, issue date January 2006 [48] User Manual for the Base of aircraft Data (BADA), revision 3.10, EEC Technical/Scientific Report No.
12/04/10-45, April 2012 [49] Planning and design of airports, Robert Horonjeff, fifth edition [50] Ashford, N., H. Stanton, and C. More, Airport Operations, McGraw-Hill Education publications, ISBN
7980070030770, 1997 [51] Airport Systems: Planning, Design, and Management, Richard de Neufville, Amedeo Odoni, 2002 [52] Apuntes Edificación y Equipos Aeroportuarios, A. París Loreiro (Publicaciones ETSIA UPM) [53] http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Intermodal_passenger_transport [54] La Actividad Aeroportuaria y el Medio Ambiente; Sebastián Delgado Moya, Marcos García Cruzado,
Mario García Galludo, José Mª Guillamón Viamonte, Manuel Recuerdo López, Carlos San Martín Castaño
[55] http://ionelberdin.com/2011/05/visita-a-la-t4-del-aeropuerto-de-madrid-barajas/ [56] Wind director indicator: http://www.pasionporvolar.com/blog/ayudas-visuales-en-los-aeropuertos-
senalizaciones [57] Landing direction indicator: http://www.pasionporvolar.com/blog/ayudas-visuales-en-los-aeropuertos-
senalizaciones [58] Runway number signal: http://www.pasionporvolar.com/blog/ayudas-visuales-en-los-aeropuertos-
[63] Amsterdam Airport Schiphol, Create a Barrier of Silence, results of the design contest, www.schiphol.nl/ontwerpwedstrijd
[64] EREA vision for the future – Towards the future generation of Air Transport System, Publisher: Association of European Research Establishments in Aeronautics, P.O.Box 90502, 1059 CM Amsterdam, October 2010
[65] EREA ATS 2050 Phase 2, From Air Transport system 2050 Vision to Planning for Research and Innovation, published by the Association of European Research Establishments in Aeronautics, May 2012.
[67] ACARE (Advisory Council for Aeronautics Research in Europe), Aeronautics and Air Transport: Beyond Vision 2020 (Towards 2050), Background Document, Issued: June 2010
[68] Airport2050, Vision 2050, Deliverable D2-1-1, November 2011 [69] Parasuraman R., T.B. Sheridan, and C.D. Wickens, A model for types and levels of human interaction
with automation, IEEE Transactions on Systems, Man & Cybernetics, 2000, vol.30, pp.286-297. ISSN 0018-9472.
[70] Leeuwen, P. van, A Vision on the Air Transport System of 2050, version 1.0, Amsterdam, January 2012, NLR-TR-2012-202
[71] ACARE, Strategic Research Agenda, volume 1, 2004 [72] ACARE, Strategic Research Agenda, volume 2, 2004 [73] ACARE, Aeronautics and Air Transport: Beyond Vision 2020 (Towards 2050), Background Document,
Issued: June 2010 [74] Berghof, R. et.al., CONSAVE 2050 Final Technical Report, July 2005, G4MA-CT-2002-04013 [75] ACARE, Meeting Societies Needs and Winning Global Leadership, January 2001 [76] SESAR D3 [77] RTCA, Report of the Radio Technical Commission for Aeronautics (RTCA) Board ofDirectors' Select
Committee on Free Flight, 1995 [78] J.M. Hoekstra et all, Free Flight in a Crowded Airspace?, 3rd USA/Europe Air Traffic Management R&D
Seminar Napoli, June 2000 [79] Airspace for Tomorrow, “Developing the United Kingdom’s airspace arrangements in a safe, sustainable
and efficient way “, CAA (UK), 2009 [80] Airspace for Tomorrow-2, “Modernising the United Kingdom’s airspace arrangements in a safe,
sustainable and efficient way”, CAA, 2009 [81] Airspace for Tomorrow-3, “Modernising the United Kingdom’s airspace arrangement in a safe,
sustainable and efficient way”, CAA, 2009 [82] European Commission, Out Of The Box Ideas about the future of air transport Part 2, 2007
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[83] THE 2015 AIRSPACE CONCEPT & STRATEGY FOR THE ECAC AREA& KEY ENABLERS, Eurocontrol, 28.02.2008, Edition 2.0
[84] “Global Market Forecast” by Airbus [85] “Global Market Outlook” by Boeing [86] “Comment volerons-nous en 2050”, Air and Space Academy, 2011 [87] Website: http://www.atraircraft.com/ [88] Website: http://www.aviationadvertiser.com.au/ [89] Website: http://q400nextgen.com/ [90] Website: http://flyingphotosmagazinenews.blogspot.fr [91] Website: http://crjnextgen.com/en/ [92] Website: http://www.embraercommercialjets.com/ [93] Website: http://www.airbus.com/ [94] Website: http://www.boeing.com/ [95] “Advanced Technology Subsonic Transport Study, N+3 Technologies and Design Concepts”, Daniel P.
Raymer, Conceptual Research Corporation, 2011 [96] “NASA N+3 Subsonic Ultra Green Aircraft Research SUGAR Final Review”, Marty Bradley, April 2010 [97] Website: http://www.pplane-project.org/
[98] “N+3 Small Commercial Efficient & Quiet Air Transportation for Year 2030-2035”, NASA Contract
NNC08CA85C, GE/Cessna/Georgia Tech Team, Final Report, Marty Bradley, April 2010 [99] WHITE PAPER Roadmap to a Single European Transport Area – Towards a competitive and resource
efficient transport system [100] http://www.airport-business.com/2011/06/transport-2050-infrastructure-drives-mobility/# [101] ICAO, Doc 9613, Performance-based Navigation (PBN) Manual, 2008. ISBN 978-92-9231-198-8 [102] Walter Shawlee, “RNP: The World of Required Navigation Performance”, Avionics News Jan 08 [103] http://www.ertico.com/ [104] http://www.cleansky.eu/content/homepage/aviation-environment [105] Skyline special edition: First Technology Evaluator Assessment [106] ICAO Annex 10, Aeronautical Telecommunications, Volume I, Radio Navigation aids, 5th edition, July
1996 [107] Gary W. Lohr et all, System Oriented Runway Management: A Research Update; 9th USA/Europe Air
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Appendix A Classification codes and design standards ICAO and the FAA have developed two-element referent codes for each airport, which are shown in the
following tables:
ICAO FAA
ICAO code element 1 Code
number Aeroplane reference field length
(RFL) 1 RFL < 800 m 2 800 m ≤ RFL < 120 m 3 1200 m ≤ RFL < 1800 m 4 1800 m ≤ RFL
FAA code element 1 Aircraft
approach category Aircraft
approach speed (AS) in knots A AS < 91 B 91 ≤ AS < 121 C 121 ≤ AS < 141 D 141 ≤ AS < 166 E 166 ≤ AS
Table 24 ICAO code number [26] Table 25 FAA aircraft approach category letter
ICAO code element 2
Code letter
Aircraft wing span (WS)
Outer main gear heel span (OMG)
A WS < 15 m OMG < 4.5 m B 15 m ≤ WS < 24 m 4.5 m ≤ OMG < 6 m C 24 m ≤ WS < 36 m 6 m ≤ OMG < 9 m D 36 m ≤ WS < 52 m 9 m ≤ OMG < 14 m E 52 m ≤ WS < 65 m 9 m ≤ OMG < 14 m F 65 m ≤ WS < 80 m 14 m ≤ OMG < 16 m
FAA code element 2 Aircra t
design group Aircraft
wing span (WS) I S < 15 m II 15 m ≤ WS < 24 m II 24 m ≤ WS < 36 m IV 36 m ≤ WS < 52 m V 52 m ≤ WS < 65 m VI 65 m ≤ WS < 80 m
Table 26 ICAO code letter [26] Table 27 FAA aircraft design group number
The majority of commercial airports have ICAO code number 4 where the RFL of the most demanding aircraft
is usually greater than 1,800 m. The second ICAO element is determined by the most demanding characteristic,
usually the wing span. Usually the combinations for commercial airports are 4-D, 4-E and 4-F. Combination 4-C
can be found for airports whose largest aeroplane is a B-737 or an A320.
It should be noted that reference code elements 2 for ICAO and FAA are exactly the same. This reference
code 2 is what actually determines the geometrical design standards, as the wingspan shows aircraft size.
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Appendix C Regulations With the presented state of the art and future technology and operation in the previous chapters, it has to be
kept in mind that the political and regulatory framework has to be in place also to be prepared for the future.
Aviation in general is one of these fields that are highly regulated. There are different areas where aviation
regulations apply:
• Safety/airworthiness
o operations
o personnel
o airports
o air traffic management
• economic handling
o airport charges
o ATS charges
o slot allocation
o passenger rights
• airspace organization
• interoperability
• security
• environment
Appendix C.1 Organisations for regulations The International Civil Aviation Organization (ICAO) is an agency of the United Nations that promotes the safe
and orderly development of international civil aviation throughout the world. It sets standards and regulations
for aviation safety, security, efficiency and regularity, as well as for aviation environmental protection. The
Convention on International Civil Aviation (Chicago Convention) (ICAO Doc 7300) is the base for international
air transport. In addition to the convention itself a number of annexes describe different aspects of air
transport that need to be harmonized and regulated. Some of the Annexes that could be relevant for the
concept of the Endless Runway are listed below
• Annex 1: Personnel Licensing
• Annex 2: Rules of the Air
• Annex 6: Operation of Aircraft
• Annex 8: Airworthiness of Aircraft
• Annex 14: Aerodromes
• Annex 16: Environmental Protection
States that signed the convention transfer the regulations and standards into national law. Some difficulties
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operators, crews, and aerodromes, ATM, ANS), the total system approach ensures that uniformity is achieved
and conflicting requirements and confused regulations are avoided.
Currently there are some rulemaking groups working on Notices of Proposed Amendments (NPAs) that will
form the base for future legislatives. For aerodromes these are:
• ADR.001 - Requirements for aerodrome operator organisations and oversight authorities
• ADR.002 - Requirements for aerodrome operations
• ADR.003 - Requirements for aerodrome design
After public comments these NPAs will lead to Accompanying Means of Compliance (AMC), Certification
Specifications (CS) and Guidance Material (GM) that will be included in a formal “Opinion”, which will be then
transferred into a legislative proposal.
Appendix C.4 Regulation related to runway pavement ICAO established a system, ACN-PCN, which gives a magnitude of the strains transmitted to the pavement and
what it is capable of supporting. The ACN (Aircraft Classification Number) is a number which indicates the
relative effect of an aircraft on a pavement, for a given subgrade strength. The PCN (Pavement Classification
Number) consists of a number which shows the pavement strength. The designer must keep in mind that a
direct relationship between their element codes and the actual loads over pavements and landing gears does
not exist. Aircraft manufacturers give information about the ACN (Aircraft classification number) of their
aeroplanes. An airport with a given PCN should not be used by aircraft with an ACN higher. However,
operations with an ACN 10% higher than the PCN can be authorised for flexible pavements. In the case of rigid
pavements this percentage decreases until 5%. These operations with an excessive ACN cannot exceed 5% of
the total airport operations.
In order to figure out the PCN, the following information is given:
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Rigid (MN/m3) Flexible (CBR32)
A) High K33 = 150 > 120 15 > 13
B) Medium K = 80 60< ≤120 10 8< ≤13
C) Low K = 40 25< ≤60 6 4< ≤8
D) Very Low K = 20 25 < 3 4 <
Table 28 Subgrade strength categories
4) Maximum allowable tire pressure:
W High No limits
X Medium Up to 1.5 MPa
Y Low Up to 1 MPa
Z Very low Up to 0.5 MPa
Table 29 Maximum allowable tire pressures
5) Evaluation method: - T = Technical - U = Experimental
For example, if the bearing strength of a rigid pavement, resting on a low strength subgrade, has been
assessed by technical evaluation to be PCN 76 and there is no tire pressure limitation, then the reported
information would be: PCN 76/R/C/W/T.
32 CBR (California Bearing Ratio): is a penetration test for evaluation of the mechanical strength of road subgrades and basecourses. 33 K: Westergaard subgrade reaction module, in MN/m3.