CW Use in the Iran Iraq War

8/13/2019 CW Use in the Iran Iraq War

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s pr StockholmInternationalPeace ResearchInstituteBergshamraS 171 73 SolnaSwedenTelephone 08 55 97 00Cable: Peaceresearch

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CHEMICAL WARFARE IN THE IRAQ-IRAN WAR

Allegations of the use of chemical weapons have been frequent duringthe Iraq-Iran War. One of the instances reported by Iran has beenconclusively verified by an international team dispatched to Iran bythe UN Secretary-GeneralBoth Iran 1929) and Iraq 1 931) are parties to the Geneva Protocol,which prohibits the use of asphyxiating, poisonous or other gases,and of all analogous liquids, materials or devices, as well as theuse of bacteriological methods of warfare.The U Security Council has issued a statement condemning the use ofchemical weapons during the Gulf War. It remains uncertain whetherthe sources of supply were indigenous or external. Export controlshave been placed on certain chemicals that could be used in the pro-duction of mustard and nerve gases.In this Fact Sheet, SIPRI provides background information on theinternational law which has been violated, the two poison gaseswhich the UN team identified in its samples, and the possibleorigins of the chemical weapons used in the Iraq-Iran War.

This material may be quoted freely, with attribution to SIPRI.Questions about the allegations of use of chemical weapons shouldbe addressed to Julian Perry Robinson, Science Policy ResearchUnit, The University of Sussex, Brighton, Sussex BN1 9RF, UK,

t e l . 0273) 686758, and about the General Protocol to JozefGoldblat, SIPRI.


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I N TRODUCT I ON

T h e r e h av e b ee n r e p o r t s o f c h e m i c a l w a r f a r e f ro m t h e G u l f W ar s i n c et h e e a r l y months of I r a q ' s i n v a s i o n o f I r a n . I n November 1980,T e h ra n R ad io was b r o a d c a s t i n g a l l e g a t i o n s o f I r a q i c h e m i c a l bom binga t S u s a ng e r d . T h r ee . a nd a q u a r t e r y e a r s l a t e r , by w hich t i m e t h eo u t s i d e wo rld was l i s t e n i n q more s e r i o u s l y t o s u ch c h a r g e s , t h eI r a n i a n F o r e ig n M i n i s t e r t o l d t h e C o nf er en ce on Dis arm am en t i nG eneva t h a t t h e r e had b een a t l e a s t 49 i n s t a n c e s of I r a q ic h e m i c a l - w a r f a r e a t t a c k n 4 0 b o r de r r e g i o n s , and t h a t t h edocumented dead to ta l - led 1 0 9 pe op le , w it h hun dre ds more wounded. Hemade t h i s s t a t e m e n t on 16 F e b r u a r y 1 9 0 4, t h e d a y on w h ic h I r a nl a u n c h ed a m aj or o f f e n s i v e on t h e c e n t r a l f r o n t , a nd on e weekb e f o r e t h e s t a r t of o f f e n s i v e s and co u n t e r- o f f en s i v es f u r t h e rs o u t h , i n t h e b o r d e r m a r s h l a n d s t o t h e i m me di at e n o r t h o f B a s r aw h er e, a t Majnoon I s l a n d s , I r a q h a s v a s t u nta pp ed o i l r e s e r v e s .A ccord ing t o o f f i c i a l I r a n i a n s t a te m e n t s d ur in g t h e 3 1 d a y sf o l lo w i n g t h e F o re ig n M i n i s t e r ' s a l l e g a t i o n , I r a q us e d c h em i c alw eap ons on a t l e a s t 1 4 f u r t h e r o c c a s i o n s , a d d in g moret h a n 2 200 t o th e t o t a l number o f p e o p le wounded b y p o i s o n g a s .

V e r i f i c a t i o nOne of t h e c he m i ca l -w a r fa r e i n s t a n c e s r e p o r t e d by I r a n , a tHo o r-u l-Huz waize h on 1 3 March 1 9 8 4 , h a s s i n c e b e en c o n c l u s iv e lyv e r i f i e d by an i n t e r n a t i o n a l team of s p e c i a l i s t s d i s p a tc h e d t o I r a nby t h e U n i t e d N a t io n s S e c r e t a r y G e n e r a l . T he e v i d e n c e a dd u ce d i nt h e r e p o r t by t h e UN team L ends s l i b s t a n t i a l c re d en c e t o I r a n i a na l l e g a t i o n s o f I r a q i c he m ic al w a r f a re on a t l e a s t s i x o t h e ro c c a s i o n s d u r i n g t h e p e r i o d f ro m 2 6 Fe b ru a ry t o 1 7 Ma rch .The e f f i c i e n c y and d i s p a t c h w i t h which t h i s UN v e r i f i c a t i o n :o p e r a t i o n was mounted s t a n d g r e a t l y t o t h e c r e d i t of t h e S e c r e t a r yG e n e r a l . H i s h an d h a d p re s u m a b l y be en s t r e n g t h e n e d b y t h eannouncement on 7 M arch by t h e I n t e r n a t i o n a l C o m m it te e o f t h e RedC r o s s I C R C ) t h a t 16 0 c a s e s o f wounded c o m b a ta n ts v i s i t e d n Tehranh o s p i t a l s by a n I C R C t e a m p r e s e n t e d a c l i n i c a l p i c t u r e whosen a t u r e l e a d s t o t h e p re su m p ti on of t h e r e c e n t u s e of s u b s t a n c e sp r o h i b i t e d by i n t e r n a t i o n a l l aw . The c a s u a l t i e s v i s i t e d w erer e p o r t e d l y a l l v i c t i m s o f an i n c i d e n t on 2 7 Fe b ru a ry . Th e I C R Cs t a t e m e n t came two d a y s a f t e r t h e U S S t a t e De p a rtme n t h a d a n n ou n ce dt h a t t h e U S G overnm ent h a s c on c ll id ed t h a t t h e a v a i l a b l e e v i d e n c ei n d i c a t e s t h a t I r a q h a s us ed l e t h a l c h em i ca l w ea po ns . I r a q hadd en ou nce d t h e W as hin gton s t a t e m e n t a s p o l i t i c a l h y p o c r i s y , f u l lo f l i e s , a f a b r i c a t i o n by t h e C I A ; and had s u g g e s te d t h a t t h eh o s p i t a l p a t i e n t s e xam ined by t h e I R had s u s t a i n e d t h e e f f e c t so f t h e s e s u b s t an c e s i n p l a c e s o t h e r t h a n t h e war f r o n t . On 1 7March , a t a lm ost t h e same moment is t h e UN t ea m was a c q u i r i n g i t sm os t dam ning e v i d e n c e , t h e g e n e r a l com manding t h e I r a q i T h i r dC o rp s, t h en c o u n t e r - a t t a c k i n g i n t h e b a t t l e f o r t h e MajnoonI s l a n d s , s p ok e a s f o l l o w s t o f o r e i g n r e p o r t e r s : We h a ve n o t u sedche m ica l weapons so f a r and swear by God's Word ha ve no t se enany such weapons. B u t i f h ad t o f i n i s h o f f t h e enem y, a nd i f ama l l o w e d t o u s e th em , w i l l n ot h e s i t a t e t o do so .

Some conseauencesOn 30 March, the UN Se e m ifcy C o u n c i l i s s u e d a s t a t e m e n t c on dem nin gt h e u se o f c h e m ic a l we ap on s d u r i n g t h e Gu l f War. E v i d e n t l y no ne oft h e f i v e p e rma n e n t members u se d its v e to power t o b lo r:k thecondemn at ion . Tha t same d a y t h e U S g o ve rn me nt an n o un c e d t h a t it


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was i n s t i t u t i n g s p e c i a l l i c e n s i n g r e q ui re m en ts f o r e x p o r t s t o I r a qand I r a n of p a r t i c u l a r ch e m ic a ls t h a t c o u l d be use d i n t h emanufac tu re of ch emic a l weapons, and t h a t it h ad u rg e d o t h e rg ov er nm e nts t o d o l i k e w i s e . O t h e r g ov e rn m e nt s h a v e s i n c e t a k e ns i m i l a r s t e p s .R e p o rt s of I r a q i c h e m ic al w a r f a r e h a v e dw in dl ed s i n c e t h e US e c u r i t y C ou n c il s ta t e m e n t , b u t t h e y h av e n o t s to p pe d a l t o g e t h e r . AB r i t i s h t e l e v i s i o n team f i l m i n g on t h e I r a n i a n s i d e of t h e MajnoonI s l a n d s f r o n t e n co u n t e re d e v id e n c e of a m u sta rd -g as a t t a c k i nmid-Apr i l . B u t I r a n i a n media a r e n o lo n g e r p u b l i c i z i n g s u c hr e p o r t s , p e rh a p s m in d fu l now of p o t e n t i a l n e g a t i v e i m p a c ts on t h e i rd o m e s t i c a u d i e n c e .

VIOL TION OF INTERN TION L L W

The u s e i n war of p o i s o n o u s , a s w e l l a s a s p h y x i a t i n g o r o t h e rg a s e s , and of a l l a na lo g ou s l i q u i d s , m a t e r i a l s o r d e v i c e s wasp r o h i b i t e d , a l o n g w i t h t h e us e of b a c t e r i o l o g i c a l m eth od s ofw a r f a r e , i n t h e 17 J u n e 1925 G eneva P r o t o c o l , w hic h e n t e r e d i n t of o r c e o n 8 Feb rua ry 1928 . The agreem ent was prompted by t h ee x p e r i e n c e of W orld War I , d u r i n g wh ic h t h e b a t t l e f i e l d u s e o fc h e m ic a l a g e n t s c a u s e d a n e s t i m a t e d 3 0 0 000 c a s u a l t i e s , i n c l u d i n g90 000 d e a t h s . I n f a c t , t h e P r o t o c o l o n ly r e -a f fi rm e d a c o n s t r a i n ton a c t s which were he ld i n abh or r e nce and which had been condemnedby t h e g e n e r a l o p i n i on of t h e c i v i l i z e d w o rld .I n t h e p a r t d e a l i n g w i th c h em ic al w eap on s, t h e P r o t o c o l r e i t e r a t e da p r o h i b i t i o n a l r e a d y c o nt ai ne d i n p r e v i o u s l y s ig n e d i n t e r n a t i o n a ldocuments . These inc lu de d the -1899 Hague D ec la ra t i o n IV, 2 , u n d e rw hich t h e c o n t r a c t i n g pow ers h a d a g r e e d t o a b s t a i n fro m t h e u s e o fp r o j e c t i l e s f o r t h e d i f f u s i o n of a s ph y x ia t i n g o r d e l e t e r i o u s g a s e s ,a s w e l l a s t h e 1 90 7 Hague C o n v e n t i o n I V w hich p r o h i b i t e d t h e u s eo f po i son o r po i son ous weapons.S i n c e 19 25 c h e m i c a l w ea po ns h a ve b e e n u s e d on s e v e r a l o c c a s i o n s ,b u t on e ac h s uc h o c c a s i o n t h e e x t e n t o f w orld -w id e i n d i g n a t i o n a n dc en su re t e s t i f i e d t o t h e im m u t ab i l i ty of t h e s t a n d a r d of i n t e r -n a t i o n a l l aw a s e m bo died i n t h e G en ev a P r o t o c o l . I t i s i n g r e a tp a r t , due t o t h i s i n t e r n a t i o n a l i n st ru m e n t t h a t t h e h i s t o r y ofchemica l w ar f a r e s i n c e World War I h a s be en o ne of r e l a t i v er e s t r a i n t . The P r o t o c o l i s now b i n d i n g on a s many a s 1 0 6 p a r t i e s ,i nc lu d in g a l l m i l i t a r i l y i m p or ta n t s t a t e s .I r a n a cc ed ed t o t h e P r o t o c o l o n 5 N ovem ber 1 9 2 9 , w h i l e I r a q a c c e d e don 8 S ep te mb er 1 9 31 . The l a t t e r s t a t e d i d s o w i t h an e x p r e s sr e s e r v a t io n t h a t i t s government would no t be bound by t h ep r o h i b i t i o n s i n q u e s t i o n t o w a rd s a ny s t a t e w hose arm ed f o r c e s d i dn o t r e s p e c t t h e p r o v i s i o n s of t h e P r o t o c o l . Such a r e q u i r e m e n t o fr e c i p r o c i t y w as f o r m u l a t e d by o v e r 40 p a r t i e s , i n c l u d i n g t h e g r e a tp ow ers . I r a n h a s no t a t t a c h e d an y c o n d i t i o n t o i t s a c c e s s i o n , b u ts i n c e t h e r e s e r v a t i o n s made by o t h e r s h av e i n e s s e n ce t u r n e d t h eP r o to c o l i n t o a n o - f i r s t - u s e t r e a t y , it c o u l d new c o n s i d e r i t s e l ff r e e f r o m i t s o b l i g a t i o n s to wa rd s I r a q .N e i t h e r t h e UN g r o u p of e x p e r t s , w h ic h h s e s t a b l i s h e d t h e f a c t o fuse of c hem ica l weapons i n t h e war b etw e en I r a q a nd I r a n , n o r t h eU S e c u r i t y C o u n c i l , w hich has c on de nn ed s u c h u s e , h a v e s p e c i f i e dt h e p a r t y g u i l t y of v i o l a t i o n . H ow ever, t h e G eneva P r o t o c o l d o e sn ot r e q u i re t h a t v i o l a t o r ? b e i n t e r n a t i o n a l l y i d e n t i f i e d . I r a nc o ul d t h u s c l a i m t h e r i g h t t o r e p r i s a l i n k i n d on t h e b a s i s of i t sown f i n d in g s . 1,n o t h e r w ord s, t h e r e i s a danger of n e s c a l a t i n g


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c n e m ic a l w a r f a r e . I n d e e d , t h e r e c an be no g u a r a n t e e t h a t t h eweapons banned by t h e Geneva Pr o to co l w i l l n o t be r e s o r t e d t o a sl o n g . a s t h e r e i s no a b s o l u t e p r o h i b i t i o n on t h e i r v er y p o s s es s i o n ,s u b j e c t t o i n t e r n a t i o n a l c o n t ro l .However , a t t h e Commit tee on Disarmament a t Geneva, I r an h a sd e c l a r e d t h a t , d ue t o h u m an it ar ia n c o n s i d e r a t i o n s , it would notembark on r e t a l i a t o r y a c t i o n w i t h c h e m ic a l w eapons a g a i n s t I r a q .

THE POISON G SES I ENTIFIE Y THE UN TE M

Mustard qasFrom an un exp lod ed bomb found a t an I r a q i - a t t a c k s i t e , th e UN teamdrew a sample which i t s a n a l y s t s i n Sweden and S w i t z e r l a n d l a t e rfo un d t o b e h i g h - q u a l i t y m u st ar d g a s .

What i s m us ta r d ga s ?Mustard i s i s ( 2 - c h l o r o e th y l ) s u l ph i d e , an o i l y l i q u i d w i th ag a r l i c - l i k e s m e l l . Even i n warm weather it e v a p o r a t e s s l o w l yenough f o r an a re a ove r which it h a s be en s c a t t e r e d t o r em a inda nge r ous f o r many hou r s , e ve n da ys , y e t f a s t enough f o r t h ei m p e r c e p t i b l e v ap ou r t h a t it g iv es o f f a l s o t o c au se c a s u a l t i e s .Both i n vapour and i n l i q u i d form i t s e f f e c t i s t o b urn anybody- t i s sue which it t ouc he s . Taken i n t o t h e body, it can a c t a s as y s t e m i c p o i s o n d e a d l i e r , w e i g ht o r w e i g h t , t h a n h yd ro ge n c y a n i d e .I t s b u rn in g e f f e c t s a r e n ot n o rm a lly a p p a r e n t f o r some h o u rs a f t e re x p o s u re , w h ereu po n t h e y b u i l d u p i n t o t h e h id e o u s p i c t u r e o fb l i nd ne s s , b l i s t e r i n g a nd lung damage suc h a s was d i s p l a y e d by t h ep a t i e n t s s e n t f rom I r a n t o h o s p i t a l s i n A u s t r i a , Belgium , B r i t a i n ,F r a nc e , F R Germany, J apa n , th e N e th e r l an ds , Sweden and Sw i tz e r l an d .

M ust ar d gas was f i r s t u se d a s a c he m ic a l - wa r f a r e a ge n t d u r in g WorldWar I , when it was r e s po ns i b l e f o r a bou t 70 pe r c e n t of t h em i l l i o n - p l u s g as c a s u a l t i e s . I t s most p ro m in en t u se a f t e r t h a t warwas by I t a l y i n E th io pi a dur ing 1936. Dur ing World War I1 it wasproduced by B r i t a i n , Canada, F ran ce , Germany, Hungary, I t a l y ,J a p a n , t h e N e t h e r l a n d s , P o la n d, S o u th A f r i c a , t h e US a n d t h e USSRI t was t h e CW a g e n t t h a t was s t o c l ip i l ed i n by f a r t h e l a r g e s tq u a n t i t y ~ o n h e o r d e r of h undreds: of t h ou s an d s of t o n sov e r a l l - - bu t was u se d on ly by J a pa n i n C hina . t i s pr ob a b ly s t i l lt h e m ost h e a v i l y s t o c k p i l e d W a ge nt to da y. I t s l a s t e s t a b l i s h e duse a pp e a r s t o ha ve bee n by Egyp t i n t e r ve n i ng i n t he ( ~ o r t h ) emenic i v i l war o f t h e m id -1960s .

E f f e c t i v e n e s s of m us ta r d gasM u sta rd g a s c a n b e s p r e a d from m u n i t io n s d e l i v e r a b l e by v i r t u a l l yany ty p e of weapon, i n c lu d i n g t h e m o r t a rs , a r t i l l e r y and a i r c r a f tw i t h which I r a q i f o r c e s a r e r e p o r t e d t o ha ve u sed i t Among t h emany a i r - d e l i v e r a b l e m ust ar d m un i t i ons wh ic h B r i t a in pr oduc e ddu r ing World War 11 , one r e po r t judged t h e m ost c o s t - e f f e c t i v e t obe no more t h a n a 5 - g a l l o n o i l drum f i l l e d w i t h m u sta rd and f i t t e dwi th a s im p le bu r s t e r c ha r ge . The m un i t i on f rom which t he UN teamr e t r i e v e d i t s sample i n ran a p p e a rs t o h a v e b een a l i g h t - c a s e250- lb whi te -phosphorus bomb, such a s migh t o th e rw ise be used f o r


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s m o ke - sc r een in g o r i n c en d i a r y p u r p o s e s . P u b l i s h ed ey e - w i t n e s sa c c o u n t s s u g g es t t h a t I r a q i p r a c t i c e was f o r e i g h t s u ch bombs t o bec a r r i e d p e r g r ou n d -a t ta c k j e t a i r c r a f t , d ro pp ed from a h e i g h t of200-300. m e t r es . T h e re may w e l l be an i n t e r n a t i o n a l t r a d e i n s uc hm u n i t i o n s . I t would be r e l a t i v e l y ea s y , th ou gh h a z a rd o u s, t oex chan ge t h e p h o sp h o ru s p ay l o ad f o r m u st a rd g a s .

Manufac tu reM u s t a rd g a s may b e made i n d i f f e r e n t ways acc o r d i n g t o w h e t h e re t h y l e n e , v i n yl c h l o r i d e o r th i o d i g l y c o l i s c hos en a s t h e s t a r t i n gm a t e r i a l . P u bl is h ed UN f i n d in g s s u g ge s t t h a t t h e I r a q i m u sta rd h .db ee n made f rom t h e l a s t o f t h e s e p r e c u r s o r s . T h i o d i g l y c o l i s aq u i t e w id e ly u se d i n d u s t r i a l commodity, f i n d i n g a p p l i c a t i o n a s a na n t i o x i d a n t , a s a v u l c a n i z in g a g e n t , a s a n i n t e r m e d ia t e f o r o t h e rc o m m od it ie s , a nd a s a s o l v e n t f o r d y e s used i n t h e t e x t i l ei n d u s t r y . I t s c o n v e r s i o n t o m us ta rd g as i s v e r y s i m p l e i nd e e d , t h eo n l y t e c h n o l o g i c a l p ro bl em be in g t h a t of p r e v e n t i n g i t s manufac-t u r e r s f rom becoming i t s f i r s t c a s u a l t i e s . T h a t , how eve r, i s n o t as m a l l p ro bl em . When B r i t a i n f i r s t ma n uf a ct ur e d m us ta r d g a s , t h e r ew er e , o v e r a si x- m o nt h p e r i o d d u r i n g 1 91 8 , 1 . 2 7 ca s e s of m u s t a r di l l n e s s p e r p e r s on e mp lo ye d.The q u a n t i t y of t h i o d i g l y c o l ne ed ed t o produce enough mustard gast o f i l l e i g h t o f t h e bombs sam pled by t h e UN team would be a bo ut350 kg. A h u nd re d t o n s c o u ld y i e l d s u f f i c i e n t m u st a rd t o arm maybe300 a i r c r a f t s o r t i e s o r t o keep a me di u m - a rt i ll e ry b a t t a l i o n f i r i n gn o th i n g b u t m us ta rd s h e l l f o r a f o r t n i g h t .

TabunThe s ec o nd p o i s o n g a s i d e n t i f i e d by t h e UN team was t h e nerve-ga stab un . Th i s was found i n a sample which th e team was ass u r ed byI r a n i a n a u t h o r i t i e s ha d b ee n drawn by a n I r a n i a n s o l d i e r from a dudbomb. The bomb was s a i d t o hav e h d t h e same a p p e a r a n c e a s t h e o nef rom which t h e UN team had drawn mustard g a s .I r a n i a n a u t h o r i t i e s t o l d t h e UN tea m t h a t a b o u t 400 peo p le had beena f f ec t e d by ch em i ca l w eapo ns d u r i n g t h e a t t a c k f ro m w hi ch t h e t ab u nsa mp le was s a i d t o h av e o r i g i n a t e d . The a t t a c k p u r p o r t e d l yhappened on 1 7 March , wh i l e the UN team was i n Teh ran , and was s a idt o h av e been d e l i v e r e d by f o u r I r a q i a i r c r a f t . F o r t y of t h ec a s u a l t i e s w ere i n a f i e l d h o s p i t a l which t h e UN t eam was t ak en t ov i s i t t h e f o l l o w i n g d a y . The s i g n s and symptoms i n t h e s i x c a s e sw h i ch t h e UN te am h ad t i m e t o e xa min e w e re q u i t e d i f f e r e n t f ro mt h o s e a s s o c i a t e d w i t h t h e m u s ta r d- g as s a m p le . The UN teamc o nc l ud e d from them t h a t t h e p a t i e n t s h ad b ee n e x po se d t o a na n t i c h o l i n e s t e r a s e a g e n t .

What i s t ab u n ?T ab un , o r e t h y l NN-dimethylphosphoramidocyanidate otherwise knowna s G A i s s uc h a n a g e n t . I t i s a l i q u i d t h a t e v a p o ra t e s o nl y h a l fa s f a s t a s m u sta rd g a s , b u t s o p ow e rf ul a p o i s on i s t t h a t e v ens h o r t e x po su re t o s m a l l c o n c e n t r a t i o n s of i t s v ap ou r ca n r e s u l t i na l m o st i mm ed ia te sym ptom s, f e l t f i r s t n t h e e ye s a s a p e r s i s t e n tc o n t r a c t i o n of t h e p u p i l ) and c h e s t a s a t i g h t n e s s o r a s t hm a -l ik ec o n s t r i c t i o n ) . I f a l e t h a l do sa ge h as b ee n t a ke n u p, e i t h e r fromi n h a l a t i o n of t h e v ap ou r o r by a b s o r p t i o n of t h e l i q u i d t h ro u gh t h es k i n , a c h a r a c t e r i s t i c s eq ue nc e of t o x i c m a n i f e s t a t i o n s e ns u e s ,


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some o f g r e a t v io l e nc e , i nc lu d ing r unn ing nos e , s we a t i ng ,i n v o l u n t a r y u r i n a t i o n and d e f a e c a t i o n , v o m i t in g , t w i t c h i n g ,c o n v u l s i o n s , p a r a l y s i s and u n c on s ci o us n es s. P r i o r t o t h eob se rv a t io ns made by th e UN team a t t h e f i e l d h o s p i t a l , such s i g n shad ap pa re n t ly no t been k~een i n h o s p i t a l i z e d c h e m i c a l - w a r f a r ec a s u a l t i e s , a l th o u g h one o r tw o of t h e e a r l i e r I r a n i a n communiqu&( a s from t h e n o r t h e rn f r o n t i n O c to be r 19 8 3) had r e f e r r e d b r i e f l yt o ne r vous s ys te m e f f e c t s . And s in c e m id-M arch, I r a n i a np u b l i c a t i o n s h av e been s t a t i n g t h a t ' n e rv e g a s ' h ad b e en u se d on a tl e a s t 1 0 o c c a s io n s d u r i n g 1 98 0- 83 .

E f f e c t i v e n e s s of ta b unBecause tabun a c t s much more r a p id ly than m ustard , t could bethough t c a pa b l e of s t opp in g masse d i n f a n t r y a s s a u l t s on t he move,a t l e a s t when d ropped i n l a r g e a i r - b u r s t bombs. I n s t a t i cs i t u a t i o n s , t would probab ly no t , n warm we a the r , be s ig n i -f i c a n t l y more e f f e c t i v e t h a n m us ta rd g as a s a weapon o f a t t r i t i o n .The c h i e f s i g n i f i c a n c e of t h e t ab u n r e p o r t s i s t w o fo l d. F i r s t , i ft h e r e p o r t s a r e t r u e , t he y may w e l l be d e s c r ib i n g t h e f i r s t e v eruse of nerve gas i n com bat op e r a t i o ns , t hu s p r o v id ing l e s s on s whic hm i l i t a r y a u t h o r i t i e s a ro un d t h e w o rl d may be e a g e r t o a b s o r b .S ec on d, i f r e s o r t t o ta bu n h a s b ee n m o t iv a te d by t h e m i l i t a r yc o n s i d e r a t i o n j u s t o u t l i n e d , t h e r e may w e l l be p o w e r f u l i n c e n t i v e so p e r a t i n g upon t h e G ulf War b e l l i g e r e n t s t o i n t r o d u c e t h o s e e v end e a d l i e r nerve g as es t h a t o f f e r s t i l l more p o t e n t i a l f o r r a p idm a s s - de s tr u c t io n : a g e n t s s uc h a s t h e s a r i n , VX a n d , r e p o r t e d l y ,soman st o c k p il ed by th e USA, Fra nc e and th e U S S R Aga ins tu n p r o t e c t e d pe o p le an a i r c r a f t armed w i th s a r i n c o ul d be a sd e s t r u c t i v e as th e nu c le a r bomb' d ropped on Hi rosh ima .ManufactureT ab un , l i k e s a r i n , was a s e c r e t d i s c o v e r y of G erm any's a t t h e t i m eof World War 11 Germany ma nuf actu red ab ou t 1 2 000 tons of tdur ing 1943- 44 , and a l s o , i n 1944 , m a nufa c tu r ed s a r i n on a s m a l lp i l o t p l a n t s c a l e . Soman was no t manufac tured by Germany. Forf i l l i n g i n t o m u n i t i o n s - - a r t i l l e r y s h e l l and b om bs--the German t-abunwas l e f t d i l u t e d w it h up t o 2 0 p e r c e n t of t h e s o l v e n t t h a t hadbeen used dur ing i t s sy n th es i s , namely monochlorobenzene . Thesample ana lyse d by th e UN te am c on t a ine d a c om pa ra b le p r o po r t i o n o fmonochlorobenzene , sugges t ing t had been made by th e o r i g i n a lGerman method.Tha t method used t he s im pl es t o f a number o f po s s ib l e r o u t e s t ot a b u n . t s t a r t e d from ph osp ho ry L c h l o r i d e i n a t w o - st a ge c h e m ic a lp r oc e s s , bo th s t a ge s of whic h we n? c onduc te d w i th in t h e samer e a c to r . Advanced c on ta inm e n t m e i is u re s we re u s ed t o p r o t e c t p l a n tw o rk er s from t h e t a b u n, b u t e ve n { h e y w ere i n s u f f i c i e n t t o p r e v e n ta t l e a s t t e n d e a t h s and i n nu m er ab le l e s s e r e x p o su r e s .The qu a n t i t y o f ph& s phor y l c h lo r i d e needed t o p r oduc e e nough t a bunt o f i l l , u n d i l u t e d , e i g h t of t h e bombs exam ined by t h e UN teamwould be about 500 kg. Also needed would be a b x t 120 kg of sodiumc ya n id e , 150 kg of e t hy l a l c o ho l and 6 5 kg of d imethylcmine( s yn th es iz ab le from ammonia and methy l a l c o h o l ) . A hundred tons o fp h o sp h o ry l c h l o r i d e c o u ld y i e l d s u f f i c i e n t t ab u n t o a r n maybe 200s o r t i e s by MiG, M irage o r S ukho i a i r c r a f t .


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O R I G I N O THE CHEMICAL WE PONSThe U N r e p o r t p ro v id e s on ly n e g a t i ~ v i d e n c e o f t h e o r i g i n of t h em u s t a r d . g a s s a m p l e . The a b s e n ce i n t h e s am p l e a n a l y s e d n Swedena nd S w i t z e r l a n d of p o l y s u l p h i d e s a nd o f m ore t h a n a t r a c e ofs u lp h u r i n d i c a t e s t h a t i t i s ^ no t o f p a s t US-government m anu fac tu re ,f o r a l l US m u s ta rd was made by t h e L e v i n s t e i n p r o c e s s from e t h y l e n eand mixed s u l p h u r c h l o r i d e s . T h at p r o c es s i s a l s o s a i d t o h av ebeen th e one used by th e USSR From s i m i l a r r e a s o n i n g , B r i t i s h - m a d em u s t ar d , t o o , c an p r o b ab l y be r u l e d o u t , e ve n th ou gh s u b s t a n t i a ls t o c k s w ere o n ce h e l d a t B r i t i s h d e p o t s i n t h e M id dle E a s t . F o rm ore p o s i t i v e e v i d e n ce o t h e r s o u r c e s o f i n f o r m a t i o n must b e u s e d .O ver t h e y e a r s s i n c e t h e m id-1960s q u i t e a l o t of i n f o r m a t i o n h a sb ee n p u b l i s h e d p u r p o r t i n g t o d e s c r i b e I r a q i ch e m i ca l w eap on s, b u tmuch of it i s c o n t r a d i c t o ry and a l l o f it i s of a r e l i a b i l i t y w hichS I P R I i s i n no p o s i t i o n t o j ud g e. m a jo r c a v e a t m ust be e n t e r e d :c h e m ic a l w a r f a r e i s su ch an em o tiv e s u b j e c t t h a t i t l e n ds i t s e l fv e r y r e a d i l y t o ca mp aig ns of d i s i n f o r m a t i o n a nd ' b l a c k ' p r o pa g a n d a,campaigns which t h e p o l i t i c s bo th o f t h e Gul f War and o f t h ec u r r e n t ch em ic al-w ea po ns n e g o t i a t i o n s h av e u n q u e s t i o n a b l ys t i m u l a t e d t o no s m a l l d eg r e e.

e may l oo k f i r s t a t t h e n a t u r e of t h e chemica l-weapons t e chn o lo gyw hic h I r a q h a s be en r e p o r t e d t o h a v e a c q u i r e d .I n a d d i t i o n t o b u l k - f i l l e d f r e e - f a l l a i r c r a f t bombs, a t l e a s t t woo t h e r c a t e g o r i e s of c h e m i ca l m u n i ti o n h a ve r e p o r t e d l y bee nem ployed: a r t i l l e r y s h e l l and a i r- to - g ro u n d r o c k e t s . I r a n i a n s s e n tf o r h o s p i t a l t re a tm e n t n London who were s u f f e r i n g f rom what m u s ta l m o st c e r t a i n l y h av e been m us ta rd -g as b u r ns ha ve a t t r i b u t e d t h e i ri n j u r i e s t o a l l t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s of m u ni t i on . T here i s no e v id e nc et h a t m u s t a r d - f i l l e d a i r -t o - g ro u n d r o c k e t s h av e e v e r b een s t o c k p i l e dby Wes te rn co u n t r i e s . The ro ck e t s whose use was de sc r ib ed by oneof t h e I r a n i a n s a p p a r e n t l y had s u bm u n it io n w a rh ea ds , a r e l a t i v e l ys o p h i s t i c a t e d d e s i g n .

O t h e r a g e n t s r e p o r t e d t o ha ve b ee n u s e dTear gas : I n A ug ust 1 98 2, US o f f i c i a l s w ere q u o te d i n t h e p r e s s a sb e in g c o n f i d e n t t h a t t h e I r a q i s d i d n o t p o s s e s s any d e ad lyc h e m i ca l w e a po n s , o n l y t e a r g a s .Choking g a s : C h l o r i n e , , t h e a r c h e t y p a l w ar g a s , i s in c lu d ed i n a tl e a s t o ne o t h e l i s t s of I r a q i c he m i c al -w a r fa r e a g e n t s p u b l i sh e dt h i s y e ar by I r a n i a n a u t h o r i t i e s .A r s e n i c a l s : I r a n in fo rm e d t h e U N S e c re t ar y -G e n e ra l l a s t y e a r t ' l a tcompounds co n t a i n i ng a r se n i c had been used i n I r a q i c h e m i c a lw ea po ns. S p ea k in g t o r e p o r t e r s , o n e o f t h e S w ed is h s p e c i a l i s t st r e a t i n g I r a n i a n g as c a s u a l t i e s s a i d h e t h ou g ht it p ro b ab le t h a tt h e l a t t e r had b e en e x po se d t o a m i x t u r e of m u s t a rd g a s a ndl e w i s i t e . Such m i x tu r e s w ere s t a n d a r d m u n i t i o n - f i l l s i n t h ea r s e n a l s o f J a p a n , t h e USSR and p r o b a b l y o t h e r s t a t e s t o o d u r i n gWorld War 11N i tr o g en m u s ta rd : O f f i c i a l I r a n i a n s o u r c e s h av e s e v e r a l ti m e ss t a t e d t h a t a n a g e n t of t h i s t y p e h ad b een i d e n t i f i e d by I r a n i a nm i l i t a r y e x p e r t s i n s am p le s from I r a q i c h e m i c a l m u n i t i o n s .'K n ow le dg ea ble b u t u n i d e n t i f i e d US o f f i c i a l s h a ve a l s o beenr e p o r t e d a s s p e a ki n g of I r a q i n i t r o g e n m u s t ar d .


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G erm -w arfare a g e n t s : I s r a e l i i n t e l l i q e n c e s o u r c e s h av e b een c i t e df o r r e p o r t s t h a t a n t h r a x had b een found n h o s p i t a l i z e d I r a n i a n s .1 r a n i a n s ou r ce s ha ve r e f e r r e d t o I r a q i u s e of m i c r o b i c an db a c t e r i o l o g i c a l w e a p o n s .M yco to xin s: B e l g ia n f o r e n s i c t o x i c o l o g i s t h a s c la im s d t h a t h i sl a b o ra t o ry h as found m ycotoxins ( ~ 2 , T2, n i v a l en o l and ve r r uc ' a r o li n a d d i t i o n t o m u st ar d g a s i n sa m pl es of b l o o d , u r i n e and f a e c e st a k e n from I r a n i a n g a s v i c t i m s h o s p i t a l i z e d i n V ie nn a, b u t t h i sc l a im c u r r e n t l y r em a in s u n v e r i f i e d and open t o q u e s t i o n . T he re a r er e p o r t s of s i m i l a r f i n d i n g s from p a t i e n t s h o s p i t a l i z e d n Belgium,F r a nc e , F R Germ any, Sweden and S w i t z e r l a nd , bu t t h e s e t oo s t i l lre ma in open t o d o u b t , e s p e c i a l l y s i n c e , i n t h e S w ed is h c a s e , t h eSw edish a u t h o r i t i e s c o nc er ne d ha ve e x p r e s s l y r e p u d i a t e d t h e r e p o r t .The UN team i n s p e c t e d c a da ve r s r e t u r ne d t o T eh r an f rom S wed is h andA u s t r i a n h o s p i t a l s , b u t i t s r e p o r t makes no m e n ti on of anyp os t-m orte m t i s s u e s a m pl es h a v i n g b een t a k e n f o r a n a l y s i s .Mycotoxins were sou gh t bu t no t found i n t h e c he m ic a l s a m p le sanalyz ed by t h e UN team. The se ar ch method used had a d e t e c t i o nl i m i t of 0 .0 00 05 p e r c e n t : i . e . , c a p a b le of f i n d i n g m y co to xi ns a tl oa d ing s g r e a t e r t h a n a t h i r d o f a gram pe r 250 - lb bomb.N ovel u n i d e n t i f i e d a q e n t : T he re h a s b ee n s p e c u l a t i o n i n t h e p r e s sa b o ut I r a q i u se o f a t o x i c aq e n t unknown i n th e West . Th is wase x c i t e d bp r e p o r t s e a r l y i n M arch from th e Gz a i e l s e c to r , j u s t t oth e no r th of B a s r a , o f g r oups o f I r a n i a n c o r ps e s ha v ing bee n s e e nt h a t were s a i d t o b e a r no e x t e r n a l t r a c e of i n j u r y - - lo o k i n g a sth ou gh t he y had f a l l e n a s l e e p i n t h e i r f o x h o le s .

I nd ig en o us o r e x t e r n a l s o u r c e s of s upp ly?W ith t h e e x c e p t i o n s , maybe, of t h e l a s t tw o of t h e s e d i f f e r e n tc a t e g o r i e s of p u t a t i v e I r a q i a g e n t , s o u r ce s of s u p p ly might a s w e l lb e i nd ig e no u s a s e x t e r n a l t o I r a q , g i ve n t h e t e c hn o l o g y i m p l ie d .In vo lv em en t of t h e l a s t t h r e e c a t e g o r i e s w ould, i n some c i r c l e s ,i m p l i c a t e t h e USSR a s s u p p l i e r , f o r t h e r ea s o n t h a t t h e U S S R ss a i d , on ev id en ce t h a t h a s y e t t o be s o l i d l y s u b s t a n t i a t e d b u tw hich ha s n o n e t h e l e s s a t t r a c t e d some f ir m b e l i e v e r s , t o h av ewea poniz ed a l l t h r e e of them i n r e c e n t y e a r s . F or t s p a r t , t h eUSSR ha s e xp r e s s ly de n i e d s upp ly ing I r a q w i th t o x i c wea pons.R e po rt s of S o v i e t s u p p ly a t t r i b u t e d t o U S and o t h e r i n t e l l i g e n c es o u r c e s have n o n e t h e l e s s r e c u r r e d . The e a r l i e s t p r e d a t e r e p o r t s ofI r a q i use of chem ical weapons i n th e Gulf War.O f f i c i a l I r a n i a n c om m en ta ri es , t o o , ha ve po i n te d t o t h e USSR a s as u p p l i e r of t h e I r a q i w eap on s. T he se s o u r c e s h av e a l s o a c cu s edB r a z i l , F ra n ce a n d , m ost c o n s p i c u o u s l y , B r i t a i n of s u p p l y i n g t h ew eapon s. No b a s i s f o r any of t h e s e I r a n i a n a c c u s a t i o n s h a s b ee nd i s c lo s e d . F r a nc e , a l o ng s id e C z e c hos lova k i a a nd bo th Ge rm a n ie s, sr e p o r t e d l y a l s o r um o ur ed , among f o r e i g n m i l i t a r y an d d i p l o m a t i cs o u r c e s i n B aghdad, t o h av e s u p p l i e d I r a q w i t h c h e m ic a l p r e c u r s o r sneeded f o r an i n d ig e n o u s p r o d u c ti o n e f f o r t . U n o f f i c i a l p u bl i sh e ds o u r c e s have c i t e d Eg yp t a s a p o s s i b l e s u p p l i e r of a c t u a l c he m ic alweapons. In t h e mid-1960s , when I r a q was a l l e g ed t o be us in gchemica l weapons ag a in s t in su rg en t Kurd ish f o rc e s , Sw iss and Germans ou r c e s of s upp ly we r e r e po r t e d n t h e W es te rn p r e s s .


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P ro d uc t i on c a p a b i l i t y i n I r a qI n c r e a s i n g l y p e r s u a s i v e e v i d en c e i s now e m e rg i ng i n p u b l i s h e ds o u r c e s . t h a t , w he th er I r a q h a s o r h a s n o t been r e c e i v i n g c h e m i ca lweapons f rom ab roa d , t h a s b e e r a c q u i r i n g a d ev e lo p m en t a ndp r o d u c t i o n c a p a b i l i t y f o r them o f i t s own. An o f f i c i a l I r a n i a ncom mentry d a t e s t h e b e g in n in g o f t h i s e f f o r t ba ck t o 1 9 7 6 , c l a im i n gt h a t i n f o r m a t io n t o t h a t e f f e c t h ad b een p r o vi d ed t o I r a n b y W estGerman i n t e l l i g e n c e o f f i c i a l s . U n i d e n t i f i e d U S i n t e l l i g e n c e s o ur ce sh a ve b e e n q u o t e d a s s a y i n g t h a t I r a q b eg an making m u s t a rd g a s i nt h e e a r l y 1 9 7 0 s . Such s o u r c e s h av e b ee n q u o te d a s b e l i e v i n g t h a tI r a q i s now a t t e m p t i n g t o p ro d uc e s a r i n n e r v e g a s . A s s o c i a t e d w i t ht h i s b e l i e f i s t h e a s s e s s m e n t , t was r e p o r t e d i n t h e U S p r e s s a tt h e e nd o f M arch, t h a t , w h i l e I r a q h a s a l r e a d y b ee n u s i n g n e r v e g a si n t h e G ul f War, t h i s h a s be en on a n e x p e r im e n t a l s c a l e u s i n gs t o c k s a c c u m u l a t e d d u r i n g t h e de v e l op m e n t p ro gram me; s u p p l i e s o fn erv e g a s from la r g e - s ca l e p r o du c t io n f a c i l i t i e s w e r? e x p e c t e d ~ t h er e p o r t i n g c o n ti n u e d- - to be a v a i l a b l e w i t h i n a m a t t e r o f m o n t h s ,e ve n w e ek s. F u r t h e r , t h e p r e s s h a s r e p o r t e d U S g o v e r n m e n t s o u r c e sa s h av in g i d e n t i f i e d t h r e e , p o s s i b l y f i v e , c he mic al - ag en tp r o d uc t io n s i t e s i n I r a q . The l o c a t i o n s t h a t hav e been s p e c i f i e d i nt h e p r e s s a r e Samawa, R am ad i, S a m a r r a a n d A k a s h a t . T he l a s t o ft h e s e h a s , h o we v er , b ee n to u r e d by f o r e i g n c o r r e s p o n d e n t s ,i n c l u d i n g a B r i t i s h j o u r n a l i s t who h a s r e p o r t e d f i n d i n g o n l yc o n t r a - i n d i c a t i v e e v id e nc e of a n e r ve g a s p l a n t b e in g t h e r e .

T e c h n o l o g i c a l c a p a c i t yO t he r t h a n t h e need f o r e l a b o r a t e s a f e t y m e as ur es , t h e r e seem s t ob e n o t h i n g a b o u t t h e t ec h n ol o gy o f p r o d u c i n g m u st ar d g a s o rta bu nq -o r l e w i s i t e o r n i t r o g e n m u s t a r d ~ t h a t ould o bv i ou s ly bebeyond t h e c a p a c i t i e s of t h e I r a q i c h em i ca l i n d u s t r y : a n i n d u s t r yw hich h a s b ee n gro wing r a p i d l y i n s i z e an d s o p h i s t i c a t i o n s i n c e t h ee a r l y 1 9 7 0 s . H ow ever, i f n e r v e g a s e s o f a t y p e w hose p r o d u c t i o nw ould n e c e s s i t a t e t h e t e c h n i c a l l y de man din g and c o m p a r a t i v e l ys p e c i a l i z e d p r o c e s s e s o f p h o s p h o r u s - f l u o r i n a t i o n a n d / or ph os -p h o r u s - a l k y l a t i o n - - i . e . n e r v e g a s e s s u ch a s s a r i n , soman a n dV X - -f or ei gn t e c h n o l o g y m ig h t v e r y w e l l h a v e t o b e i m p o r t e d . T h e r ei s s t r o n g p u b l i c e v i d e n ce ( b u t by no means c o n c l u s i v e y e t ) t h a tI r a q h a s been e nd ea vo ur in g t o a c q u i r e t h e s e o r r e l a t e d t e c h n o l o g ie sfrom p r i v a t e c o r p o r a t i o n s i n t h e J SA , B r i t a i n , FR G ermany a nd I t a l ys i n c e 1 97 5 ; and t h a t t h a s b ee n d i s s e m b l i n g t h e s e e n d e a v o u rs u n d ert h e g u i s e o f a c q u i r i n g p r o d u c t io n c a p a c i t y f o r or ga n op h os ph o ru sp e s t i c i d e s .The s e a r c h f o r m a t e r i a l sAny ne ed t o i m p o r t s p e c i a l ch e m i c a l - p r o c e s s p l a n t and a s s o c i a t e dknow-how cou ld be l e s se ne d by im po r t i ng , i n s t e ad , some o f t h ec h e m i c al i n t e r m e d i a t e s n ee de d t o p r o d u c e ch e m i c al - w a rf a r e a g e n t s ,r a t h e r t h a n a t t e m p t i n g t o m an uf ac tu re t h o s e i n t e r m e d i a t e s f r omi n d i g e n o u s raw m a t e r i a l s ( o f w hich t h e I r a q i m in i ng , p e t r o l e u m a ndr e l a t e d i n d u s t r i e s a p pe ar t o p r ov i de t h e f u l l ra ng e needed f o rm u s t a rd a nd n e r v e g a s e s , w i t h t h e p o s s i b l e e x p e c t i o n f o r some o ft h e l a t t e r of f l u o r i d e m i n e r a l s ) . C e r t a i n i n te r m e d ia t e s can ei d e n t i f i e d which c o u ld r ed u c e t h e re q u i r e m e n t s f o r ch e m ic a l p l a n tt o p r o c e s s i n g e q uip me nts of s t a n d a r d o f f - t h e - s h e l f o r e a s i l yi mp ro vi se d ty p e s . I r a q h a s n o t c o nc e al ed t h e f a c t t h a t t i s i nt h e m a rk e t f o r c he m i c a ls wh ich d o in d e e d f a l l w i t h i n t is c a t e g o r y .T h i s h a s b e e n mo st c o n s p i c u o u s i n I r a q s s e a rc h i n merica f o rs u p p l i e s o f m e t hy lp h os ph o no u s d i c h l o r i d e a nd d i m e t h y l m e th y l-


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phos phona te . T hes e two c he m ic a ls do , howe ve r, ha ve c e r t a i n c i v i la p p l i c a t i o n s . B u t a t l e a s t i n t h e f or m er c a s e t h e y a r e n o t o ne swhich, i n t h e no rm al c ou r s e of e v e n t s , I r a q m igh t obv io us ly bee xp ec te d t o e x p l o i t .

E x p o r t c o n t r o l sOn 30 March , the U S government announced th e im po s i t i on of fo re ig np o l i c y c o n t r o l s on t h e e x p or t t o t h e Gulf-W ar b e l l i g e r e n t s of f i v ec he m ic a l s t h a t c ou ld be used i n t h e p r o duc t i on o f m us t ar d and ne r veg a s e s . U S o f f i c i a l s t o l d t h e p r e s s t h a t t h i s had been done i nr e s pons e t o an une xpe ct ed volum e of r e c e n t o r de r s f rom I r a q f o rt h o s e c h e m i c a l s . They a l s o s a i d t h a t J a p a n , R Germany and otheru n s p e c i f i e d E u ro pe an c o u n t r i e s had b ee n e x p o r t i n g t h e c h e m ic a l s t oI r a q . The B r i t i s h governm ent t o ok a c t i o n s i m i l a r t o t h a t o fWashington on 1 2 A p r i l , a dd in g t h r e e more c h em i c al s t o t h e c o n t r o ll s t ( s e e t a b l e ) . S i n ce t h e n , o t h e r Eu ro pe an g ov ern me nts ha ve a l s oannounced embargoes of va ry ing sco pe , and on 1 5 May th e Fo re ig nM in is te r s o f t h e European Community agre ed i n p r in c ip le on a commona nd c om ple m en ta ry p o l i c y . T he re a r e We s t er n p r e s s r e po r t s o fs u s p i c io n s i n w es te r n d ip lo m at ic c i r c l e s i n t h e M iddle ~ a s t h a tt h e U S S s s h i p p i n g i n t e r m e d i a t e s t o I r a q t h r ou g h J o r d a n .

P o s t s c r i p tThe or i g i n o f t h e chemica l weapons used i n t h e Gu lf War i s a m a t t e rw hich w a r r a n t s m ore a t t e n t i o n t h a n s p a c e i n t h i s F a c t S h ee tp e r m i t s - - i t h a s a n im m ed ia te b e a r i n g o n t h e n e g o t i a t i o n s i n G enevaf o r a Chemica l Weapons Convent ion : a t r e a t y which, among o th e rt h i n g s , m u s t be d es ig ne d so a s t o p l a c e e f f e c t i v e c o n s t r a i n t s ont h e p r o l i f e r a t i o n of t h e w eapons.


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l Chemical-warfare utilityL,b Convertible into mustard gas simply by contact with hydrogen

chloride.Essential to one of the ways for making thiodiglycol (seeabove)

rb Essential to tabun production. Can also be converted, withsome difficulty, into methylphosphonyl dichloride (see below).Like phosphoryl chloride (see above), essential to tabun pro-duction, but much easier to make.

,brb

Convertible into sarin-family nerve gases simply by contactwith any of many alcohols.Convertible into sarin-family nerve gases by carefully con-trolled reaction with an alcohol and fluoride such aspotassium fluoride (see below). Convertible into methyl-phosphonyl difluoride (see above) by heating with a fluoridesuch as potassium fluoride.One o many methylphosphonyl compounds from which methyl-phosphonyl dichloride (see above) can be made quite easily.One of many fluorine compounds that could be used in theproduction of sarin-family nerve gases. Insignificant in theabsence of a supply of methylphosphonyl or ethylphosphoriylcompounds.

A fluorinating agent more common than potassium fluoride,Essential precursor in most of the better routes of VX-familynerve gases. Easily convertible into methylphosphonyldichloride (see above.

kyl Precursors for VX-family nerve gases, also convertible intohosphonothioates sarin-family nerve gases.

methylphosphonyl See dimethyl methylphosphonate above.

hyl homologues of Precursors for ethylphosphonate-family nerve gases.

Subjected to foreign policy controls by the US government on 30 March 1984.Subjected to special export-licensing requirements by the British government on

April 1984.Except for methylphosphonyl difluoride, all of the controlled chemicals have

CW Use in the Iran Iraq War

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