Curriculum paper

An overview of curriculum development

EDCI 803 Curriculum Development

Silvia Cardenas

July 28th, 2014

CURRICULUM DEVELOPMENT 2

Introduction

The importance of learning, knowing, and being part of the curriculum has been one of the

concerns of people that are learning to become teachers. Teachers’ knowledge about curriculum

is necessary because it is one of the most important elements in this profession. Teachers must be

able to understand and develop the curriculum according to the experts’ suggestions, students

and society needs, and their professional experience. Understanding the meaning, process, and

evaluation of the curriculum would be the first step to becoming part of a team to build

curriculum guidelines.

There are some definitions of curriculum but most of those definitions relate curriculum with

the teaching orientation. According to Wiles and Bondi (2002), curriculum is a terminology that

has existed since 1820. Curriculum was defined as course of study. While other traditional

teachers conceptualized curriculum as permanent studies with the use of huge books, knowledge

of discipline, or the study of areas such as mathematics, rhetoric, logic, history, and so on.

Through the years, curriculum concepts have spurred discussion among educators because

education became universal. There were more and more students attending schools and there was

the need to teach citizenship skills. By 1924, learners’ individual differences were more obvious

and specialist started to talk about kinds of curricula. Curriculum concepts continued changing.

By the 1950s curriculum was considered as learning experiences that could be structured or

simply learned in the social life. After that, education concerns continued appearing and the

concept of curriculum included aspects of accountability, teacher-student relationships, freedom

practices, and modernism (reference). Today, curriculum is known as “a desired goal or set of

values that can be activated through a development process culminating in experiences for


students” (Wiles & Bondi, 2002, p. 31). Also, Sowell (2000) defines curriculum as “what is

taught to students” (p. 3).

Sowell (2000) also refers to the levels of the curriculum. These levels are conceptualized as

“the degree of remoteness from the students for whom the curricula were planned” (p. 4). The

first level is the societal which is designed by the groups that are in the power or professional

specialists. They decide the goals and topics of the curriculum. Besides, they decide the period of

time and materials that are going to be used to develop the curriculum. The institutional curricula

is derived from the societal curricula. Some educators identify this curriculum as the explicit

form to guide schools or districts. This curriculum contains topics, standards, philosophies,

lesson plans guides, and themes to be taught. The instructional curriculum is developed in the

schools and teachers are able to plan according to the school’s needs and authorities’

suggestions. The teachers’ philosophy is going to help in this kind of curriculum development.

The last level is the experiential curriculum which students are able to experiment. Each student

will have the same instructional curriculum but what each one is able to feel and learn will define

the experiential curriculum (Sowell, 2000).

Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006) classify the curriculum in school as the, taught, null, and

hidden curriculum. The school curriculum is the whole content that students should learn and it

designed by the states or school boards. The authors state that “school curriculum is what is

supposed to be taught by teachers to achieve these learning outcomes” (p. 265). The taught

curriculum is known as the activities that should be developed according to the school needs or

situation. The null curriculum refers to what subjects should be taught but are not considered in

the curriculum. Finally, the hidden curriculum are the tasks that are implicit in the learning

process and students are aware and informed about it but it is not written. The authors argue that


“hidden curriculum involves the values, perceptions, and attitudes that educators have toward

topics, events, and people” (p. 266).

Theory suggests that when developing curriculum, planners and teachers must be aware of

the need for a philosophy. Knowing the reasons and having a vocation to be a teacher will be the

first elements to build a curriculum. Additionally, the vision of each institution is very important

in designing the curriculum, which is going to guide the learning process. The educational

community commitment must work for helping each student to succeed by having clear

objectives and knowing what to do and how to act in the schooling process. This paper presents

some background information regarding curriculum and analyzes the elements that are involved

in curriculum design. Moreover, an explanation of the elements will be provided as well as

possible suggestions for teachers beginning the process.

Social Forces that Impact Curriculum

Curriculum concepts and design have changed through the years. Added to that, the history

of the countries, education and curriculum has also changed. There have been concepts, theories,

and perceptions that have been modified or adapted according to the society needs. According to

Jacobs (2009), by the late 1800s in the United States, there was the need of a change in

education. More children were arriving in school because agriculture was being replaced by the

industrial revolution. Educational standards started to be a necessity. Moreover, by that time,

learning approaches and theories became even more important. Differing points of view about

education appeared, such as developing critical thinking versus providing concepts for

memorization. The schools were challenged with preparing students either to work in factories or

to go to the university.


As a result, significant changes came about. For example, the Committee of Ten

suggested the same curriculum to be used across the country (reference). Another suggestion was

that schooling would last 12 years. Students would attend 8 years in elementary grades and 4 for

high school. All these suggestions are still being using in the 21st century. The author also argues

that “although we have had a century of fascinating innovation, experimentation, and exciting

ideas since the committee issued its report, the artifacts speak” (Jacobs, 2009, p. 9). For instance,

subjects like English, history, civics, mathematics, biology, and physics still remain in today’s

curriculum.

Bondi (1998) argues that during the 1990s, society changed because some elements have

appeared or changed. Population had increased, economy was becoming more important, and

technology was being more useful for society. These changes encouraged people to change

education too. It was necessary to teach according to the society’s needs. It was an industrial

society. However, education has not changed at all and people who are in charge of planning and

presenting educational programs have not considered these social changes.

Curriculum and Technology

There have been many elements that have impacted the curriculum design. However, when

technology started to be more and more important in the society, curriculum goals started to

change. Wiles and Bondi (1998) stated that during the 1990s, communication was increasing and

it was necessary to change the educational goals. Television, radio, and computer were the most

important elements that appeared or improved in those years and they were influencing in the

society. Educators needed to think in the future because society characteristics were different and

children were in contact with technology, social problems appeared like drugs, and children’s


growth and development was different. The society has influenced in the curriculum decision

and curriculum developers have always been working to serve this society.

Educational Policy

In the United States, the curriculum decisions are given to each state. However, with the

implementation of the national Common Core Standards, there is more continuity and everybody

has to reach the same educational goals. According to Sowell (2000), curriculum design has

three levels of influence. The national level refers to the federal government influence in the

curriculum through different laws, legislations, or research. The state level means that each state

can influence and have more responsibility in the curriculum design and evaluation. Finally, in

the local level are the schools, district, or classrooms. However, the curriculum developed at this

level must be in concordance with the federal and state guidelines.

Armstrong (1989) argues that the curriculum is influenced direct and indirect by social

and cultural forces. The direct influences are those policies that come from the highest level and

must be considered in the federal, state, and local government curriculum designs. The indirect

forces are the pressure groups that are organized to help and design the curriculum.

The Ecuadorian context. In Ecuador, political movements have influenced curriculum

decisions in significant ways. For instance, curriculum guidelines and textbooks are chosen by

the central level of education, then they are distributed to the public schools. Teaches and

authorities in public schools are not allowed to ask for extra resources to students because the

government gives textbooks to students. Political influence can also be seen in relation to how

diversity is dealt with the curriculum.

Before, the education system was divided in Hispanic and bilingual education. It meant

that people who speak a native language and Spanish should study in bilingual schools. While


students who speak Spanish as their first language should attend Hispanic schools. This situation

was produced because indigenous people claimed their rights through strikes, and in the end their

petitions had to be addressed. During this time it was necessary to have two curriculum

guidelines one for each education system. However, the bilingual education lacked quality

because the curriculum developers were not formally trained. Moreover, instruction was done in

their native language and resources were not available for them. There was not a cohesive vision

as a result of dividing in this way. Therefore, problems started to appear after some years.

Today, there is just one type of education called Intercultura l education in which students

can attend any school regardless of their cultural backgrounds. The curriculum design is the

same for all the public schools in the country, which includes the mandatory teaching of a native

language. It is clear to see how the system changed to an inclusive education. Everybody has the

same rights and nobody can be excluded in this new reform.

Another social force that has influenced Ecuadorian curriculum is religion. There are

some agreements between the government and the church. This means that religious groups can

have their own schools and promote education based on their beliefs. For instance, the schools

can work with the national curriculum guidelines and adapt to their religious believes. Besides,

there are schools whose teachers receive their salary from the government but they work for

religious schools. These schools are semiprivate and are called fiscomisionales. These schools

can ask for tuition from students in order to study in this kind of school. Their vision in the

curriculum design must be based on religion as much as possible.

Curriculum and Standards

It seems that standards are very important in today’s education. Most of the countries have

included in their education system international standards to reach at the end of the schooling.


However, curriculum and standards differ in meaning but they have to be articulated in order to

produce quality results . Jacobs (2009) asserts that when standards in education started to appear

seems to be the solution for a responsible education. However, teachers tended to teach students

to reach those standards, regardless of what each student really needed to learn. Additionally, the

standards may differ from one state to another and another problem appears. Students, who want

to move from one state to another state where the standards and learning approaches are different

from the first one, could feel frustrated.

Reform movements and change processes that impact curriculum

Curriculum design can be influenced by some factors and forces. These forces are going to

vary because of the organization of each country. According to Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006),

in the United States there are external and local influences on curriculum. The external

curriculum influences could be the national initiatives, state agencies, professional associations,

educational publishers, and social critics. National initiatives, like federal legislation, focus on

different educational areas of concern, such as children with disabilities. Additionally,

government reports have also influenced the curriculum. For instance, data from the National

Research Council recommended changes in the curriculum. For example, each state should have

an educational responsibility and this is going to let state government get involved in the

curriculum decisions.

Shambaugh and Magliaro (2006) assert that professional associations and educational

publishers could also make decisions related to curriculum design. The authors state that “states

that adopt a book title, as well as the professional educational associations that have supervised

their development, further influence the publication of textbooks” (p. 269). Individuals and book

authors are also important when curriculum developers are planning instruction. On the other


hand, the local curriculum influences may be “school culture, teaching and teacher histories,

evolving students characteristics, community traditions, and parental expectations” (Shambaugh

& Magliaro, 2006, p. 270).

The Ecuadorian context. In Ecuador, curriculum has passed through many changes and

adaptations that have not improved education at all. Before Ecuadorian education was not

organized. One of the most important reasons for this problem was political instability. Between

1996 and 2005, Ecuador had ten presidents despite that the Constitution demands that each

president must govern for four years. There were many social and political problems that lead to

this chaos in Ecuador. Each government had its own educational policy and the instability did

not allow schools to accomplish any educational objectives. However, in 1996 there was a

curricular reform. This reform was evaluated by representatives from the government and

organizations that represented teachers, churches, and other social forces (Ministerio de

Educación, 2012).

Notwithstanding, this reform was a state policy, it was not articulated well and the results

were not satisfactory. There were evaluations of this reform that showed that the objectives of

the curriculum from 1996 were not accomplished. Teachers argued that the levels were not

articulated, the topics and skills were not clear, and there was not a criteria by which to evaluate

outcomes. Afterwards, in 2006 the Ecuadorian president Alfredo Palacio called for referendum

in which citizens approved the eight educational policies (Ministerio de Educación, 2013).

The eight educational policies were developed after many consultations from different

sectors. For instance, the National Educators Union, the Confederation of Catholic Education

Schools, the Confederation of Private Lay Education Schools, the National Council of Higher


Education and the National Secretariat of Planning and Development formed the council to

define the guidelines for the Ten Year Plan (reference).

The actualization and strengthening of the General Basic Education curriculum was based on

1) classroom experience, 2) curriculum models from other countries, and 3) the judgment of

specialists and Ecuadorian teachers from the subject areas of language and literature,

mathematics, social studies, and natural science. Furthermore, this plan was analyzed and

debated in many parts of the country. Social, political, and economic sectors participated in the

debate. The international commitments like UNESCO, and national agreements were also

considered in this plan (reference).

These eight policies included: 1) making early education from 0 to 5 years of age universal,

2) making basic general education from first to tenth grades universal, 3) increasing registration

in the high school diploma until at least 75% of the population for that age group is reached, 4)

eradicating of illiteracy, 5) strengthening alternative, improvement of physical infrastructure and

equipment for educational institutions, 6) improving of quality and fairness in education and

implementation of the national evaluation system and social reporting of education system, 7)

reevaluating of the teaching profession, professional development, working conditions and

quality of life, and 8) increasing the 0.5% annual increase in education’s portion of the gross

domestic product (GDP) until it reaches at least 6%. (Ministerio de Educación, 2013, para. #)

As this plan is a state policy, the following presidents must continue and improve it. The new

reform contained some objectives to be accomplished in a period of time. As its name indicates,

it is a ten year plan. It started in 2006 and should finish around the 2015 year.

During these years, many activities and objectives have been accomplished. For instance, the

actualization of the curriculum reform from 1996 was done. Additionally, the macro and meso


specifications of the curriculum, skills, and content were formulated and applied. The new

reform has been applied in schools since 2010. Additionally, the methodological orientations and

the essential evaluation indicators were established and applied. Inclusive education and an

intercultural education is also being promoted (Ministerio de Educación, 2012).

Educational Forces that [Should] Impact Curriculum

Making decisions about developing a curriculum are difficult and require special attention in

each process. Sowell (2000) argues that deciding what to teach is difficult because there are

many topics or content to cover within the learning process. However, when making those

decisions, it is important to consider the problems and who has those problems or who gives the

solution.

According to Jacobs (2009), in the United States there are some interests from groups

like the Council of Chief State School Officers or workgroups to create global competencies that

could influence education in the next years. As each state has the power to select, change, or

adapt their curriculum, there are some considerations to keep in mind in the 21st century. Sowell

(2000) asserts that there are curriculum levels because there is not an agreement when making a

decision in what to teach. Everybody is interested in giving suggestions and providing solutions;

however, experts or authorities would be the ones who design the curriculum. Unfortunately,

most of the time, teachers refuse those decisions. The author also argues that any change or

decision must be done according to the needs of the students in this century. Jacobs (2009) states

that “for change to occur in a classroom, educators (particularly teachers) must be involved in the

curriculum processes because the locus of change is in individuals rather than in curricula per se”

(p. 19).


Similarly, Tenson (2004) states that “allowing textbooks to be the sole determiners of

curricula is unwise” (p. 60). People who write those books do not know the reality of students

where the books are going to be used. Despite this fact, teachers often try to complete all the

book regardless of students’ needs. Others have to teach all the textbook without considering if

students have understood or not, because the time is also important. In this case, often there is

not a combination between the use of textbooks and other resources.

Additionally, Tenson (2004) asserts that first, teachers stated their objectives based on

educational aims and goals. They have selected objectives based on major concepts and activities

that students need to learn. After that, instruction could be applied. Today teachers have to plan a

unified curriculum. The author also argues that “parents should be considered when deciding

whom to involve in curriculum planning” (p.61).

Education philosophy will also help in planning a curriculum. According to Wiles and

Bondi (1998), an educational philosophy is useful to develop a curriculum. The authors state that

“if curriculum specialists are aware of their own beliefs about education and learning, they will

make better everyday decisions” (p. 35). In the United States, there is not a centralized public

planning and policy to help schools with a guidelines to develop curriculum. Therefore, it is

important to have clear objectives and curriculum leadership at each level. However, people who

are in charge of doing this great activity must keep in mind many questions related to students’

progress. It means that all the planning process must be student-centered. From the leader’s

philosophy, major problems and inconsistences of the schooling can be inferred. Then they could

find similar interest from those who are guiding education and the collaboration among the

curriculum developers will have better results. Leaders’ attitude counts in each aspect of the

curriculum development (Wiles & Bondi, 2002).


Additionally, Bondi and Wiles (2002) present five educational philosophies to help curriculum

developers to identify thoughts and beliefs about education and design. Perennialism suggests

that education cannot change. Students are passive and they have to learn things that are true and

will never change. Idealism consists of considering the teacher as a model for behavior and the

teaching of subjects of the mind. Realism expresses that students have to learn about things that

are real and factual information. Experimentalism is based in experiences that students will be

able to learn by problem-solving activities. The teacher is a guide in the learning process.

Finally, existentialism is when students learn in their own way because they are consider like

individuals that are free to decide what they want to learn.

What about Progressivism??

What about Reconstructionism??

The Ecuadorian Context

In Ecuador development has been done by a group of specialists. The members of this

group were people from other countries, representatives from the church and political groups,

and a group of educators. After a deep analysis, they prepared the new curriculum reform that is

being implemented at this moment in the country (reference). However, these curriculum

guidelines are very general. Each school has the power to do the adaptations according to

students’ needs and backgrounds. According to the Ministry of Education (year), the central

level provides the macro and meso curriculum guidelines. It is the school’s reasonability to

develop their curriculum based on students’ needs. There is a national curriculum director who is

in charge of improving, evaluating, and ruling the educative model and the curriculum

(Ministerio de Edcuación, 2014, p. 6). However, as Ecuador is a multicultural country, the

curriculum decisions should be done by each district considering students’ backgrounds and


needs. A school from the highland region will not have the same learning experience as a student

from the coast region for example. Each student has a different environment and their interests

will be different too.

One aspect very important in Ecuadorian education is its philosophy. This has changed

compared to the last reform of curriculum and now there are other considerations of learning and

students. According to the Ministry of Education (2012), the educational objectives guide the

development of human condition and prepare students for a life with values. Students must be

prepared to act with respect, responsibility, honesty, and solidarity according to the principles of

the Good Living.

Additionally, the students must be able to develop their critical thinking skills, creativity,

and use real life situations to solve problems. Critical pedagogy is also one element of the

learning process in Ecuador. Students are the center of the learning process and they must be

able to solve problems, develop metacognition, and be active in the society. The use of

information and communication technologies is another aspect of the education. Students must

use technology tools to look for information, adapt to their situation, and participate in the

assessment process (reference). Finally, the evaluation process must be integral (reference).

Students must be assessed in knowledge and human values.

Needs of the Curriculum

Curriculum theory can guide schools to decide their plan and purpose of curriculum.

Ornsten and Hunkins (1988) stated that there are not clear examples of curriculum models or

theories. Besides, it is necessary to know the meaning of theory to differentiate it from practice.

The authors define theory as “a set of related propositions that sheds light on why events occur in

the manner that they do” (p. 279). Two theories can be considered in the curriculum process.


Scientific theory refers to the approach where one looks for problems, relates and explains, and

finally gives solutions. Philosophic and humanistic theory explains the nature of the problems

and human values are important. Based on these concepts, people who design curricula could

identify a curriculum theory and select a model.

Curriculum Models

Eisner (2013) argues that with the scientific movement in education, things have changed

and many concerns related with curriculum design resulted. There was the need of specificity

and giving clear directions to formulate objectives of a curriculum. Before, the intellectual

faculties were considered as something to be exercised with repetition to use in human activities.

The school was in charge of this activity. When the scientific movement appeared, curriculum

development was becoming more important and formulating objectives for each subject started

to appear, too. Some investigators wrote about philosophic, cognitive, and affective domains;

others wrote about taxonomies and rationales for objectives (references for these above

mentioned aspects).

Oliva (2005) analyzes some curriculum models that could be used while developing a

curriculum. Tyler’s Model is based on general objectives. These objectives are designed

according to the sources gained from the students, society, and subject matter. Once created,

these objectives must pass through a philosophy of education and a psychology of learning

screen (reference). After that, the selection and organization of learning experiences are

important because they are the instructional design of the curriculum. Finally, the direction and

evaluation of learning experiences are going to help to apply what is stated in the curriculum and

evaluate the activities to know if the objectives have been accomplished. This final stage can

help to do adaptations or change what has been wrong.


Hilda Taba (year) designed a model that is inductive, because it starts with the production

of pilot units. At this stage, there are some steps to follow to create the unit. First, a diagnostic of

students’ needs, the objectives are stated. When the objectives are written, the content is selected

and organized. The selection and organization of the learning experiences comes after in which

planning is necessary to select strategies and methodologies. Evaluation strategies and giving

sequence and balance is necessary before testing the pilot units. Then the units are reviewed and

there is a framework to create the new units.

Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (year) created a model that contains goals, objectives, and

domains; instructional modes; and an evaluation process. The goals are divided into four

domains such as “personal development, social competence, continued learning skills, and

specialization” (p. 136). In the instructional modes, teachers select how the curriculum is going

to be developed in the classroom. In the evaluation, the techniques and strategies are going to

help curriculum developers understand if the goals and educational program have been

accomplished (Oliva, 2005).

Similarly, Oliva (2005) present a comprehensive blended model. There are twelve

components of curriculum development described in this model. This model suggests a

deductive method to plan the curriculum. This model is functional and organized. It is a

guideline to develop the curriculum and at the same time includes the selection of strategies and

evaluation techniques for instruction. Additionally, this model allows one to evaluate curriculum

and instruction. Instruction and curriculum development are integrated. One of the most

important characteristics of this model is that it is necessary to establish a philosophy of

education. This will help to understand and plan according to students’ needs. Finally, this model


is useful when the community in which it is going to be applied is considered before stating the

goals.

Curriculum Developers

Levels of Control of the Curriculum

The Development of a curriculum is carried out at various levels. These levels are going

to vary according to the setting where curriculum is going to be applied. For instance, in the

United States, there is a system of curriculum control and in Ecuador there could be another form

of controlling the curriculum. According to Armstrong (1989), in the United States there are 5

levels of curriculum development. First, the national setting in which curriculum developers

design a general guidelines that can be adapted in a state. These guidelines are developed by

experts in academic areas and experts in curriculum development.

Then at the state or regional level, there are educational agencies that are in charge of

implementing the policies stablished by the legislators. People who are in these departments can

adapt or implement policies that were not considered in the national curriculum guidelines.

Besides, at this level there are more specifications and there could be influence in some elements

of content. The local level often provides the guidelines to develop instructional programs.

Curriculum leaders must work on programs for their school or classroom. They have the

responsibility of supervising and ensuring that curriculum developed in individual settings are

consistent with the school-district level expectations. The individual setting is developed in a

specific school where the plan and instruction is going to be applied. The guidelines must be

more specific to guide teachers in the classroom. Finally, the individual classroom level where

teachers and instructors plan instructional units. There is specific information of content,


strategies, assessment process, materials or sources, and other elements according to the

students’ needs (Armstrong, 1989; Walker, 2003)

The Ecuadorian Context. On the other hand, in Ecuador there is a National Curriculum

Department where the curriculum is developed for the whole country. However, they develop the

curriculum in a macro and meso level. The curriculum director is in charge of the design and

selection of materials. Besides, experts in content areas, specialist in curriculum must also be

part of this team. These guidelines are adopted by the public schools and they are allowed to do

adaptations according to the schools settings. Ecuadorian curriculum is flexible but there are

standards that students have to reach at the end of each level. The guidelines are adapted

according to the region’s needs (economic, cultural and social). If institutions need to use other

resources in their curriculum, the national curriculum director must approve those materials. The

general guidelines are for the whole country but each institution has the responsibility to adapt

those guidelines and improve according to the vision of the schools (Ministerio de Edcuación,

2014).

Roles of Curriculum Developers

People who develop a curriculum at the different levels have some tasks. According to

Armstrong (1989), people who are going to design a curriculum must be trained ad capable

people. There are seven categories in which people have to work on curriculum development.

The first one is the curriculum specialist that guide the curriculum project. The curriculum

specialists must be experts and leaders because they are going to assign, organize, and check the

progress of the activities. When the team work does not know how to build a curriculum,

curriculum specialist must provide training on the major curriculum elements. Teachers and

instructors are also part of the curriculum developers and they should be the principal members


of the curriculum developers’ team. Curriculum is designed to use in classrooms and teachers are

in contact with students. Teachers who are going to design a curriculum must be chosen

according to their relationship with principals and must be well respected by all their colleges.

Additionally, students can give their contributions to the curriculum development. Their

opinion about resources and programs can help to build the curriculum. However, it is important

to consider that students are not mature and they could not have enough time to be part of the

team. Even though principals have other activities to manage, they could be able to contribute to

the curriculum development by making some suggestions to integrate in the program.

The central office administrators can be represented by superintendents or their assistants.

They will work directly, but they will supervise that the curriculum design must be aligned with

the school philosophy. Special experts are people who have knowledge in specific areas and they

are required to work with the team when implementing new content that others are not expertise.

Finally, the citizen representatives who are selected from the local community will help specially

in controversial subjects that community could not agree (Armstrong, 1989).

Additionally, Walker (2003) asserts that curriculum leaders must have knowledge in four

foundations of curriculum. First, they should know history and traditions of curriculum

development to make comparisons and propose changes. Then they have to value other people’s

knowledge and culture. Knowing curriculum reforms and movements is also necessary for

guiding a curriculum design. Finally, curriculum developers must know about current research to

make decisions based on studies.

The Ecuadorian context.

In Ecuador, people who design the curriculum are at the central level. There is a

curriculum director who works with a team of specialists and analysts. Those designs are adapted


in the schools where the principals must work with other authorities and present it to the

teachers. Teachers are allowed to do adaptations if necessary to plan instruction (Ministerio de

Edcuación, 2014).

The Curriculum Planning Process

According to Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis (1981) the curriculum is developed based on

society’s needs and structures. The authors suggest five steps to design a curriculum

Data for Curriculum Planning

First, data must be collected form learners, society, and about knowledge. As curriculum

is planned to work with certain students from a society, it is necessary to know all the

characteristics of children, youth, or adult learners. Among these characteristics are the

psychological needs, personal traits, and social, intellectual, physical, and emotional

development. Data from society is divided into two elements. Society and learners where people

should be observed in the social context like family, groups, community, and mass

communication. Then society and functions of education refers to the characteristics of the

students and the nature of society where the schools are. These social groups involve culture,

socialization, preparation for adulthood, and personal development inside the society. Data about

knowledge refers to the content of the curriculum. Technology must be kept in mind because

there are new ways to access to information. Selection of content and methods help to identify a

general education base.

Defining Goals and Objectives

Then to identify goals and objectives, it is important to know the educational institutions

and their purposes first. The schools have to establish their philosophy to know the desired

outcomes. Teachers and students must also present their purposes. These purposes are going to


lead students to develop certain behaviors and personal traits. The general goals are written

based on the educational purposes. They will help to build the curriculum. However, citizen must

agree with these goals because they have the responsibility of help in the schooling of students.

Additionally, the curriculum domains are going to help to group the general goals. These

domains can be personal development, social competence, continued leanings skills, and

specialization. Then subgoals and instructional objectives are going to help to design the

curriculum plan and the experiences for learners. The subgoals are in concordance with the

general goals and the domains. They are more specific. On the other hand, the instructional

objectives are the outcomes that students are going to reach when developing specific activities.

Selecting Aappropriate Curriculum Design

Curriculum developers have to keep in mind some elements when selecting a curriculum

design. These elements are: curriculum purpose, goals, and objectives, learners’ characteristics,

society desires, and nature of learning process and knowledge (reference). Also, curriculum

planners must know the different curriculum designs deeply. Subject-matter design refers to

subjects thought in grade levels like mathematics. Specific competencies technology is a design

that focus on competencies. Human traits or processes design is not common applied. It pretends

to develop specific human traits and implement processes. The social focused design is develop

based on society needs and social problems. Curriculum design developed in individua l needs

and interest or activities is flexible and focuses on students’ needs, interests, and promotes an

individualized instruction.

Planning Curriculum Implementation

The implementation of the curriculum planning means instructional planning. Instruction

refers to all the specifications of the activities that are going to be developed based on the


curriculum objectives. These specifications may be activities and resources to use in the learning

process.

Knowing about teaching models is essential for implementing instruction. For instances,

for subject-matter design, lectures, discussion, questioning, or viewing- listening strategies could

be used to teach. However, there are some guidelines for selecting teaching models. The purpose

of instruction must be attained with the general curriculum goals. Each activity must be an

opportunity to achieve the goals. Students must be engaged and motivated to reflect that the

teaching model was selected correctly. Theories of learning also helps to select the teaching

model.

Evaluating the Curriculum

All the process must be evaluated. Evaluation allows planners to assess achievements and

diagnose individuals’ improvement by comparing results. Evaluation also helps to determine if

the curriculum was valuable. Then the administration of the curriculum is evaluated to know if

the management and practices were successful. The curriculum can be evaluated in a summative

or formative way. Summative assessment will help to review curriculum plans, choose new

content or add new instructional models, and check goals and objectives. This type of assessment

is measurable. While, formative assessment helps to make decisions based on attitudes and

views.

There are evaluation models that can help to develop and show results of the curriculum

implementation. The behavioral objectives model is done by professionals and uses achievement

tests to know the productivity and accountability of the curriculum. The decision making model

is conducted by program planers and the tools to evaluate are surveys, questionnaires’,

interviews, or observation. The goal free evaluation model is done by and unbiased observers


who must be critic in their observations. The accreditation model is developed by people who

have had experience and understand about educational programs. Another model is the

responsive which is based on observation from others who have to write their impressions and

the evaluator has to select the most valuable.

The curriculum evaluation must apply to all the elements. The general goals are evaluated to

know if the expected changes in society and culture awareness are occurring. Evaluating the

subgoals and objectives will allow to know if they are helping to reach the main goals. All the

educational program can be evaluated to know if they have satisfied the society needs. This

evaluation can be done in two levels. The macroeducational level evaluates the educational

environment of the learner. On the other hand, the institutional level evaluates the school

offerings, adaptations for students with disabilities, programs developed outside the program and

self-study programs.

Additionally, evaluating specific aspects of the curriculum is important. First, the evaluation

of the subgoals can help to determine to what extend are the goals being accomplished. The

students and teachers characteristics, school organization, society values and needs have to be

evaluated too. Evaluation can help to determine standards and check the organization of the

curriculum is suitable. Finally, curriculum designers are also evaluated to understand strengthens

and weakness of the curriculum.

Instruction evaluation is considered as the most important part of curriculum evaluation. The

elements that are evaluated in instruction are the teachers, teaching methods, and assessment

techniques. Moreover, there should be an evaluation for the evaluation plan. There could be

some questions to be answered when the evaluation plan is being reviewed. These questions


have to see with the selection of models and designs, whole and specific evaluation of the

program, and the changes in the future based on the evaluation.

Conclusion

Designing a curriculum requires special attention to all the elements included before,

while, and after developing the curriculum. A curriculum must be created according to the

society’s needs and desires. All the suggestions and models presented by the above mentioned

authors can guide curriculum planning. However, the actual process will depend on the setting

where the curriculum is going to be applied. Each country or state have created their own

guidelines based on studies and experiences from others. These curriculum designs are aligned

with the national guidelines. Furthermore, school and teachers’ philosophy is important while

developing a curriculum. This element can guide curriculum developers to design a framework

based on leaners-centered.

There have been some social forces that are involved in the curriculum design; however,

these social forces are guided by political or economic influences. This issue could not allow

teachers, who are the principal elements in a curriculum design, make decisions according their

experiences. The leaders of the curriculum design must keep in mind all the elements and

theories about curriculum to design instruction. There are some models and suggestions that can

help curriculum developers as a guide. However, Saylor, Alexander, and Lewis model seems to

be the most appropriate and understandable. It does not mean that others models are not going to

work well because the model can depend on the philosophy of who are going to design the

curriculum.

Curriculum is the principal element in educational settings because curriculum will guide

teachers, principals, and authorities to make changes, adaptations, or improvements when


necessary. Furthermore, curriculum developers must be a team who are well-prepared and aware

of the reality of the society. Cooperative work among professionals can help to design a good

guidelines for curriculum and prepare students according the society needs. Each activity

requires accountability and cooperation. Curriculum must always be reviewed, adapted, and

changed. Finally, the most important part of curriculum design is when it is evaluated to continue

with the process or start again from the beginning. Curriculum design will never be finished. It

will always require changes because philosophies change, too.


References

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