1 Current State and Problems of Japanese Higher Education Jun Oba Research Institute for Higher Education Hiroshima University, Japan [email protected]University of Tokyo Seminar on higher education at the Ministry of Higher Education (Research Centre), Riyadh, Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, 29 January 2005.
75
Embed
Current State and Problems of Japanese Higher …...1 Current State and Problems of Japanese Higher Education Jun Oba Research Institute for Higher Education Hiroshima University,
This document is posted to help you gain knowledge. Please leave a comment to let me know what you think about it! Share it to your friends and learn new things together.
Transcript
1
Current State and Problems of Japanese Higher Education
Percentage of children in full-time elementary education between 1875 and 1925
5
Percentage of students enrolling in upper sec-ondary schools and higher education institu-tions (universities and junior colleges)
1950
1952
1954
1956
1958
1960
1962
1964
1966
1968
1970
1972
1974
1976
1978
1980
1982
1984
1986
1988
1990
1992
1994
1996
1998
2000
2002
2004
0.0
10.0
20.0
30.0
40.0
50.0
60.0
70.0
80.0
90.0
100.0
Upper secondary schoolHigher education (unive-rsity and junior college)
6
2. Organisation of the school system
● A number of amendments and revisions to the system under the Gakusei (School System Order)
● Characteristics of the pre-war school system:– a relatively short period of compulsory education,
common to all;– a multiple track system after that period
7Organisation of the school system in 1944
8
After World War II
● Entire revision under the occupation● Nine-year compulsory education● Unified into a single track system– universities being open to every graduate of an upper-
secondary school– abolition of distinction among higher education insti-
tutions, except the junior colleges as an interim sys-tem
9
Organisation of the present school system
normal ageschool year
Hig
her e
duca
tion26 21 Doctor University
25 20 (graduate school)24 1923 18 Master22 1721 1620 15 University19 14 (faculty) Junior college College Advanced18 13 courses Special17 12 of training16 11 Upper secondary school school15 10 Technology
Number of schools, students and teachers as of 1st May 2004
Number of schools Number of students Number of teachers*
Kindergarten 14,061 1,753,396 109,853
Elementary school 23,420 7,200,929 414,887
Lower secondary school 11,102 3,663,512 249,801
Upper secondary school 5,429 3,719,048 255,629
Secondary education school 18 6,051 470
Special education schools(for handicapped children) 999 98,796 62,255
College of technology 63 58,681 4,474
Junior college 508 233,749 12,740
University 709 2,809,323 158,756
Special training school 3,443 791,540 40,675
Miscellaneous schools 1,878 178,115 11,267
11
A very good performance in primary and sec-ondary education● Ranking in the OECD's PISA 2000– first group for mathematics and science– second group for reading
● PISA 2003– still in the same groups as the PISA 2000– Japan slightly lowered its ranking by country.
12
PISA 2000: Top 10
Reading Mathematics Science1 Finland Japan South Korea2 Canada South Korea Japan3 New Zealand New Zealand Finland4 Australia Finland UK5 Ireland Australia Canada6 South Korea Canada New Zealand7 UK Switzerland Australia8 Japan UK Austria9 Sweden Belgium Ireland
10 Austria France Sweden
13
PISA 2003 : Top 10 and JapanReading Mathematics Problem-solving
1 Finland Finland South Korea2 South Korea Japan Hong Kong3 Canada Hong Kong Finland4 Australia South Korea Japan5 Lichtenstein Lichtenstein New Zealand6 New Zealand Australia Macao7 Ireland Macao Australia8 Sweden Holland Lichtenstein9 Holland Czech Republic Canada
10 Hong Kong New Zealand Belgium--------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------
14 Japan
14
1. Foundation of modern higher edu-cation institutions
● Establishment of the University of Tokyo (later Imperial University, then Tokyo Imperial Univer-sity) by the Government in 1887
● Other imperial universities in major cities
II Higher education in Japan
15
● Characteristics of these institutions– Governmental institutions– Organised on the continental European model (esp-
ecially Germanic)– Bureaucratic system with quasi-autonomous academic
units (faculties)
16
● Other institutions– Governmental institutions other than imperial univer-
sities– Local public institutions– Private institutions
● Specialised School Order in 1903● University Order in 1918– acknowledgement of the university status to non-gov-
ernmental institutions
17
Number of higher education institu-tions as of 1943
Universities[imperial univer-
sities]
SpecialisedSchools Total
Governmental(national) 19 [7] 58 77
Local public 2 24 26
Private 28 134 162
Total 49 [7] 216 275
18
Characteristics of pre-war higher edu-cation● Well-organised bureaucratic administration sys-
tem in governmental institutions● Coexistence of three sectors of higher education
institutions – governmental (national), local pub-lic and private
● Absolute priority to the national institutions, es-pecially the imperial universities
19
After the war (as of 1949)
● 70 national universities without difference in le-gal status among them
● 17 local public universities● 81 private universities● Junior colleges (regarded as provisional)
20
2. The expansion of higher education and its decline
● Rapid growth of higher education in the 1960s and early 1970s
● Number of institutions– 1960 : 245 universities and 280 junior colleges– 1975 : 420 universities and 513 junior colleges
● Multiplication of students from 1960 to 1975– Universities : 2.77 times– Junior colleges : 4.28 times
21
● Enrolment ratio (of the age cohort)– 10.3% in 1960– 38.4% in 1975
Ratio of the age group advancing to universities and junior colleges
tens
of t
hous
ands
27
1. Incorporation of national universi-ties
● Change in the status of the governmental institu-tions
● Legal personality and more autonomy
III Recent developments in higher education reform
28
a. Progress towards incorporation
● Proposals for incorporation– Teikokudaigaku dokuritsuan shiko [Private study on
independence of the Imperial University] in 1899– Michio Nagai's Daigakukosya [university corpora-
tion] in 1962.– The Central Council for Education's proposal on in-
corporation of national universities
29
● Discussion at the National Council on Educa-tional Reform in the late 1980s
● Some governmental consultative organs' recom-mendations in the framework of administrative reform of the government
● Unanimous rejection on the part of national uni-versities and the Monbusho (Ministry of Educa-tion)
30
● A new administrative system "Independent Ad-ministrative Institution (IAI)" in 1999
● 57 new autonomous governmental corporations in April 2001
● Study on the incorporation of national universi-ties in this framework
31
● A ministerial study on the incorporation of na-tional universities from 1999
● Laws on the incorporation of national universities in 2003
● Incorporation on 1st April 2004
32
b. The national university corporation system(1) Goals/plan and evaluation
● A legal personality to each national university● Block funds● Definition of – goals by the Minister of Education– a plan by each university (then approved by the Min-
ister of Education)
33
● An evaluation committee in the Ministry of Edu-cation– academic and non-academic members– president : Ryoji Noyori (2001 Nobel laureate in
chemistry)● Report from the NIAD-UE with respect to mat-
ters essentially related to education and research
34
MEXT
Evaluation Committeefor National University
Corporations
National university corporations
Draft (opinions) of MTG
Preparation of MTP
Preparation of annual plan
Presentation of MTG
Approval of MTP
Opinions on MTG/MTP, etc.
Independent Administrative Institution National Institution forAcademic Degrees andUniversity Evaluation
(NIAD-UE)
Report on the results of evaluation on education and research
Peer review
Evaluation
Commission on Policy Evaluation and Evaluation of Independent Administrative Institutions(Ministry of Public Management and Home Affairs)
Report on the results of evaluation
Opinions, if necessary
MTG: medium-term goals MTP: medium-term plan
Recommendations, if necessary
Consultations on MTG/MTP, etc.
Report on the results of evaluation
35
(2) Governance and management
● President of the university● Deliberative bodies– board of directors– administrative council– education and research council
● Structure of the secretariat at the discretion of each university
National University Corporation
President
Executives
Board of directors
Internal representativesdesignated by the president
Administrativecouncil
Internal representativesconcerning education
and research
Education andresearch council
President selection committeeAuditors
Externalexperts
External experts only
37
● Participation of external persons in university management– one executive (member of the board of directors) at
least– not less than half of the members of the administra-
tive council
38
(3) Personnel
● Non-public servant status– increased flexibility in personnel affairs– without staff quota management by the Government– salary of the staff (academic and non-academic) in the
block grant (operational grant)
39
Public servant type Non-public servant typeGuarantee of status Stipulated by law Stipulated by rules of employment
of each corporation
Rights of labour Disputes are prohibited. Disputes are not prohibited.
Recruitment of administrativestaff
Selection among successful can-didates in the national public serv-ice examination
According to the criteria definedby each corporation
Dual employment, side business,and political activities
Restricted by the National PublicService Law
Stipulated in the employment rulesof each corporation
Foreigners Impossible to appoint them tomanagement positions
Possible to appoint them to man-agement positions
Salaries and working hours Determined by each corporation (idem)
Medical insurance and pensions Similar to the national public ser-vants
(idem)
Provisions of the penal code suchas bribes
Similar to the national public ser-vants
(idem)
40
(4) Students' payment
● A scope to decide tuition fees and entrance fees, based on the standards determined by the MEXT
● Fees in 2004– tuition fees : 5208000 yen (around 5,200 US dollars)– entrance fees : 282,000 yen (around 2,800 US dollars)
41
c. After incorporation - what has hap-pened and problems
● Finance● Governance● External people● Evaluation● Distinction between the public and private sectors
42
(1) Financial stability of national uni-versities
● Operational grant to be diminished from FY2005● Rise of the standards of fees set by the MEXT● Difficulty in finding other sources
43
● Cost of the increased autonomy– Confrontation with student and staff unions, particu-
larly with respect to revisions of fees – Pressure from the community
● Different fees among national universities?● Very precarious situation of national universities
44
(2) Improvement of the university governance
● Efforts for dissolution of the "dual structure" – academic and administrative
● Construction of an administrative structure cen-tring on the president – ex. Hiroshima University (next page)
45
President
President’s bureau
Board of DirectorsAdministrative
CouncilEducation and
Research Council
Vice-president(attachedschools)
AttachedSchoolsOffice
Vice-presidentExecutive
(education andstudents)
EducationOffice
Vice-presidentExecutive
(research andinternational
relations
ResearchOffice
Vice-presidentExecutive
(collaboration)
CollaborationOffice
Vice-presidentExecutive
(ICT)
ICT PolicyOffice
Vice-presidentExecutive(finances)
Officeof Finance
Vice-presidentExecutive
(personnel andgeneral affairs)
Personnel andGeneral Affairs
Office
Vice-presidentExecutive(hospital)
Office ofthe Hospital
Centres for common useFaculties
Graduate schools
University hospital
Co-ordination Committee of directors of Faculties, Graduate Schools
and Research InstitutesAuditors
Research institutes
Control Bureau
Eval. Committee
46
● Leadership of the president● Wide (and positive) participation of constituent
members● Development of non-academic staff
47
● Danger of an excessive concentration of powers● Shared governance (R. Birnbaum)
48
(3) Participation of external people in university administration
● Effective participation of external experts in or-der to be responsive to society - How?
49
External members of the Administra-tive Council of Hiroshima University
Name Occupation (former)W. Imanaka President, Chugoku Newspaper
K. Inai President, Japan Audio Visual Educational Association (Former Secretary to theMinister of Education)
B. Johnstone Professor of Higher and Comparative Education, State University of New Yorkat Buffalo (Former President of State University of New York)
M. Ogasawara President, Board of Education of Hiroshima Prefecture
M. Onami Special Advisor, Kyoto Tachibana Women’s University (Former President ofRitsumeikan University)
T. Shiiki Lawyer
S. Takasu Chairman, Chugoku Economic Federation / Chairman of the Board of Directors,Chugoku Electric Power Co. Ltd.
K. TanabeSecretary-General, Tokyo Conference for the Collaboration in Chugoku (FormerDirector-General, Chugoku Bureau of Economy, Trade and Industry (METIChugoku))
50
(4) The evaluation
● Underdeveloped evaluation methods● Time consuming
51
(5) Blurred distinction between public and private sectors
● Competition between the public and private sec-tors for the same resources (competitive research funds, students, etc.)
● Incorporation of national universities has made them closer to the private sector.
52
2. The University Council and the de-regulation in higher education
● Discussion at the National Council on Educa-tional Reform (Rinjikyoikushingikai)
● Establishment of the University Council in 1987
a. The University Council and its recommen-dations
53
● Background – Progress in scientific research and changes in human
resources;– Rise in the percentage of students continuing to
higher education and diversification of students; – Growing need for lifelong learning and rising social
expectations of universities.
54
● Abolition of subject areas – one of the most im-portant recommendations– structure curricula reflecting their own educational
ideals and objectives– no definition of subject areas, such as general educa-
tion and specialised education– no requirement on obtaining a certain number of cred-
its in each subject area (acquisition of a minimum to-tal number of credits only)
55
1998 Report A Vision for the University of the 21st Century and Future Reform Measures : Distinctive Universities in a Competitive Environment● Improve the quality of education and research with
the purpose of nurturing the ability to investigate issues;
● Secure university autonomy by making the educa-tional and research system structure more flexible;
● Establish university administration and manage-ment with responsible decision-making and im-plementation; and
● Individualise universities and continuously im-prove their education and research by establishing multiple evaluation systems.
56
2002 revision of the School Education Law● More flexibility for a reorganisation of faculties
and departments● Introduction of a continual third-party evaluation
system for all universities
57
b. Diversification of higher education institutions and their programmes
● Universal phase (M. Trow)– Enrolment ratio : 49.1% in 1999– Over 50% in 1987, if the non-university sector is in-
cluded
58
● Definite abandonment of the planned higher edu-cation policy
● Acceleration of diversification of higher educa-tion institutions
59
Implementation of curriculum reform in universities (2001)
Review of the number of cred-its required for graduation
Introduction of course system
Review of credits calculation
Review of compulsory and elective subjects system
Wedge-formed curriculum
Review of subject classifica-tion
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 350 400 450 500
475
329
365
321
204
353
60
c. Development of human resources in knowledge-based society
● Knowledge : key to the development● Lifelong learning● Adult students
61
Japan's foreign production ratio by industry
62
Number of employees by occupa-tional classification
63
Number of cases of co-operative research imple-mented between national universities and the indus-try / Number of the TLO recognised by the Gov-ernment
1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 20030
1,000
2,000
3,000
4,000
5,000
6,000
7,000
8,000
9,000
10,000
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
35
40
45
50
Number of casesTLO (plotted on the right axis)
64
3. University financing – increasing competition between public and private sectors
a. The spiral of tuition fees● Governmental funds to HE institutions in the
FY2003– 97 national institutions and others : 1,525,606 million
yen– 989 private universities and junior colleges : 321,750
3.25National UniversitiesLocal public universitiesPrivate universitiesPrivate/National
Yen
The first year tuition fees (entrance fees included) by sector and the ratio of tuition fees of private universities to those of national universities
66
b. Poor public expenditure on higher education
● Pressure towards the reduction of public expendi-ture on HE– decrease in subsidies to private universities– increase in tuition fees of national universities
67
Public expenditure on higher educa-tion (2000) in OECD countries
Aus
tralia
Aus
tria
Belg
ium
Cana
daCz
eck
Rep.
Den
mar
kFi
nlan
dFr
ance
Ger
man
yG
reec
eH
unga
ryIc
elan
dIre
land
Italy
Japa
n
Kor
eaM
exic
o
NL
Nor
way
Pola
ndPo
rtuga
lSp
ain
Swed
enSw
itzer
land UK
USA
OEC
D T
otal
0.0
0.5
1.0
1.5
2.0
2.5
3.0
3.5
4.0
4.5
5.0
3.2
2.7 2.6
4.7
1.8
4.6
4.2
2.0
2.42.1
3.0
2.6
4.1
1.81.6
2.7
4.3
2.9
4.1
1.8
2.3 2.4
3.63.4
2.5
3.5
2.9
1.21.4 1.3
2.0
0.8
2.5
2.0
1.0 1.10.9 1.0 1.1
1.3
0.80.5
0.70.9
1.3
1.7
0.81.0 1.0
2.0
1.21.0 1.1 1.2
as a percentage of total public expenditureas a percentage of GDP
68
c. Increase in competitive funds open to public and private institutions
● Competitive funds open indifferently to public and private institutions
69
Number of COE projects adopted by the MEXT, by sector
2002 2003 20040
10
20
30
40
50
60
70
80
90
100
84
97
23
4 51
25
31
4
National universitiesPublic universitiesPrivate universities
70
Top 15 universities ranked by the amount of competitive research funds awarded by the Government (million yen)
Toky
o
Kyot
o
Osa
ka
Toho
ku
Nag
oya
Kyus
hu
Hok
kaid
o
TITe
ch
Keio
(priv
ate)
Tsuk
uba
Hiro
shim
a
Chi
ba
Was
eda
(priv
ate)
TMD
U
Kobe
0
5,000
10,000
15,000
20,000
25,000
30,000
35,000
40,00037,177
18,60115,591
11,9248,784 8,420 7,640
5,924 4,978 4,169 3,138 2,586 2,586 2,554 2,517
71
4. Internationalisation of higher edu-cation
● Nakasone Plan in 1987– More than 100,000 international students in Japan be-
fore 21st century● Japan Student Services Organisation
http://www.jasso.go.jp/index_e.html
72
Number of international students in Japanese higher education institutions
1978
1979
1980
1981
1982
1983
1984
1985
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1995
1996
1997
1998
1999
2000
2001
2002
2003
2004
0
10000
20000
30000
40000
50000
60000
70000
80000
90000
100000
110000
120000TotalStudents financed by the Japanese government
73
Breakdown of the international stu-dents by their region of origin (2004)
● Revision of the legislation concerning the foreign universities in Japan– Temple University Japan (USA)
75
● Three major factors for HE reform– diversification in students– changes in the demand for human resources– increased reliance of industry on academic research
activities● Differentiation of HE institutions● Continual university reform by academics