Cultural Influences on Leadership: Western-Dominated Leadership and Non-Western Conceptualizations of Leadership

DOI: 10.13189/sa.2020.080101
Leadership and Non-Western Conceptualizations
Faculty of Education, University of Social Sciences and Humanities (USSH), Vietnam National University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Received October 7, 2019; Revised December 10, 2019; Accepted December 17, 2019
Copyright©2020 by authors, all rights reserved. Authors agree that this article remains permanently open access under the terms of the Creative Commons Attribution License 4.0 International License
Abstract While the phenomenon of leadership is
widely considered to be universal across cultures, how it is
operationalized is usually viewed as culturally specific.
Conflicting viewpoints exist in the leadership literature
concerning the transferability of specific leader behaviors
and processes across cultures. This study explored
commonalities and differences in effective leadership
processes, across - cultures in western – dominated
leadership and non-western conceptualization of leadership.
GLOBE (Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior
Effectiveness) is a research program focusing on culture
and leadership in 61 nations to provide core attributes of
cultural dimensions on cross-culture and evidence for
conceptual and measurement equivalence for all six leader
behaviors in viewpoints of globalization. Data for the study
is drawn principally from analytic literature reviews in
leadership theory and its implication on cross-culture
perspectives.
Cultural Influences on Leadership
Arabs worship their leaders—as long as they are in
power!
The Malaysian leader is expected to behave in a manner
that is humble, modest and dignified.
—House et al. (1997, p. 535)
The Americans appreciate two kinds of leaders. They
seek empowerment from leaders who grant autonomy
and delegate authority to subordinates. They also
respect the bold, forceful, confident, and risk-taking
leader as personified by John Wayne.
—House et al. (1997, p. 536)
For Europeans ... everything seems to indicate that
leadership is an unintended and undesirable
consequence of democracy.
dependable, sacrificing and yet demanding,
authoritative, and strict disciplinarian.
—Sinha (1995, p. 99)
taking into account the effect of cultural context. To remain
key players in the global development, organizations invest
in developing leaders who have competencies to
understand and manage diversity both at home and globally
(Bartlett & Ghoshal, 1998; Bartlett, Ghoshal, &
Birkinshaw, 2004; Peterson & Hunt, 1997). Today’s
international organizations require leaders who can adjust
to different environments quickly and work with partners
and employees of other cultures (House, Javidan, and
Dorfman, 2001). It cannot be assumed that a manager who
is successful in one country will be successful in another.
Cross-cultural leadership helps organizations understand
the cultural contingencies under which certain leadership
approaches work better than others. Increasingly, leaders
are coming to see their role in change as a task of creating a
harmonious culture to undergird both personal and
institutional growth. Once leaders have created and
generalized unifying cultural background, they can allow
co-workers to change the organizational structure or
system because they share common aims. The trust culture
provides a unifying context within which leader and
follower work and focuses effort toward agreed-upon goals,
2 Cultural Influences on Leadership: Western-Dominated Leadership and
Non-Western Conceptualizations of Leadership
Western leadership theories and Non-Western theories of
leadership to explore commonalities and differences in
effective leadership processes, and finally, present the
features of leadership portrayed in viewpoints of
globalization.
The word leadership is a relatively new addition to the
English language; it appeared approximately 200 years ago
in writings about political influence in the British
Parliament. However, from Egyptian hieroglyphics,
symbols for “leader” existed as long as 5.000 years ago
(Dorfman, 1996). The concept of leadership has existed in
all cultures throughout history. Descriptions of great
leaders are present in such culturally diverse writings as
Homer’s Iliad, the Bible, and Confucius. Despite the
thousands of research have been written on the subject, no
generally accepted definition of leadership exists (Bass,
1990). Western definitions tend to focus on the ability of
individuals to influence organization members toward the
accomplishment of goals (Yukl, 1994b). Janda (1972) and
Bums (1978) insist that an understanding of “the nature of
leadership requires the understanding of the essence of
power, for leadership is a special form of power". Power in
its various forms (coercive, legitimate, reward and expert,
bureaucratic and charismatic power) is present to some
degree in any leader-follower relationship (French &
Raven, 1959). However, based on the well-established idea
that systematic variations in values, attitudes, beliefs, and
behavior exist across cultures, it seems likely that the
meaning and importance of leadership also varies across
cultures. To examine the possible nature of this variation, it
is valuable to review briefly the development of leadership
theory.
progressed through six distinct periods. These are the trait,
behavioral, situational, transformational, visionary and
charismatic theories.
individuals possess innate qualities that enable them to lead
(Northouse, 2010). In traditional trait approach, leaders are
born, leaders born with some characteristics due to their
psychological personality (Gill (2006) Northouse (2010)
identifies intelligence, self-confidence, determination,
associated with effective leadership and that it is these
traits that distinguish leaders from followers. There is
evidence to suggest that some of the traits thought to be
important to leadership are culturally determined.
According to Tannebaum (1980), authoritarianism and
dominance seem to be more acceptable in some developing
countries. In New Zealand, effective Polynesian leaders
tend to emphasize discipline and conformity, while
Anglo-European leader relies less on formal authority
(Marsh, 1978). However, for Americans, traits of
intelligence, honesty, understanding, verbal skills and
determination are strongly affirmed as facilitating leader
effectiveness (Yukl, 2002). Robbins and Jude (2009) point
out “The Big Five personality traits”, Maxwell (1999)
describes “21 indispensable qualities of a leader”, Collins
(2001) raises out the concept of “Level-5 Leadership”
which emphasize leaders to transmit their ego into the goal
of building a great organization based on the four basic
leadership qualities (individual capability, team skills,
managerial competence, and ability to simulate other to
high performance) in 21st century (See The Appendix-1 for
the list).
(1974) identify directive, supportive, participative and
achievement-oriented leadership behaviors that are often
categorized as leadership styles. From this perspective,
scholars identified person-oriented, task-oriented and
individual prominence behaviors as related to leadership
effectiveness. Northouse (2010) points out three main
categories: task, relation and change behavior which are
important for leadership effectiveness. According to
Northouse (2010), task-oriented behavior promotes goal
accomplishment and help group members to achieve their
objectives. Relationship-oriented behavior helps
other and with the situation in which they find themselves.
Change-oriented behavior is concerned with understanding
the environment, finding innovative ways to adapt to it, and
implementing major changes in strategies, products, or
processes. The table in The Appendix - 2 provides a
summary of specific leader behaviors to be represented in a
task-oriented, relationship-oriented, change-oriented
influencing leadership processes. The basic argument of
this approach is that different situations warrant different
kinds of leadership. Leadership effectiveness is enhanced
only when leaders pick up cues in the environment and
adapt their policies, behaviors, and actions accordingly.
The leaders must adjust their leadership style (delegative,
supportive, directive, coaching) to match the varying level
of religious, personal and psychological maturity of their
followers. To be able to shape events, the leaders must
recognize the situation and the needs of the employees.
This gives rise to considerations about factors that help a
leader transform the behavior of followers (Northouse,
2004). According to Greer (2013), the effective leaders in
21st -century must understand behavioral, economic and
social shifts and should be flexible and follow the most
appropriate leadership style to the situation. Situational
models reinforce leadership development and movement to
Sociology and Anthropology 8(1): 1-12, 2020 3
exploit opportunities and achieve success.
Transformational theories focus on how leaders
motivate followers to pursue goals that transcend their
immediate self- interest. Charismatic or transformational
leader “shapes and shares a vision which provides direction,
focus, meaning and inspiration to the work of others”
(Blunt, 1991). Transformational theories mainly promote
desirable attitudes, values, and beliefs which affect the
culture. They attach considerable importance to such
values as relative equality of power between leaders and
the led, high tolerance of ambiguity, high levels of trust and
openness and a desire to share feelings and emotions. They
also emphasize values such as trust, teamwork, rationality,
delegation, productivity and customer service, among
others. Transformational leaders mobilize their followers
through “idealized influence” (charisma), “inspirational
motivation”, intellectual stimulation, high-performance
1997). According to Northouse, 2004, from a
transformational perspective, leadership is a shared process
which results in the empowerment of the people in the
organization, higher level of motivation and improved
productivity. There is an interaction between leaders and
followers. Leaders motivate followers through promises,
praise, and rewards. In this approach, there is an exchange
of one thing for another such as jobs in return for votes or
subsidies for campaign contributions.
involves intrinsic and inspirational motivation to increase
the perception of followers that task objectives are
consistent with their authentic interests and values in the
self-efficacy of individual subordinates (Bono & Judge,
2003; Charbonneau, Barling & Kelloway, 2001).
Transformational leaders inspire self-confidence onto
others. Leaders with confidence in their employees can
secure great accomplishments. Indeed, developing the
consciousness of followers, directing them towards the
organizational mission and vision, and motivating others in
understanding and pledging to the vision is a key
dimension of the transformational leadership style of
inspirational motivation (Bass & Avolio, 2004). According
to Nikezi, etc. (2013), a strong coalition in
transformational leadership supports the establishment of
mutual trust and common goals to be achieved in the
organization. Transformational leaders develop a vision for
the organization, inspire and give a collective obligation
for his followers to a vision into a goal towards which they
move. The transformation management also considers
essential factors of development in the organization and
corporate competence to other social groups and actors in
adjusting the organization due to the changes in the
environment. The figure in the Appendix - 3 shows key
attributes of transformational leadership to meet changes in
the world.
relationship for charismatic leadership across cultures
(Dorfman, 1996). However, a few recent studies have
suggested that culture does influence the charismatic
leadership process. Echavarria and Davis (1994), Hartog et
al., (1994), Koh (1990) state that while the concept of a
charismatic leader might be universal, the way such a
leader is described by followers can differ markedly. Other
evidence views that this model of leadership may not hold
for some unique cultures such as Japan (Bass, 1991 &
Howell et al., 1994). Furthermore, the effect of charismatic
leadership has been found to be stronger for Americans
than Mexicans (Howell & Dorfman, 1988), it is indicating
that cultural differences may influence the effectiveness of
the transformational or charismatic approach.
The origin of charisma theory is from the ideas of an
early sociologist named Max Weber. Charisma is a Greek
word that means “divinely inspired gift,” such as the ability
to perform miracles or predict future events (Yukl, 2006).
Weber (1947) defined charisma as being:
“... set apart from ordinary people and treated as
endowed with supernatural, superhuman, or at least
specifically exceptional power or qualities...regarded as
of divine origin or as exemplary, and on the basis of
them the individual concerned is treated as a leader”
(Weber, 1947, pp. 358-359)
influence on follower perception based not on tradition or
formal authority but rather on exceptional qualities.
Charismatic leadership occurs during a social crisis, when
a leader emerges with a profound vision that offers a
solution to the crisis and attracts followers who believe in
the vision. The followers experience some successes that
make the vision appear attainable, and they come to
perceive the leader as superior (Yukl, 2006).
House (1977) further developed Weber’s concept in
charismatic personality and argued that charismatic
leadership is characterized by followers' trust in the
correctness of the leader's beliefs. Followers not only
respect and trust the leader but they would do with a
transformational one in willing obedience, and they
worship the leader as a spiritual or superhuman. Several
social scientists (Conger & Kanungo, 1987, 1998; Shamir,
House, & Arthur, 1993) formulated newer versions of the
theory to describe charismatic leadership in organizations.
The neo-charismatic theories describe the motives and
behaviors of charismatic leaders and psychological
processes that explain how these leaders influence
followers (Jacobsen & House, 2001).
take riskes to achieve the vision, exhibiting sensivity to
follower needs, and demonstraing novel behavior”
(Timothy, etc., 2006, pp. 204-205). Northouse (2010)
points out positive and negative characteristics that are
often found in charismatic leadership. Positive
charismatics have a socialized power orientation.
4 Cultural Influences on Leadership: Western-Dominated Leadership and
Non-Western Conceptualizations of Leadership
follow their ideology and be productive in meeting the
leader’s organizational goals or personal goals. Nikezic
(2009) states the list of the attributes of positive
charismatic leader as seen in the Appendix 4. In contrast,
the negative charismatic leadership is that some leaders can
use their personality characteristics to mold their followers
to accomplish organizational or personal goals that are as
seen in the Appendix 5. Yukl (2006) describes negative
charismatics in terms of their values and personality as
follows:
orientation... They intentionally seek to instill devotion
to themselves more than to ideals. They may use
ideological appeals, but merely as a means to gain
power, after which the ideology is ignored or arbitrarily
changed to serve the leader’s personal objectives…
Decisions of these leaders reflect a greater concern for
self-glorification and maintaining power than for the
welfare of followers (Yukl, 2006, p. 272)
This review describes the applicability of leadership
theory as developed in the West while some applicability to
other cultures has been found, they are, largely, inadequate
to explain or predict leadership across cultures. One
alternative to trying to ascertain the boundaries associated
with these theories is to examine leadership theories that
are indigenous to non-Western cultures.
3. Leadership from Non-Western Perspective
What types of leadership theories have been advanced in
non-Western countries? There are some long-term
leadership research programs exist outside the West as the
ideology of Confucian Tianxia worldview, but some
non-Western scholars have advanced particularistic views
of leadership cognized of their indigenous cultures (House,
et. al., 2004). There are two non – Western theorists stand
out in importance and have been studied in some
cross-cultural contexts (Dorfman, 1996). The first is
Misumi’s research in Japan over the past 40 years and the
second is Sinha’s research in India.
According to House, et. al., (2004), Misumi’s
performance-maintenance (PM) theory of leadership (1985)
identifies four types of leaders based on the extent to which
they focus on two basic leadership functions labeled
Performance and Maintenance. The Performance (P)
function reflects two aspects: a leader’s planning, guiding,
and developing work procedures; and pressure on
subordinates to work hard and get the work done. The
Maintenance (M) function reflects the leader’s promoting
of group stability and social processes.
These central leadership functions are conceptually
similar to the “task-oriented” and “support-oriented” or
“relationship-oriented” leadership function found in
Western theories of leadership.
emphasize Performance-oriented (P) and
specific behaviors associated with each function will vary
according to context. Misumi’s PM leadership instrument
was adapted for use in China, but researcher found it
necessary to add an additional leadership factor, labeled “C”
for character and morals, to adequately characterize
Chinese leadership (Ling & Fang, 2003).
Similar to Misumi’s research in Japan, early efforts to
study leadership in India were influenced by conceptual
links to Western social scientists. Sinha (1980, 1984)
developed a Nurturant-task oriented model (NT) that
incorporated a combination of leadership styles. The model
suggests that an ideal leader in India is both nurturant and
task-oriented. According to the theory, a
nurturant-task-oriented (NT) leader needs to show
affection, care for subordinates and commit toward their
growth. However, the leader’s nurturance is contingent on
the subordinate’s task accomplishment – the leader
becomes a benevolent source of support provided that the
subordinate respects and obey the supervisor, works hard
and is highly productive. At this point in the relationship,
however, the leader can encourage the subordinate to be
more independent to actively participate with the leader in
decision making. Still, this relationship is very much like
the Japanese management-familyism system (Whitehill &
Takezawa, 1968).
conceptualization of leadership is in countries very
different from the West as in the Arabic world of the
Middle East. In Arabic, the word of leadership is al kiyada,
which refers to officers in the military or high-ranking
members of the government (Hagan, 1995). Modern Arab
management practices have been influenced by Islamic
religion, tribal and family traditions, the legacy of colonial
bureaucracies, and contact with Western nations (Ali,
1990).
differences in effective leadership styles between U.S.
managerial sample and a sample of manager from the
Middle East (Jordan and Saudi Arabia). Whereas the
people-oriented style was related to job satisfaction and
leader effectiveness for the U.S. sample, the task-oriented
style was not. Opposite results were found for the Middle
East sample. Strong and decisive leadership is expected
from an Arab person. Scandura and Dorfman (Scandura
and Dorfman, in press) also discuss culture and charismatic
leadership that particularly relate to the Middle East.
According to Acharya and Buzan (2010) propose three
different sources within the Islamic world for framing the
debates about international relations or how Islam is
supposed to interact with others. First, a primary
foundation for the classical understanding of leadership
Sociology and Anthropology 8(1): 1-12, 2020 5
concept in Islam is based on the original sources of the
Qur’an, the Hadith (Sayings of the Prophet), the Sunnah
(the conduct of the Prophet) or ijtihad (interpretation),
which could call classical ideas, traditions and thinking
contributing to “localist exceptionalism”.
imitation/reaction that came about as a result of encounters
with the West.
around the Islamization of knowledge movement as the
reconceptualization of social sciences, and international
relations by extension.
leadership is partly similar from the theory of managing in
Chinese history, in which Confucius’s view occupies a
central position. Brett (1997) observed that the Confucian
influence extended to those Eastern societies located
within the China cultural orbit namely Korea, Japan, Hong
Kong, Taiwan and Singapore and out of overseas Chinese
communities everywhere. At the heart of Confucianism is
humanism; the basic principles of humanity (Goldin, 2011,
Rosemont Jr, 2006, Tu, 1998a), in which moral cultivation
and living in a moral way is the life-long endeavour of
human beings. These principles are built on the belief that
human beings are teachable, improvable and perfectible
through personal and communal endeavour especially
self-cultivation and self-creation. The principles are
believed to be “the root of social relationships, the
foundation of the stability, peace and prosperity of the state,
the family and individuals” (Tu, 1998a). Rather than focus
on the Western idea of management, which emphasizes
competition among individuals and a “star” system, the
Confucian approach centers around harmony, conformity,
and community.
religious, political and military figures (e.g. Confucian’s
worldview, the Qur’an, the Sunnah (traditions), the Hadith
(Sayings of the Prophet) and the Sharia (Islamic law),
Misumi’s performance-maintenance (PM) in Japan and
nurturant-task oriented model of Sinha in India not only
employed by Western scholars in their study of Asia but
also as used by local scholars in studying their home
country, contribute to the marginalization of local
scholarship and the country itself.
4. Discourse between Leadership Theories from Western Perspective and Non-Western Perspective
Commonalities in effective leadership process between
theories of Western-dominated leadership and
non-Western conceptualizations of leadership which
researchers have shown that first, the nature of both of
Western and non-Western leadership theories predict
based on the essence of power. Power in its various forms
(coercive, legitimate, reward and expert, bureaucratic and
charismatic power) is present to some degree in any
leader-follower relationship (French & Raven, 1959;
Janda, 1972 & Bums, 1978). Second, situational factors
play a critical role in determining when a particular leader
behavior is most effective. The actual leader behaviors are
directive, supportive, participative, contingent reward and
punishment, and charismatic behaviors. Each of these has
shown potential importance…