Cultural differences

Tal AvivFeb 2011

Research to find a basis to compare cultural traits between countries

Prof. Geert Hofstede conducted perhaps the most comprehensive study of how values in the workplace are influenced by culture.

5 Basic indices that are used for cultural comparison.

The indices are generalization for a country.

Power Distance Individualism Masculinity Uncertainty Avoidance Long Term Orientation

The following slides provide brief explanation of each index. If you like detailed explanation, click on each of the links above.

the extent to which the less powerful members of organizations and institutions (like the family) accept and expect that power is distributed unequally.

Inequality defined from below, not from above. Suggests that a society's level of inequality is

endorsed by the followers as much as by the leaders.

Power and inequality are fundamental facts of any society and anybody with some international experience will be aware that 'all societies are unequal, but some are more unequal than others'.

the degree to which individuals are integrated into groups.

Individualist - societies in which the ties between individuals are loose: everyone is expected to look after him/herself and his/her immediate family.

Collectivist - societies in which people from birth onwards are integrated into strong, cohesive in-groups, often extended families (with uncles, aunts and grandparents) which continue protecting them in exchange for unquestioning loyalty.

the distribution of roles between the genders Women's values differ less among societies

than men's values; Men's values from one country to another

contain a dimension from very assertive and competitive and maximally different from women's values on the one side, to modest and caring and similar to women's values on the other.

The assertive pole has been called 'masculine'

the modest, caring pole 'feminine'.

deals with a society's tolerance for uncertainty and ambiguity It indicates to what extent a culture programs its members to feel

either uncomfortable or comfortable in unstructured situations. Unstructured situations are novel, unknown, surprising, different from

usual. Uncertainty avoiding cultures try to minimize the possibility of such

situations by strict laws and rules, safety and security measures, and on the philosophical and religious level by a belief in absolute Truth; 'there can only be one Truth and we have it'.

People in uncertainty avoiding countries are also more emotional, and motivated by inner nervous energy.

The opposite type, uncertainty accepting cultures, are more tolerant of opinions different from what they are used to; they try to have as few rules as possible, and on the philosophical and religious level they are relativist and allow many currents to flow side by side.

People within these cultures are more phlegmatic and contemplative, and not expected by their environment to express emotions.

Values associated with Long Term Orientation are thrift ,perseverance, persistence , ordering relationships by status and observing this order, having a sense of shame

Values associated with Short Term Orientation are respect for tradition, fulfilling social obligations, and protecting one's 'face‘, reciprocation of greetings, favors, and gifts

The short-term orientation is also identified with Truth, while the long-term orientation is identified with Virtue. Our interpretation of the Truth is how we in the West view religion, science, and management.

When information is manipulated or held to obtain a certain result, then one is simply going after the short-term orientation. There may be truth to the results, but the virtue of it has been removed.

When we take the long-term view, we can practice Virtue without seeking the Truth, we can mix religion with Confucian, we can mix Eastern management styles with Western management styles.

A short-term view of results occurs when we know what result we want, thus we are willing to play with the truth to get it.

A long-term view of results mean that we will get it when we get it — it is more important to find the greatness in our results than to find the result that we want.

Large Power Distance (PDI) (80) and Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) (68) are predominant characteristics for the countries in this region. These societies are more likely to follow a caste system that does not allow significant upward mobility of its citizens. They are also highly rule-oriented with laws, rules, regulations, and controls in order to reduce the amount of uncertainty, while inequalities of power and wealth have been allowed to grow within the society. 

Leaders have virtually ultimate power and authority, and the rules, laws and regulations developed by those in power reinforce their own leadership and control. It is not unusual for new leadership to arise from armed insurrection – the ultimate power, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change.

High Power Distance (PDI) ranking is indicative of a high level of inequality of power and wealth within the society. These populations have an expectation and acceptance that leaders will separate themselves from the group and this condition is not necessarily subverted upon the population, but rather accepted by the society as their cultural heritage.

High Uncertainty Avoidance Index (UAI) ranking of 68, indicates the society’s low level of tolerance for uncertainty. In an effort to minimize or reduce this level of uncertainty, strict rules, laws, policies, and regulations are adopted and implemented. The ultimate goal of these populations is to control everything in order to eliminate or avoid the unexpected. As a result of this high Uncertainty Avoidance characteristic, the society does not readily accept change and is very risk adverse.

The Masculinity index (MAS), the third highest Hofstede Dimension is 52, only slightly higher than the 50.2 average for all the countries included in the Hofstede MAS Dimension. This would indicate that while women in the Arab World are limited in their rights, it may be due more to Muslim religion rather than a cultural paradigm.

The lowest Hofstede Dimension for the Arab World is the Individualism (IDV) ranking at 38, compared to a world average ranking of 64. This translates into a Collectivist society as compared to Individualist culture and is manifested in a close long-term commitment to the member 'group', that being a family, extended family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount, and over-rides most other societal rules.

The predominant religion for these countries is Islam, the practice of the Muslim faith.  

The combination of these two high scores (UAI) and (PDI) create societies that are highly rule-oriented with laws, rules, regulations, and controls in order to reduce the amount of uncertainty, while inequalities of power and wealth have been allowed to grow within the society. These cultures are more likely to follow a caste system that does not allow significant upward mobility of its citizens 

When these two Dimensions are combined, it creates a situation where leaders have virtually ultimate power and authority, and the rules, laws and regulations developed by those in power, reinforce their own leadership and control. It is not unusual for new leadership to arise from armed insurrection – the ultimate power, rather than from diplomatic or democratic change.

China has Long-term Orientation (LTO) the highest-ranking factor (118), which is true for all Asian cultures. This Dimension indicates a society's time perspective and an attitude of persevering; that is, overcoming obstacles with time, if not with will and strength

The Chinese rank lower than any other Asian country in the Individualism (IDV) ranking, at 20 compared to an average of 24. This may be attributed, in part, to the high level of emphasis on a Collectivist society by the Communist rule, as compared to one of Individualism.

  The low Individualism ranking is manifest in a close and committed member

'group', be that a family, extended family, or extended relationships. Loyalty in a collectivist culture is paramount. The society fosters strong relationships where everyone takes responsibility for fellow members of their group.

Of note is China's significantly higher Power Distance ranking of 80 compared to the other Far East Asian countries' average of 60, and the world average of 55. This is indicative of a high level of inequality of power and wealth within the society. This condition is not necessarily forced upon the population, but rather accepted by the society as their cultural heritage.

India has Power Distance (PDI) as the highest Hofstede Dimension for the culture, with a ranking of 77 compared to a world average of 56.5. This Power Distance score for India indicates a high level of inequality of power and wealth within the society. This condition is not necessarily subverted upon the population, but rather accepted by the population as a cultural norm.

India's Long Term Orientation (LTO) Dimension rank is 61, with the world average at 48. A higher LTO score can be indicative of a culture that is perseverant and parsimonious.

India has Masculinity as the third highest ranking Hofstede Dimension at 56, with the world average just slightly lower at 51. The higher the country ranks in this Dimension, the greater the gap between values of men and women. It may also generate a more competitive and assertive female population, although still less than the male population.

India's lowest ranking Dimension is Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI) at 40, compared to the world average of 65. On the lower end of this ranking, the culture may be more open to unstructured ideas and situations. The population may have fewer rules and regulations with which to attempt control of every unknown and unexpected event or situation, as is the case in high Uncertainty Avoidance countries.

The high Individualism (IDV) ranking for the United States indicates a society with a more individualistic attitude and relatively loose bonds with others. The populace is more self-reliant and looks out for themselves and their close family members.

The next highest Hofstede Dimension is Masculinity (MAS) with a ranking of 62, compared with a world average of 50. This indicates the country experiences a higher degree of gender differentiation of roles. The male dominates a significant portion of the society and power structure. This situation generates a female population that becomes more assertive and competitive, with women shifting toward the male role model and away from their female role.

The United States was included in the group of countries that had the Long Term Orientation (LTO) Dimension added. The LTO is the lowest Dimension for the US at 29, compared to the world average of 45. This low LTO ranking is indicative of the societies' belief in meeting its obligations and tends to reflect an appreciation for cultural traditions.

The next lowest ranking Dimension for the United States is Power Distance (PDI) at 40, compared to the world Average of 55. This is indicative of a greater equality between societal levels, including government, organizations, and even within families. This orientation reinforces a cooperative interaction across power levels and creates a more stable cultural environment.

  Uncertainty Avoidance (UAI), with a ranking of 46, compared to the world average of

64. A low ranking in the Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension is indicative of a society that has fewer rules and does not attempt to control all outcomes and results. It also has a greater level of tolerance for a variety of ideas, thoughts, and beliefs.

Inequality & Society◦ Exists in every society◦ Athletes, artists enjoy status, wealth in some

societies◦ Politicians enjoy power & wealth without status

in other societies◦ Inequality considered good in some societies

while equality a law in others.

PDI scores informs dependence relationship in a country

Power distance defined as the extent to which the less powerful members of institutions and organizations within a country express and accept that power is distributed unequally

Family, School, Workplace, Country. Nature and Nurture Role Transition Higher Education Effectiveness

Social Class Occupation Educational Level Occupations with lowest status and

educational level – highest PDI values

Large power distance situations◦Obedient, respect towards parents◦Not allowed to experiment themselves◦Parental authority continues◦Mental software: Dependence on seniors

Small–Power distance situations◦ Treated as equals◦ Take control of their own affairs◦ Active experimentation encouraged◦ Parent make their own provision when old◦ Mental software: Need for independence

Large Power Distance◦Students respect teachers, even outside the class◦Teachers takes all the initiative◦Teachers are gurus who transfers personal

wisdom◦Quality of learning depends on excellence of

students

Small Power distance◦Students treat teachers as equals◦Teachers expect initiative from students◦Teachers are experts transferring impersonal

truths◦Quality depends on communication and

excellence of students

Large Power distance situation◦ Subordinates and superiors- existentially unequal◦ Organizations centralized◦ Subordinates takes no initiative◦ Wide gap between salary systems◦ Manual work has lower status than office work

Small Power Distance Situations◦ Subordinates and superiors- existentially equal◦ Organizations fairly decentralized◦ Subordinates expects to be consulted◦ Relatively small gap between salary systems◦ Manual work has equal status compared to office

work

Small Power Distance ◦Use of power is legitimate◦Skills, wealth power and status need not go together◦Most wealthier countries with a large middle class◦All have equal rights◦Way to change the political system- changing the rules◦Pluralist government based on outcome of majority

votes◦Small income differentials

Large Power Distance◦ Whoever holds the power is right and good◦ Skills, wealth power and status go together◦ Most wealthier countries with a small middle class◦ Powerful have privileges◦ The way to change the political system- revolution◦ Autocratic government based on cooptation◦ Large income differentials

Corruption: When people use their position to illegally enrich themselves or when citizens buy the collaboration of authorities for their private purposes.

More in large PDI countries According to Bribe Payers Index

◦Exporting countries with large PDI more likely to use side payments

I, We, and They.◦ The individual and collective in society.◦ The degree of individualism in society.

Cross-National studies. Two separate dimensions? Individualism index (IDV) vs. Power index

(PDV)

Individualist Pole:◦ Personal time.◦ Freedom.◦ Challenge.

Collectivist Pole:◦ Training.◦ Physical conditions.◦ Use of skills.

Individualist:◦ Tolerance to others.◦ Harmony with others.◦ No competitiveness.◦ Close intimate friends.◦ Trustworthiness.◦ Solidarity with others.◦ Being conservative.

Collectivist:◦ Filial piety.◦ Chastity in women.◦ Patriotism.

Large PDI collectivist. Small PDI

individualist. Power Distance vs.

Individualism figure. Third factor in

correlation: Economic Development.

Comparison between individualist and collectivist societies:

Occupation Family Language, Personality, and Behavior School Workplace State Ideas Origins of Individualism-Collectivism

Differences. The future of Individualism and Collectivism.

To distinguish occupation cultures:◦ Intrinsic factors are real motivators◦ Extrinsic factors represent the psychological

hygiene of the job. High education occupations: intrinsic

elements are more important. Lower-status & lower education

occupations: extrinsic elements preferred.

Collectivist:◦ Extended families /in-

groups◦ Think of “we”.◦ Maintain harmony /

avoid confrontations.◦ Predetermined

friendships.◦ Shared resources.◦ High-context

communication prevails.◦ Trespassing shame

and loss of face.◦ Young, industrious and

chaste brides / Older grooms.

Individualist:◦ Nuclear family

◦ Think of “I”.◦ Speaking one’s mind /

honest person.◦ Voluntary friendships.◦ Individual ownership.◦ Low-context

communication prevails.◦ Trespassing guilt and

loss of self respect.◦ Criteria for marriage are

not predetermined.

Examples:◦ Indonesian Javanese noble family.

No appointment needed to visit relatives.◦ Marriage in different societies (ex. India).

Importance of love vs. other considerations.

Key aspects to compare:Use of word “I”.Ways people experience their self.Personality tests.Emotions.Walking speed.Consumption patterns.Primary sources of information.Health care.Disabled persons.

Collectivist societyUse the word “I” is avoided.Interdependent self.On personality tests, people score

more introvert.Showing sadness is encouraged,

and happiness discourage.Slower walking speed.Dependence on others.Social network is the primary

source of information.A smaller share of both private and

public income is spent on health care.

Disabled person is a shame on the family.

Individualist societyUse of the word “I” is encouraged.Independent self.On personality tests, people score

more extrovert.Showing sadness is discouraged,

and happiness encourage.Faster walking speed.Dependence on yourself.Media is the primary source of

information.A lager share of both private and

public income is spent on health care.

Disabled person should have the same range of activities as a normal person.

Key aspects to compare: Behavior at class (participation). Preferential treatment. Confrontations and open discussions. Adaptation to the new skills and methods. Purpose of education. Purpose of diploma.

Collectivist classroom Hesitation to speak up. Ways to increase students’

class participation: Ask personally Assign a spokesperson Expect preferential treatment. Conflicts are unacceptable. Stress on adaptation to the

new skills and methods. Diploma as a “ticket” to be

socially accepted.

Individualist classroom

Expect to be treated as individuals.

Confrontations and open discussions are norms.

Easy adaptation in groups.

Positive attitude toward what is new.

Diploma as a sense of self achievement.

Key aspects to compare: Occupational mobility. Employees’ and company's interests. Hiring and promotion process. Employees’ earnings. Employee’s performance. Management (appraisal interviews). Customers treatment (in-group vs. regular). Relationship vs. task

Collectivist society Sons follow their fathers’

occupations. Employee acts according

to the interest of the group.

Earnings are often shared with relatives.

In-group hiring. Poor performance is not

the reason for termination. Management of groups.

Personal relationship prevails over the task.

Individualist society Sons of fathers choose

personally preferred occupation.

Employed persons act as “economic man.”

Hiring a family member is undesirable.

Poor performance is unacceptable.

It is normal to leave the company for the better pay.

Management of individuals. The task prevails any

personal relationship.

Key aspects to compare: Personal opinion. Personal interests. Economic system. Gross National Product (GNP). Ownership of companies. Private life. Laws and rights. Human rights.

Collectivist society Opinions are

predetermined by group membership.

Collective interests prevail over individual interests.

The state holds s dominant role in the economic system.

Per capita Gross National Product (GNP) tends to be low.

Companies are owned by families or collectives.

Private life invaded by group(s).

Laws and rights differ by group.

Lower human rights rating.

Individualist society Private opinion. Individual interests prevail

over collective interests. The role of the state in the

economic system is restrained.

Per capita Gross National Product (GNP) tends to be high.

Joint stock companies are owned by individual investors.

Everyone has a right to privacy.

Laws and rights are supposed to be the same for all.

Higher human rights rating.

Key aspects to compare: Ideologies (individual freedom vs. equality). Economic theories. Ultimate goals of society. Psychological experiments.

Collectivist society Ideologies of equality

prevail over ideologies of individual freedom.

Imported economic theories are unable to deal with collective and particularist interests.

Harmony and consensus in society are ultimate goals.

Patriotism is the ideal. Outcome of

psychological experiments depends on in-group-out-group distinction.

Individualist society Ideologies of individual

freedom prevail over ideologies of equality.

Native economic theories are based on pursuit of individual self-interest.

Self-actualization by every individual is an ultimate goal.

Autonomy is the ideal. Outcome of

psychological experiments depends on ego-other distinction.

Types of society:• Hunter-gatherer tribes.• Agricultural.• Urbanized. Individualism index value (IDV) can be

predicted from:• The country’s wealth.• The country’s geographical latitude.

Different approaches in in different cultures◦ The unexpected behavior of the British army with the

German soldier◦ Britain and Germany are so much alike: Power

Distance both 36, Masculinity 66◦ Britain has higher individualism index◦ The major dimension of difference: Uncertainty

Avoidance

Human beings have to face the fact that they do not know what hill happen tomorrow

Extreme ambiguity brings intolerable anxiety Ways of handling uncertainty are part and

parcel of any human institution in any country Family, school and state can transfer ways of

handling uncertainty Human societies have developed ways to

handle the anxiety◦ Technology◦ Law◦ Religion

Technology from the most primitive to the most advanced helps to avoid uncertainties caused by nature

Laws and rules try to prevent uncertainties in the behavior of other people

Religion is a way of relating to the transcendental forces that are assumed to control man’s personal life◦ Life after death

Power Distance Index Individualism- Collectivism Masculinity- Femininity Uncertainty Avoidance Index

◦ By product of power distance The question was: “How often do you feel

nervous or tense at work?” UAI for Germany: 65 UAI for Britain: 35

Anxiety is taken from psychology that expresses a diffuse “ state of being uneasy or worried about what may happen.”

Different from fear, because fear has an object Anxiety levels differ from one culture to

another High UAI countries are more anxious than low

UAI High UAI cultures are expressive, aggressive,

busy, and emotional Low UAI cultures are quiet, controlled, lazy,

and dull

Risk and fear are both focused on something specific◦ An object in the case of fear◦ An event in case of risk

Risk is expressed through a percentage of a probability

Example of speed limit:◦ Higher UAI, higher speed limit, more fatal

accidents , more risks◦ saving time over saving life

For occupation and gender, the study on three questions (stress, rule orientation, and intent to stay), was not conclusive

The study on age showed correlation between high UAI and higher age

In higher UAI countries people intended not to change their employer more frequently

Cultural interpretation of safe and danger, clean and dirty

Racism and Ideas to be categorized --- Clean and dirty races, or safe and dangerous ideas are taught to children by their families◦ Angel/ Evil; Truth/ Sinful

Xenophobia: What is Different is Dangerous vs. What is different is Curious

Children in high UAI societies tend to learn that the world is a hostile place, more solid rules, less freedom to discover

Low UAI countries also have their own interpretation of safe and danger/ clean and dirt, but they are less precise, give benefit of the doubt, more flexible rules

Happiness is negatively correlated with UAI based on the 1999 World Values survey◦ Nowadays wealth has no effect on happiness!

Very happy people live in both high UAI and low UAI, but very UNHAPPY people live in high UAI (according to the study done by Veenhoven before 1990)

Health is also negatively correlated with UAI In high UAI societies patients can spend

more time with the doctors than nurses People in low UAI societies live longer!

Low UAI Students are comfortable

with open-ended learning situations and concerned with good discussions

Teachers may say, “I don’t know”

Results are attributed to a persons’ own ability

Teachers involve parents

High UAI Students are

comfortable in structured learning situations and concerned with the right answers

Teachers are supposed to have all the answers

Results are attributed to circumstances or luck

Teachers inform parents

Low UAI In shopping the search

is for convenience Used cars, do-it-

yourself home repairs Fast acceptance of

new products such as internet and email

More books and newspapers

Risky Investment Appeal of humor in

advertising

High UAI In shopping the search is

for purity and cleanliness New cars, homes, repairs

by experts There is a hesitance

towards new products and technologies

Fewer books and newspapers

Conservative investment Appeal of expertise in

advertising

Laws, rules, and regulations are supposed to prevent uncertain events

In high UAI societies, there are more formal law and internal regulations in order to control work process and duties of employers and employees

People are programmed since their early childhood to work in structured environments, belief in expertise on the work floor

Emotional need for rules can lead to a rule-oriented behavior that sometimes is ritual, inconsistent, and maybe dysfunctional

Low UAI countries have less formal laws. They establish formal laws if necessary

In low UAI cultures many problems can be solved without formal rules◦ Germans: Very disciplinary

Equally dispersed expertise as workforce In Britain top managers occupied

themselves with more strategic problems and less with daily operations (unlike France and Germany)

In high UAI countries, less trademarks were granted due to many regulations, the result can lead to less creativity and innovation

However, low UAI countries may be stronger in the basic steps of innovation, but they do not have the detailed structure in order to implement those innovations into real products or service◦ Britain has produced more Nobel prize winners

than Japan, but Japan has produced more new products on the world market

David Mc Clelland from Harvard School of Psychology conducted a study base on combining UAI and masculinity- femininity factor

Three types of motives:◦ Achievement◦ Affiliation◦ Power

Low UAI Motivation by achievement

and esteem or belonging There are fewer self-

employed people Intrapreneurs are relatively

free from frameworks

High UAI Motivation by security

or esteem or belonging

There are more self-employed people

Intrapreneures are constrained by existing rules

In societies with weak UAI if feelings prevails that laws don’t work, they should be withdrawn or changed

In societies with strong UAI laws need to fulfill a need for security even if they are not followed, very similar to to religious commandments

Case study: ◦ Collecting a bounced check◦ Evicting a tenant for nonpayment of rent

More uncertainty avoidance are well provided with laws, but for the citizens to make them work, takes more time

Low UAI Fast Result in case of

appeal to justice There is high participation

in voluntary associations and movement

Citizen protest is acceptable

Citizens are interested in politics

Liberalism Positive attitude toward

young people Tolerance, even of extreme

ideas

High UAI Slow result in case of

appeal to justice There is low participation

in voluntary associations and movement

Citizens protest should be repressed

Citizens are not interested in politics

Negative attitude toward young people

Extremism, and repression of extremism

The case of student exchange program between The Netherlands and Austria◦ Racism

Data from the European Commission report Racism and Xenophobia in Europe (1997) showed that the immigrants should be sent was strongly correlated with UAI. In IBM data it was already found out that foreign managers were less accepted in high UAI cultures

Fascism and racism are often found in high UAI countries that have high value of masculinity as well

The relationship between uncertainty avoidance and individualism/ collectivism:◦ Collectivist countries try to eliminate intergroup

conflicts by denying or repressing it such as Serbia, Arab countries, and Turkey

◦ Some other countries with lower individualism attribute but have different ethnic groups try to be more tolerant and give each other complements such as Malaysia

◦ The United States in theory a majority try to support integration of minorities and equal rights

Religious beliefs and rituals help us to accept the uncertainties we can not defend ourselves against◦ The ultimate certainty: Life after death

UAI review:◦ Most Orthodox and Roman Catholic Christian countries

score high, except for Philippines and Ireland◦ Muslim countries tend to score in the middle◦ Protestant Christian countries below average◦ Buddhist and Hindu countries medium to very low, except

for Japan Different regions, different religious beliefs under

the same religion such as Indonesian, Iranian, Saudi, and Balkan Muslims

Low UAI More ethnic tolerance Defensive nationalism One religion’s truth

should not be imposed on others

Human rights: no one should be prosecuted for their beliefs

Scientist opponents can be personal friends

High UAI More ethnic prejudice Aggressive

nationalism In religion, there is

only one truth and we have it

More religious, political, and ideological intolerance and fundamentalism

Scientist opponents can not be personal friends

Masculine pole

Earnings Recognition Advancement challenge

Feminine pole

Manager Cooperation Living area Employment

security

Masculine Culture

Challenge and earning are important

Men should be assertive and tough

Women are supposed to be tender and take care of relationship

Father deal with fact and mother with feeling

Feminine Culture

Relationship and quality of life are important

Both men and women should be modest

Both men and women can be tender and take care of relationship

Both father and mother deal with fact and feelings

Sales Representatives Engineers and Scientists Technicians and skilled craftspeople Managers of all categories Semiskilled and unskilled workers Office workers

Both boys and girls learn their place in society

Children controlled by Parents Children socialize in family Role distribution between husband and

wife Role of men and women

Masculine culture

According to research the teachers don’t praised for the effort

Failing in school is a disaster

Job choices are guided by career opportunities

They follow the same academic curricula

Feminine culture

Teachers rather praised weaker students to encourage them

Failing is a minor incident

Job choices are guided by the interest in subject

academic curricula vary if the country is wealthy or poor

Masculine Culture

People buy more expensive watches and jewelry

People more often fly on business class on pleasure trips

People prefer foreign good than local product

Women shop for food, men shop for cars

More nonfiction is read

Feminine Culture

People spend more on the products for home

People take their carven or trailer with them for vacation

People spend more on making their own stuff

Women and men shop for food and cars

More fiction is read

Masculine Culture Feminine Culture

Resolution of conflicts: by the strongest

Rewards are based on equity

Live in order to work More money preferred

over more time Careers are

compulsory for men, optional for women

Resolution: by compromise and negotiation

Rewards are based on equality

Work in order to live More time preferred

over more money Careers are optional

for both

The masculinity-femininity dimension affects priorities: Solidarity with the weak VS reward for the

strong Aid to poor countries VS investing in armaments Protection of the environment VS economic

growth

Do you know which culture is which and why?What do you conclude?

Masculine Culture Feminine Culture

Tough religions In Christianity: stress

on believing in God Dominant religions

stress the male privilege

Religions approve sex for reproduction rather than recreation

Tender religions In Christianity: stress

on loving one’s another

Dominant religions stress balancing of the sexes

Religions are positive or neutral about sexual pleasure

ReferenceHofstede, Geert (1997). Culture and Organizations: Software of the Mind. New York: McGraw