Critically analyse and appraise the key roles and functions of leadership and management within organizations using relevant theoretical concepts

1. Critically analyse and appraise the key roles and functions of leadership and

management within organizations using relevant theoretical concepts

2.

3. Explain and describe appropriate leadership techniques and strategies based upon a comprehensive understanding of contemporary approaches to leadership, management and employee motivation.

Leadership has been described as the “process of social influence in which one

person can enlist the aid and support of others in the accomplishment of a common

task.

Alan Keith of Genentech states that, "Leadership is ultimately about creating a way

for people to contribute to making something extraordinary happen." According to

Ken "SKC" Ogbonnia, "effective leadership is the ability to successfully integrate and

maximize available resources within the internal and external environment for the

attainment of organizational or societal goals."

“A person who rules, guides or inspires others” Collins English Dictionary

Leadership is action – not position” McGannon (1995)

Effective leadership is not about making speeches or being liked; leadership is

defined by results not attributes.” .

Great Man Theories

These theories suggest that ‘people are born great’

Either you’ve got it, or you haven’t!

They have had a long history

We still see evidence of them It is not difficult from time to time to identify

individuals who seem to be ‘exceptional’ – who are born with innate qualities and

whose destiny is to lead

Trait Theories

Focus on the traits or qualities associated with leadership – inspirational, dependable,

reliable, knowledgeable etc.

May be seen as a ‘step forward’ from ‘Great Man’ theories in that identifiable lists of

traits can be produced and shared

Not so much concerned with what leaders do or the situations they find themselves in

Behaviourist Theory

Focus more on what leaders do rather than on their qualities

Looks at styles of leadership

Often rely on poles/extremes

Influential within management

eader and a manager needed for a polar expedition!!

The expedition manager is responsible for planning and arranging for equipment,

communications, budgeting etc.

The expedition leader, however, basically decides on the goal of the expedition, sets

direction and, is a source of guidance, motivation and inspiration for the team in the

field

Blake and Mouton (1964)

Focused on task (production) and employee (people) orientations of managers – and

combinations of concerns between the two extremes

They came up with their Managerial Grid consisting of a vertical axis dealing with

‘concern for people’ and a horizontal axis dealing with ‘concern for output’

Leadership is "organizing a group of people to achieve a common goal." The leader may or

may not have any formal authority. Students of leadership have produced theories involving

traits,[1] situational interaction, function, behavior, power, vision and values,[2] charisma, and

intelligence among others.

Arieu, A. defines a leader as "a person capable of inspiring and associate others with a

dream." It is therefore important that organizations have a mission high transcendent, since it

is a powerful way to strengthen the leadership of its directors.

Individuals can and do emerge as leaders across a variety of situations and tasks[8] Significant

relationships exist between leadership and such individual traits as:

intelligence [9]

adjustment[9]

extraversion [9]

conscientiousness [10] [11] [12]

openness to experience[11][13]

general self-efficacy

Specifically, Zaccaro (2007) noted that trait theories still:

1. Focus on a small set of individual attributes such as Big Five personality traits, to the

neglect of cognitive abilities, motives, values, social skills, expertise, and problem-

solving skills

2. Fail to consider patterns or integrations of multiple attributes

3. Do not distinguish between those leader attributes that are generally not malleable

over time and those that are shaped by, and bound to, situational influences

4. Do not consider how stable leader attributes account for the behavioral diversity

necessary for effective leadership

5. the times produce the person and not the other way around.[29]

The authoritarian leadership style, for example, is approved in periods of crisis but fails to

win the "hearts and minds" of their followers in the day-to-day management; the democratic

leadership style is more adequate in situations that require consensus building; finally, the

laissez faire leadership style is appreciated by the degree of freedom it provides, but as the

leader does not "take charge", he can be perceived as a failure in protracted or thorny

organizational problems.[

Functional leadership theory (Hackman & Walton, 1986; McGrath, 1962) is a particularly

useful theory for addressing specific leader behaviors expected to contribute to organizational

or unit effectiveness. This theory argues that the leader's main job is to see that whatever is

necessary to group needs is taken care of; thus, a leader can be said to have done their job

well when they have contributed to group effectiveness and cohesion (Fleishman et al., 1991;

Hackman & Wageman, 2005; Hackman & Walton, 1986).

five broad functions a leader performs when promoting organization's effectiveness.

These functions include: (1) environmental monitoring,

(2) organizing subordinate activities,

(3) teaching and coaching subordinates,

(4) motivating others, and

5) intervening actively in the group's work.

Transactional and transformational theories

The transactional leader (Burns, 1978) is given power to perform certain tasks and reward

or punish for the team's performance. It gives the opportunity to the manager to lead the

group and the group agrees to follow his lead to accomplish a predetermined goal in

exchange for something else. Power is given to the leader to evaluate, correct and train

subordinates when productivity is not up to the desired level and reward effectiveness when

expected outcome is reached.

The transformational leader (Burns, 1978)[41] motivates its team to be effective and

efficient. Communication is the base for goal achievement focusing the group on the final

desired outcome or goal attainment. This leader is highly visible and uses chain of command

to get the job done. Transformational leaders focus on the big picture, needing to be

surrounded by people who take care of the details. The leader is always looking for ideas that

move the organization to reach the company's vision.

[edit] Emotions

Leadership can be perceived as a particularly emotion-laden process, with emotions entwined with the social influence process

Leadership style : -

Autocratic or authoritarian style

Under the autocratic leadership style, all decision-making powers are centralized in the

leader, as with dictator leaders.

They do not entertain any suggestions or initiatives from subordinates. The autocratic

management has been successful as it provides strong motivation to the manager. It permits

quick decision-making, as only one person decides for the whole group and keeps each

decision to himself until he feels it is needed to be shared with the rest of the group.[47]

[edit] Participative or democratic style

The democratic leadership style favors decision-making by the group as shown, such as

leader gives instruction after consulting the group.

They can win the co-operation of their group and can motivate them effectively and

positively. The decisions of the democratic leader are not unilateral as with the autocrat

because they arise from consultation with the group members and participation by them.[47]

[edit] Laissez-faire or free rein style

A free-rein leader does not lead, but leaves the group entirely to itself as shown; such a leader

allows maximum freedom to subordinates, i.e., they are given a free hand in deciding their

own policies and methods.

Different situations call for different leadership styles. In an emergency when there is little

time to converge on an agreement and where a designated authority has significantly more

experience or expertise than the rest of the team, an autocratic leadership style may be most

effective; however, in a highly motivated and aligned team with a homogeneous level of

expertise, a more democratic or laissez-faire style may be more effective. The style adopted

should be the one that most effectively achieves the objectives of the group while balancing

the interests of its individual members.[47]

"transactional" leadership (characterised by e.g. emphasis on procedures, contingent

reward, management by exception) and "transformational" leadership (characterised

by e.g. charisma, personal relationships, creativity).[41]

The successful leader effectively uses these power(s) to influence employees, and it is important for the leader to understand the uses of power to strengthen the leadership functioning.

The following types of organizational power:

Legitimate Power refers to the different types of professional positions within an organization structure that inherent such power. E.g. Manager, Vice President, Director, Supervisor, et cetera. These levels of power commands to the hierarchical executive levels within the organization itself. The higher position such as President of the company has a higher power than the rest of professional positions in the hierarchical executive levels.

Reward Power given the power to managers that attain administrative power over a range of rewards. Employees whom work for managers desire the reward from the manager, they will be influenced by receiving them as the product of work performance. The rewards may be the obvious—pay raise or promotions.

Coercive Power given the manager's ability to punish an employee whom did not follow the company policy, loss of profit, et cetera. Punishment can be determined range of mild to serious punishment... a mild punishment is a suspension and serious punishment is actual termination.

Expert Power an expert power attained by the manager by their own talents such as skills, knowledge, abilities, or previous experience. Any of these manager has the power within the organization will be very valuable and important manager in the company.

Charisma Power a manager has a charisma that will positively influence on workers, and admired manager that creates the opportunity for interpersonal influence. A person has charisma, and this will confer great power as a manager.

Referent Power a power that is gained by association. This person with whom he or she is associated or has a relationship, often referred to assistant or deputy.

Information Power a person who has possession of important information at an important time when such information is needed to organizational functioning. Someone who has this information knowledge has genuine power. Manager's secretary would be in a powerful position if a secretary has information power.[62]

Leadership Development

Leadership development refers to any activity that enhances the quality of leadership within an

individual or organization.

people aren't all born with the ability to lead.

The success of leadership development efforts has been linked to three variables[5]:

Individual learner characteristics

The quality and nature of the leadership development program Genuine support for behavioural change from the leader's supervisor

Among key concepts in leadership development one may find:

- Experiential learning: positioning the individual in the focus of the learning process, going through

the four stages of experiential learning as formulated by David A. Kolb: 1. concrete experience 2.

observation and reflection 3. forming abstract concept 4. testing in new situations.

- Self efficacy: The right training and coaching should bring about 'Self efficacy' in the trainee, as

Albert Bandura formulated: A person's belief about his capabilities to produce effects

- Visioning: Developing the ability to formulate a clear image of the aspired future of an organization

unit.

These characteristics include:

Taking responsibility Gaining focus Developing life purpose Starting action immediately Developing effective and achievable goals and dreams.[8]

1. Trait theories – What type of person makes a good leader?

Lewin argued that there are three types of leaders:

1. Autocratic leaders make decisions without consulting their teams. This is considered

appropriate when decisions genuinely need to be taken quickly, when there's no need

for input, and when team agreement isn't necessary for a successful outcome.

2. Democratic leaders allow the team to provide input before making a decision,

although the degree of input can vary from leader to leader. This type of style is

important when team agreement matters, but it can be quite difficult to manage when

there are lots of different perspectives and ideas.

3. Laissez-faire leaders don't interfere; they allow people within the team to make many

of the decisions. This works well when the team is highly capable and motivated, and

when it doesn't need close monitoring or supervision. However, this style can arise

because the leader is lazy or distracted, and, here, this approach can fail.

that of Transformational Leadership. A leader using this style:

Has integrity.

Sets clear goals.

Clearly communicates a vision.

Sets a good example.

Expects the best from the team.

Encourages.

Supports.

Recognizes good work and people.

Provides stimulating work.

Helps people see beyond their self-interests and focus more on team interests and

needs.

Inspires.

Popular Leadership Styles – A Glossary

The leadership theories and styles discussed so far fit within formal theoretical

frameworks. However, many more terms are used to describe leadership styles, even

if these don't fit within a particular system. It's worth understanding these!

1. Autocratic leadership

Autocratic leadership is an extreme form of transactional leadership, where leaders

have absolute power over their workers or team. Staff and team members have little

opportunity to make suggestions, even if these would be in the team's or the

organization's best interest.

Most people tend to resent being treated like this. Therefore, autocratic leadership

often leads to high levels of absenteeism and staff turnover. However, for some

routine and unskilled jobs, the style can remain effective because the advantages of

control may outweigh the disadvantages.

2. Bureaucratic leadership

Bureaucratic leaders work "by the book." They follow rules rigorously, and ensure

that their staff follows procedures precisely. This is a very appropriate style for work

involving serious safety risks (such as working with machinery, with toxic substances,

or at dangerous heights) or where large sums of money are involved (such as handling

cash).

3. Charismatic leadership

A charismatic leadership style can seem similar to transformational leadership,

because these leaders inspire lots of enthusiasm in their teams and are very energetic

in driving others forward. However, charismatic leaders can tend to believe more in

themselves than in their teams, and this creates a risk that a project, or even an entire

organization, might collapse if the leader leaves. In the eyes of the followers, success

is directly connected to the presence of the charismatic leader. As such, charismatic

leadership carries great responsibility, and it needs a long-term commitment from the

leader.

4. Democratic leadership or participative leadership

Although democratic leaders make the final decisions, they invite other members of

the team to contribute to the decision-making process. This not only increases job

satisfaction by involving team members, but it also helps to develop people's skills.

Team members feel in control of their own destiny, so they're motivated to work hard

by more than just a financial reward.

Because participation takes time, this approach can take longer, but often the end

result is better. The approach can be most suitable when working as a team is

essential, and when quality is more important than speed to market, or productivity.

5. Laissez-faire leadership

This French phrase means "leave it be," and it's used to describe leaders who leave

their team members to work on their own. It can be effective if the leader monitors

what's being achieved and communicates this back to the team regularly. Most often,

laissez-faire leadership is effective when individual team members are very

experienced and skilled self-starters. Unfortunately, this type of leadership can also

occur when managers don't apply sufficient control.

The authoritarian makes all decisions, independent of member's input. The

authority figure dictates direction, leaving members in the dark about future plans.

The authority figure selects which members will work collaboratively and determines

solely the work tasks for the teams. This leader type is very personal in his praise and

criticisms of each member, but does not actively participate with the group, unless

demonstrating to the group. The authority figure is friendly and/or impersonal, but not

openly hostile.

The democratic leader welcomes team input and facilitates group discussion and

decision making. This leader type shares plans with the group and offers multiple

options for group consideration. Encourages members to work freely with each other

and leaves division of tasks to the group. This leader is objective in praise and

criticism, and joins group activities without over-participating.

The laissez-faire leader allows the group complete freedom for decision-

making, without participating himself. This leader type provides materials and

offers to assist only by request. The laissez-faire leader does not participate in

work discussions or group tasks. This leader does not offer commentary on

members' performance unless asked directly, and does not participate or intervene

in activities.

BASES OF POWER

These five types of power are coercive, legitimate, reward, referent, and expert

COERCIVE POWER.

Coercive power rests in the ability of a manager to force an employee to

comply with an order through the threat of punishment. Coercive power

typically leads to short-term compliance, but in the long-run produces

dysfunctional behavior.

Coercion reduces employees' satisfaction with their jobs, leading to lack

of commitment and general employee withdrawal.

LEGITIMATE POWER.

Legitimate power rests in the belief among employees that their manager

has the right to give orders based on his or her position.

In a corporate setting, employees comply with the orders

of a manager who relies on legitimate power based on the

position in the organizational hierarchy that the manager

holds. Yet, although employees may comply based on

legitimate power, they may not feel a sense of commitment

or cooperation.

REWARD POWER.

Reward power, as the name implies, rests on the ability of a manager to

give some sort of reward to employees. These rewards can range from

monetary compensation to improved work schedules. Reward power

often does not need monetary or other tangible compensation to work

when managers can convey various intangible benefits as rewards.

Huey describes Sam Walton, founder of Wal-Mart Stores, Inc., as an

active user of reward power. Walton relies heavily on these intangible

awards, indicating that "nothing else can quite substitute for a few well-

chosen, well-timed, sincere words of praise. They are absolutely free-and

worth a fortune".

REFERENT POWER.

Referent power derives from employees' respect for a manager and their

desire to identify with or emulate him or her. In referent power, the

manager leads by example. Referent power rests heavily on trust. It often

influences employees who may not be particularly aware that they are

modeling their behavior on that of the manager and using what they

presume he or she would do in such a situation as a point of reference.

EXPERT POWER.

Expert power rests on the belief of employees that an individual has a

particularly high level of knowledge or highly specialized skill set.

Managers may be accorded authority based on the perception of their

greater knowledge of the tasks at hand than their employees.

Interestingly, in expert power, the superior may not rank higher than the

other persons in a formal sense. Thus, when an equipment repair person

comes to the CEO's office to fix a malfunctioning piece of machinery, no

question exists that the CEO outranks the repair person; yet regarding

the specific task of getting the machine operational, the CEO is likely to

follow the orders of the repair person.

MULTIDIMENSIONAL POWER

2 Role of leadership

Organisational effectiveness: different perspectives: outcome-based, process-based,financial efficiency, customer satisfaction, performance targets etc

Leadership and change: vision, mission, goal-setting, strategy, conflict resolution,management of change, delegation, consultation, decision making, team building,developing others

Leadership is creating a future for your organization."

leadership and management as “…two distinctive and complementarysystems of action.”

Leaders carry out this process by applying their leadership knowledge and skills. This

is called Process Leadership (Jago, 1982). However, we know that we have traits that

can influence our actions. This is called Trait Leadership (Jago, 1982), in that it was

once common to believe that leaders were born rather than made. These two

leadership types are shown in the chart below (Northouse, 2007, p5):

difference between leaders and managers

Leadership vs. Management

The biggest difference between managers and leaders is the way they motivate the people

who work or follow them, and this sets the tone for most other aspects of what they do.

Leadership vs. Management 

Disciplines > Leadership > Leadership vs. ManagementManagers have subordinates | Leaders have followers | See also

What is the difference between management and leadership? It is a question that has been

asked more than once and also answered in different ways. The biggest difference between managers and leaders is the way they motivate the people who work or follow them, and this sets the tone for most other aspects of what they do.

Many people, by the way, are both. They have management jobs, but they realize that you cannot buy hearts, especially to follow them down a difficult path, and so act as leaders too.

Managers have subordinates

By definition, managers have subordinates - unless their title is honorary and given as a mark of seniority, in which case the title is a misnomer and their power over others is other than formal authority.

Authoritarian, transactional style

Managers have a position of authority vested in them by the company, and their subordinates work for them and largely do as they are told. Management style is transactional, in that the manager tells the subordinate what to do, and the subordinate does this not because they are a blind robot, but because they have been promised a reward (at minimum their salary) for doing so.

Work focus

Managers are paid to get things done (they are subordinates too), often within tight constraints of time and money. They thus naturally pass on this work focus to their subordinates.

Seek comfort

An interesting research finding about managers is that they tend to come from stable home backgrounds and led relatively normal and comfortable lives. This leads them to be relatively risk-averse and they will seek to avoid conflict where possible. In terms of people, they generally like to run a 'happy ship'.

Leaders have followers

Leaders do not have subordinates - at least not when they are leading. Many organizational leaders do have subordinates, but only because they are also managers. But when they want to lead, they have to give up formal authoritarian control, because to lead is to have followers, and following is always a voluntary activity.

Charismatic, transformational style

Telling people what to do does not inspire them to follow you. You have to appeal to them, showing how following them will lead to their hearts' desire. They must want to follow you enough to stop what they are doing and perhaps walk into danger and situations that they would not normally consider risking.

Subject Leader Manager

Essence Change Stability

Focus Leading people Managing work

Have Followers Subordinates

Horizon Long-term Short-term

Seeks Vision Objectives

Approach Sets direction  Plans detail

Decision Facilitates Makes

Power Personal charisma Formal authority

Appeal to Heart Head

Energy Passion Control

Culture Shapes Enacts

Dynamic Proactive Reactive

Persuasion Sell Tell

Style Transformational Transactional

Exchange Excitement for work Money for work

Likes Striving Action

Wants Achievement Results

Risk Takes Minimizes

Rules Breaks Makes

Conflict Uses Avoids

Direction New roads Existing roads

Truth Seeks Establishes

Concern What is right Being right

Credit Gives Takes

Blame Takes Blames

Leaders with a stronger charisma find it easier to attract people to their cause. As a part of their persuasion they typically promise transformational benefits, such that their followers will not just receive extrinsic rewards but will somehow become better people.

People focus

Although many leaders have a charismatic style to some extent, this does not require a loud personality. They are always good with people, and quiet styles that give credit to others (and takes blame on themselves) are very effective at creating the loyalty that great leaders engender.

Although leaders are good with people, this does not mean they are friendly with them. In order to keep the mystique of leadership, they often retain a degree of separation and aloofness.

This does not mean that leaders do not pay attention to tasks - in fact they are often very achievement-focused. What they do realize, however, is the importance of enthusing others to work towards their vision.

Seek risk

In the same study that showed managers as risk-averse, leaders appeared as risk-seeking, although they are not blind thrill-seekers. When pursuing their vision, they consider it natural to encounter problems and hurdles that must be overcome along the way. They are thus comfortable with risk and will see routes that others avoid as potential opportunities for advantage and will happily break rules in order to get things done.

A surprising number of these leaders had some form of handicap in their lives which they had to overcome. Some had traumatic childhoods, some had problems such as dyslexia, others were shorter than average. This perhaps taught them the independence of mind that is needed to go out on a limb and not worry about what others are thinking about you.

"There is a profound difference between management and leadership, and both are important. To manage means to bring about, to accomplish, to have charge of or responsibility for, to conduct. Leading is influencing, guiding in a direction, course, action, opinion. The distinction is crucial" – Warren Bennis

the differences between managers and leaders as follows:

The manager administers; the leader innovates. The manager is a copy; the leader is an original. The manager maintains; the leader develops. The manager focuses on systems and structure; the leader focuses on people. The manager relies on control; the leader inspires trust. The manager accepts reality; the leader investigates it. The manager has a short-range view; the leader has a long-range perspective. The manager asks how and when; the leader asks what and why. The manager has his or her eye always on the bottom line; the leader has his or her

eye on the horizon. The manager imitates; the leader originates. The manager accepts the status quo; the leader challenges it. The manager is the classic good soldier; the leader is his or her own person. The manager does things right; the leader does the right thing.

Another influential thinker on the distinction between management and leadership is John Kotter author of "John P. Kotter on What Leaders Really Do" in the book John makes the following observations:

“Leadership and management are two distinctive and complementary systems of action…… Both are necessary for success in an increasingly complex and volatile business environment.”

“Most U.S. corporations today are overmanaged and underled.” “Strong leadership with weak management is no better, and is sometimes actually worse,

than the reverse.” “Management is about coping with complexity….. Without good management, complex

enterprises tend to become chaotic… Good management brings a degree of order and consistency…."

"Leadership, by contrast, is about coping with change…. More change always demands more leadership.”

“Companies manage complexity by planning and budgeting, by organizing and staffing, and by controlling and problem solving. By contrast, leading an organization to constructive change involves setting a direction (developing a vision of the future and strategies to achieve the vision), aligning people, and motivating and inspiring them to keep moving in the right direction."

A manager is a title that can be given that signifies a position – a leader is a title

that other people give you.

McGregor’s theory

developed his theory X and theory Y of human motivation

They are two opposing perceptions about how people view human behavior at work and

organizational life

Theory X

In this theory management assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if

they can.

Because of this workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of

controls developed.

A hierarchical structure is needed with a narrow span of control at each level.

According to this theory employees will show little ambition without an enticing incentive

program and will avoid responsibility whenever they can.

According to McGregor, most managers (in the 1960s) tended to subscribe to Theory X, in

that they took a rather pessimistic view of their employees.

A Theory X manager believes that his or her employees do not really want to work, that

they would rather avoid responsibility and that it is the manager's job to structure the work

and energize the employee.

The result of this line of thought is that Theory X managers naturally adopt a more

authoritarian style of leadership and training based on the threat of punishment

Theory Y

In this theory management assumes employees are ambitious, self-motivated, anxious to

accept greater responsibility, and exercise self-control and self-direction.

It is believed that employees enjoy their mental and physical work activities.

It is also believed that employees have the desire to be imaginative and creative in their

jobs if they are given a chance.

There is an opportunity for greater productivity by giving employees the freedom to be

their best.

A Theory Y manager believes that, given the right conditions, most people will want to do

well at work and that there is a pool of unused creativity in the workforce.

They believe that the satisfaction of doing a good job is a strong motivation in itself.

A Theory Y manager will try to remove the barriers that prevent workers from fully

actualizing their potential.

McGregor's Theory X and Theory Y

Douglas McGregor (1957) developed a philosophical view of humankind with his Theory X and Theory Y — two opposing perceptions about how people view human behavior at work and organizational life. McGregor felt that organizations and the managers within them followed either one or the other approach:

Theory X

o People have an inherent dislike for work and will avoid it whenever possible.

o People must be coerced, controlled, directed, or threatened with punishment in order to get them

to achieve the organizational objectives.

o People prefer to be directed, do not want responsibility, and have little or no ambition.

o People seek security above all else.

o People have potential.

o naturally dislike work

o will avoid work when possible

o prefer to be told what to do

o are not ambitious

o should be tightly controlled

o want security above all else

o need to be watched!

o

In an organization with Theory X assumptions, management's role is to coerce and control employees.

Theory Y

o Work is as natural as play and rest.

o People will exercise self-direction if they are committed to the objectives (they are NOT lazy).

o Commitment to objectives is a function of the rewards associated with their achievement.

o People learn to accept and seek responsibility.

o Creativity, ingenuity, and imagination are widely distributed among the population. People are

capable of using these abilities to solve an organizational problem.

• are good at being creative • like to work • think work is natural • will work hard for the

company if treated fairly• will accept responsibility