Systematically mapping the Societal Potential of Elite Sport: a review and the development of a conceptual model. Authors: Jens De Rycke, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, SASO (Sport and Society): Veerle De Bosscher, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, SASO (Sport and Society) Key words: elite sport; elite sport policy; elite sport societal outcomes; conceptual model; mapping review # words: (max 3000) INTRODUCTION Since the early 1960’s, governments started to grasp the cultural, political and economic importance of elite sport, which has led to governmental intervention in the form of financial investment, administrative support and regulation. Moreover, in the early twenty-first century,
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Systematically mapping the Societal Potential of Elite Sport: a review and the
development of a conceptual model.
Authors:
Jens De Rycke, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, SASO (Sport and Society):
Veerle De Bosscher, Vrije Universiteit Brussel, SASO (Sport and Society)
Key words: elite sport; elite sport policy; elite sport societal outcomes; conceptual model;
mapping review # words: (max 3000)
INTRODUCTION
Since the early 1960’s, governments started to grasp the cultural, political and
economic importance of elite sport, which has led to governmental intervention in the
form of financial investment, administrative support and regulation. Moreover, in the
early twenty-first century, sport and elite sport has become an increasing policy
priority (De Bosscher, De Knop, Van Bottenburg, & Shibli, 2006; Green, 2009). As
such, questions are raised concerning this policy arrangement (Girginov, 2012; Grix
& Carmichael, 2012b; Hogan & Norton, 2000). It is argued that the escalating costs
needed to achieve elite sport success causes governments to get entangled in an
unsustainable, upward competitive spiral leading to excessive spending (Houlihan &
Zheng, 2013). Moreover, elite sport investment does not guarantee success, which
means that public investment in elite sport carries a political risk (Houlihan & Zheng,
2013).
When facing the challenge of justifying investments in elite sport to their public, elite
sport policy makers increasingly tend to advocate for elite sport development by
stating that it will ‘trickle’ a wide range of societal benefits. The most referenced are
international prestige (Smith, 2005; Walker et al., 2013; Wicker, Hallmann et al.,
2012), diplomatic recognition (Merkel, 2013), a ‘feel good factor’ (Hallmann, Breuer,
& Kühnreich, 2013; Kavetsos & Szymanski, 2010), raised levels of sport participation
(De Bosscher, Sotiriadou, & van Bottenburg, 2013; Hindson, Gidlow, & Peebles,
1994; Storm, 2012; Veal, Toohey, & Frawley, 2012), to more concrete economic
unfair play and other deviant examples), “if practiced according to our norm of fair
play, we believe that sporting games can stand out as a paradigmatic practice of the
possibility of moral dialogue that is so important in our modern, pluralistic societies”
(Loland & McNamee, 2000, p. 76). Elite sport provides an international platform for
social debate and enables people to realize human needs and ideals in a powerful
symbolic form, containing nostalgic traditions and rituals (Lipsky, 1979).
The second ‘supercluster’, ‘Uniqueness’, arose out the ‘unique selling proposition of
elite sport’ as it can provide, a feel-good effect among ‘consumers’ and attracts
enormous media attention. Fans attending live sporting events derive enjoyment,
happiness and satisfaction (De Knop, Scheerder, & Vanreusel, 2002) by having an
opportunity to experience entertainment (Fredline, 2005), comradeship, aesthetics,
and socialize with other spectators (Wann et al., 2001). Mega-sporting events
encompass the entire globe and are nearly certain to attract a great deal of worldwide
media coverage (Dolles and Söderman, 2008). A professional sports team has the
potential to build ‘brand equity’ by capitalizing on the emotional relationship it shares
with its fans (Underwood, Bond, & Baer, 2001). A ‘showcase effect’ sets in as sport
offers an arena for countries to compete with each other in a ‘global sporting arms
race’ to gain international prestige, recognition, political power and fame. Countries
bidding for major events sometimes strive for a powerful public stage for their
ideological battles (Merkel, 2013), but the most distinct feature is that it paves the
way for economic value: an economic boost, new transport and infrastructure,
tourism, consumption, employment. Although research confirms that an economic
legacy is not certain as a ‘hangover’ with regards to the decaying infrastructure and
limited noticeable positive outcomes for the community (Meyer, 2009) often
occurred.
The third ‘supercluster’ is called ‘upgrowth’; and constitutes of the potential
developmental and leveraging processes due to elite sport participation (athlete),
consumption (fans), association/partnership (stakeholders) or locality/hosting (local).
Indeed, by incorporating the personal, physical and mental influences, the full scope
of potential influence spheres associated with elite sport are captured. Positive
influences for athletes are clustered as: identity building, relationships, health,
education, quality of life and learning life skills. In contrary, several physical and
psychological challenges (e.g. injuries, social isolation, pressure to perform) may
impose risks to the elite athlete’s wellbeing (Steffen, Soligard, & Engebretsen, 2011).
As ‘idealized creations’, athletes provide inspiration, motivation direction and
meaning for people’s lives. The notion that co-experiencing an athlete’s achievement
– live or through media – would inspire to actively change behaviour and personal
characteristics (volunteering, character building, self-efficacy, hard work, risk
taking...) and for example trickle sport participation has been contested. Donnelly et
al. (2011) state that “It is now clear that increased participation is not an automatic
legacy of hosting major sporting events or winning medals, and that far more
deliberate interventions are necessary in order to increase participation in sport and
physical activity. Inspiration is simply not enough”. Possible negative spheres has led
some authors to theorize about a ‘discouraging effect’ and decreased body image as a
result of an experienced ‘competence gap’. The stakeholder development cluster
constitutes of a variety of stakeholders that are entangled within elite sport. People do
not go to games just to watch athletes play; eating, drinking, shopping, and socializing
are other options that people enjoy at sport venues (Wann et al., 2001). Partnerships
and sponsor deals lead to direct economic outcomes relating merchandise sales, TV
rights, jobs, sport industry assets (Couvelaere & Richelieu, 2005) and others outcomes
like stimulation of scientific research, innovation, and corporate social responsibility.
Undoubtedly, elite sport stimulates the economy through the interconnection of sport,
media and business. These parties utilize the big public interest in elite sport and
emotional bonds with sporting heroes, teams and clubs. Sporting organizations benefit
and thrive because of this affiliation (Tomlinson, 2011).
Finally, the cluster local development stands for outcomes due to financing of elite
sport development and the organization of elite sport events. Especially when hosting
mega-events, cities invest in for example public transportation, sport accommodation,
the environment, local infrastructure, sustainable development...where inhabitants can
benefit from. Major events often bring forth a disruption of the local lifestyle (noise,
vandalism, an increase in crime and overcrowding) and living conditions which may
let residents avoid event places or decide to leave the area entirely (Mules and Dwyer,
2005). Unfortunately, there are examples of events where example low-income
neighborhoods were torn down in order to build new venues and roads (Agha, Fairley,
& Gibson, 2012).
DISCUSSION
The literature review shows that societal value is reflected in the ways elite sport
influences and effects individuals, groups and society at large. Elite sport is unique as
it enthuses and inspires people to unite and progress. However, these effects do not
occur automatically. Whether and how they manifest themselves depends on the
social context and social conditions. Moreover, this evidence induces us to draw
nuanced conclusions that do justice to the context-dependent nature of the empirical
findings. It remains a challenge to examine the relationship between elite sport and
society due to the vast range of determinants and difficulties to isolate effects in
empirical studies. Because of the complicated nature of these influences, the available
research has not sufficiently succeeded in finding clear evidence for the full scope of
the 109 potential influence domains. Despite high expectations, the cumulative
evidence base for elite sport’s personal and societal impact remains incomplete. This
makes it difficult to ‘measure the balance’ between the positive and negative
outcomes of elite sport in society.
The scope of the proposed model is much broader than what is often considered,
especially with regard to elite sport specifically. In some cases the potential ascribes
increases or improvements, others are the product of decreases or reductions. The
model suggests not only that elite sport is a potential key driver of different types of
value formation, but that each cluster in turn influences both the elite sport ‘world’
and the other ‘clusters’. Thus, “forming a synergistic feedback network whose whole
is greater than the sum of its parts” (Bailey, Hillman, Arent, & Petitpas, 2013, p. 290).
Ultimately, the aim of the model is not to make definite categorical statements, but to
stimulate debate around this subject and give opportunity to map elite sport policy and
research. Policymakers need this knowledge to judge whether or not elite sport
funding can be the answer to a specific goal.
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Appendix 1
Keywords used for inclusion
Population
‘elite AND sport*’
‘high AND performance AND sport*’ ‘perform* AND sport*’ ‘elite AND athlete*’ ‘athlete*’ ‘elite AND sport AND policy’ ‘*olympic*’ OR ‘paralympic*’ ‘sport* AND *event*’ ‘*mega-event*’ ‘international* AND sport*’ ‘multination*AND sport*’ ‘international* AND event*’ ‘multination* AND event*’ ‘international* AND games*’ ‘multination* AND games*’ ‘multi-nation* AND games*’ ‘sport* AND franchise*’ ‘sport* AND team*’ ‘sport* AND star*’ ‘sport* AND celebrit*’ ‘achievement*' ‘sport* AND success*’ ‘victor*’ ‘medal*’ ‘win*’
Outcome (ethics' OR 'fair' 'play' OR 'norms' OR 'values' OR 'standards' OR 'morality) AND 'sport*' (admission*' OR 'entry' 'ticket*' OR 'merchandis*' OR 'food' OR 'beverage*' AND
‘consumer*’ OR ‘tourist*’ OR ‘attend*’ OR ‘*fan*’ OR ‘follow*’)AND 'sport*' (negative' OR 'bad' 'public' 'figures' OR 'role' 'models' OR 'role' 'model*') AND 'sport' (family OR friends) AND impact AND negative ('anger' OR 'rage' OR 'aggression' AND 'sport' touris*' AND 'sport*' (self-esteem' OR 'self-respect')AND 'sport*' (sex' OR 'sexual') AND 'sport*'
(community' OR 'economic' OR 'entrepreneurship' OR 'industry) AND ('bad OR 'negative') AND 'sport*'
leadership' AND sport (alcohol' OR 'doping' OR 'steroids) AND 'sport*' (technological' OR 'knowledge) AND 'sport*' ('differences' OR 'awareness') AND 'sport*' AND ( 'disab*' OR 'para*' or 'special' ) ('boredom) AND 'sport*' (brings' 'down' 'enthusiasm') OR 'passion ('excitement' OR 'satisfaction) AND sport* ('anxiety' OR 'fear' OR 'confusion') AND sport* ('bullying' OR 'sledging' OR 'verbal' 'abuse' OR 'intimidat*) AND sport* ('enthusiasm' OR 'energy' OR 'passion') AND sport* ('safeness' OR 'trust' OR 'faith) AND sport* ('exploitation' OR 'human rights') AND sport* ('charity' OR 'fundraising') AND sport* ('social' AND 'norms ) AND sport* ('school' OR scholar* OR academic*) AND elite sport* 'communit*' AND 'host*' 'peace' AND 'sport*' communit* AND (negative OR bad) AND 'sport*' (skill* OR competenc* ) AND ( difference OR 'gap' ) AND elite ('venue*' OR 'facilit*' OR 'accommodat*' OR 'PPP' ) AND sport ('social' 'inclusion' OR 'acceptanc*' 'OR' 'minorit* OR disadvant*) AND ('elite' OR 'sport'
OR 'athletes') 'public order' AND ( 'elite' OR 'sport') 'crime' AND ( 'sport' OR 'elite' ) volunteer* AND ( 'elite' Or 'sport*') character' OR 'resilience' OR 'persistency' AND 'sport*' ('addiction' OR 'fanaticism' OR 'obsession' OR '' 'gambling ) AND sport* discourag* AND ( 'elite' OR 'sport*' ) ('competitive' AND ('trait' OR 'character*') ) AND ('elite' OR 'sport*') ('discipline' OR 'self-control ) AND ('elite' OR 'sport*') 'disappoint*' AND ('elite' OR 'sport*') smoking AND (‘venue' OR 'stadi*' OR 'attend*’ OR ‘*fan*’ OR ‘follow*’ OR
‘communit*’) AND ('sport*' OR 'elite') (sleep OR 'sleep pattern*) AND (‘attend*’ OR ‘*fan*’ OR ‘follow*’ OR
‘communit*’)AND sport* 'media' AND 'innovation' 'social*' AND 'sport*' AND ('awareness' OR 'engagement') doping (eating OR eat ) AND elite injur* AND elite ('social' AND 'skills') OR 'socializing') AND sport* ('marketing' AND 'city') AND sport* ('social' AND 'mobility) AND (sport* OR 'elite') (embarrass*' OR 'shameful*' OR 'incident*) AND (sport* OR 'elite') (employment' OR 'job') AND ('athlete*' OR 'elite') empowerment' AND ('elite' OR 'sport' OR 'consumption) hard work AND ('elite' OR 'sport') authorit* AND elite rebellion' 'sacrific*' AND ('elite' OR 'athlete*') ('striv* OR 'goal' OR 'aim*') AND ('achievements' OR 'success) AND elite (communit* AND harmon*) AND sport ('cultural*' AND (value OR apprec*) ) AND ( elite OR event OR sport) (‘health' OR 'fitness) AND 'elite' ('heroism' OR 'bravery' OR 'courage) AND 'sport*' 'legac*' AND ( sport OR event ) AND ('commun*' OR 'social*') 'engagement' AND 'sport*' ('physical' AND 'decline') AND ('age*' OR 'old*' OR 'post*' OR 'ex*') AND ( 'elite' OR
'athlete*' OR 'sport*') (feel* AND good*' AND 'factor*') OR 'enjoy*' OR 'fun*') AND ( watch* OR 'attend*'
OR 'fan*' OR 'touris*') 'ritual*' AND 'sport*' (outcast* OR 'belong*) AND 'sport*' ('leisure' AND 'time') AND ('sport*' OR 'fan' OR 'spectat*' OR attend*) ('famous' OR 'fame' OR 'recogniz*') AND sport* ('hate' OR 'unpopular*' OR 'critics*) AND sport* ('government*' OR 'public' AND ('spending OR 'fund*) ) AND sport* (gross' AND 'domestic' AND 'product) AND sport* 'hooligan*' OR 'vandal*' hospitalit* AND sport* 'identit*' AND elite* AND sport* ('scien* AND 'innov*) AND sport* ('awareness' AND ('health' OR 'care') ) AND sport* 'transport*' AND ('legac*' OR 'sport*' OR 'event' OR 'host*') ('national' AND 'identity) AND sport* 'pride' AND sport* 'nationalism' AND sport* 'social' AND ('elite' OR 'fan' OR 'attend*' OR 'host' OR 'event') 'wellbeing AND ( 'elite' OR 'fan' OR 'attend*' OR 'host' OR 'event') 'equity' AND ('sport' OR 'elite' OR 'fan' OR 'attend*' OR 'host' OR 'event') ('inequity' OR discrimin* OR 'inequalit*) AND ('sport' OR 'elite' OR 'fan' OR 'attend*'
OR 'host' OR 'event') (econom*' OR 'commercial') AND ('sport' OR 'elite' OR 'communit*' OR 'host' OR
'event') ( sedentary OR 'lifestyle') AND ('elite' OR 'communit*' OR 'fan' OR 'watching') AND
sport ('disable*' OR 'para*' OR disabilit*) AND ('equit*' OR 'aware*' ) AND ( 'sport' AND
'elite' ) racial* AND 'sport' ('selfish*' OR 'ego') AND 'sport*' ('social' AND 'network*') AND 'sport*' ('honest*' OR 'integrit*) AND 'sport*' 'religion*' AND 'sport*' ('soci*' AND 'economic*') OR 'status') AND ('sport*' AND 'elite') ('brain' AND 'structure') OR ('cognitive' AND 'function') OR 'concussion* ) AND ('sport*'
AND 'elite') ('homophobia' OR 'gay' OR 'lesbian') AND 'sport*' 'war' AND 'sport*' ('dishonesty' OR 'corruption) AND 'sport*' ('mortality' OR 'suicide ) AND sport* ('negative' OR 'bad') AND ('body' AND 'image') OR ('physique' AND 'anxiety) AND
sport* 'infrastructure* AND 'sport*' ('prestige' OR 'reputation' OR 'honor') AND 'sport*' (invest* OR 'fund*') AND ('legitim*' OR 'explanation*' OR 'advoca*') AND 'sport*' ('consumption' OR 'consuming') AND 'sport*' ('healthcare' AND 'costs') AND 'sport*' ('job' AND ('absenteeism' OR 'productivity' OR 'performance' OR 'commitment')AND
'sport*' ('overtraining' OR 'overpressure') AND 'sport*' 'manufactur*' AND 'sport*' ('prejudice*' Or 'stereotyp*') AND 'sport*' 'media' AND 'sport*' ('mental' OR 'psychological') AND ( 'sport*' AND (athlete*' OR 'elite') ) relationship* AND ( 'sport*' AND 'elite' ) ('responsibility' OR 'respect) AND ('sport*' AND 'elite') 'moral*' AND ( 'sport*' AND 'elite' ) 'patriot*' AND 'sport*'
(‘personal' AND 'development' ) AND ( 'sport*' AND 'elite' ) ('perception*' OR 'critics' OR 'opinion') AND 'host*' 'emotion*' AND ( ('fan' OR attend* OR 'follower*') AND 'sport' ) ('addiction' OR 'fanaticism' OR 'obsession' OR '' 'gambling') AND 'sport' (‘collaboration' OR 'teamwork') AND 'sport' 'integration' AND 'sport' 'drug*' AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) 'ethnic' AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) 'gender' AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) 'justice' AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) ('inclusion' OR ('minority' AND 'groups) ) AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) ('relaxation' OR 'entertainment' OR 'liveliness) AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) ('stress' OR 'depression') AND ('sport' AND ('elite') ) (('motor' AND 'skills') OR 'dexterity' OR 'skillfulness' OR 'ability' OR 'prowess') AND
('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) ('physical' AND 'appearance' OR 'beauty' OR 'aesthetics’) AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR
athlete)) ('citizen*' OR 'citizenship' ) AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR athlete)) 'reinvestment*' AND ( 'sport' OR 'elite' OR athlete)) 'retail*' AND 'sport' ('retirement' OR 'career') AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR 'athlete')) 'stakeholders' AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR 'athlete')) ('environment' OR 'green' OR 'urban') AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR 'event')) (smug* OR 'trafficking') AND ('sport' AND ('elite' OR 'event')) ((special' OR 'unique' AND 'brand') OR ('marketable' AND 'value) ) AND ( sport AND
('athlete' OR 'elite') ('wage*' OR 'salar*') AND (sport AND ('athlete' OR 'elite' ) ('diet*' OR 'nutrition*') AND 'elite' ('educational' AND ('attainment' OR 'engagement' OR 'performance)) AND ('sport' OR
'elite') ('self-efficacy' OR 'ambition' OR ('goal' AND 'setting) ) AND ('sport' AND 'elite') ('sport' OR 'participation') AND legac* ('participation' AND 'sport' ) AND ('success' OR 'win' OR 'medal' OR 'victor') ('participation' AND 'sport') AND ('elite' OR 'professional' AND ('equipment' 'and'
'facilities')) (‘participation' AND 'sport') AND ('professional' AND 'structur*) (('specific' OR 'group') AND 'polic* ) AND ('participation' AND 'sport' ) 'demonstration' AND ('participation' AND 'sport') ('rule*' OR 'regulation*') AND (elite AND sport) (television' AND ('rights OR 'payment*')) AND sport ('debate' OR 'revolution) AND sport ('volunteer*' AND ('skills' OR 'life')) AND sport (illegal AND ticketing') OR ('black AND market') ( sexual AND (abuse OR harassment)) AND sport
Appendix 2
Eligibi
lity832 full-text articles retrieved for review
To date exclusion, or directly or indirectly unrelated to topic/non-
applied to elite sport
Identif
ication25958 records excluded on the basis of initial filtering: title and
30450 articles where initially identified from database searches
3660 excluded on the basis of title and abstract, unrelated to topic,
unable to be sourced from reference
4492 records screenedScreen
ing
To date on going process of including final articles in review
Inclu
ded
Appendix 3
Capital 9: ‘Fans development’, cluster 9.2. ‘Sport participation’
9.2.1. Positive
1992 OG Barcelona impact on sport participation in New Zealand: 15 out of 35 sport clubs (43%) reported a positive effect on club membership (Hindson et al., 1994)
Membership rise Liatoppsprinten: correlation between OG/WC medals and registered athletes was: r = .60 (p < .05), between OG/WC medals and participants was: r = 0.75 (p < .01), between top fifteen WC places and registered athletes: r = 0.69 (p < .05), between the top fifteen WC places and participants was: r = 0.63 (p < .05 (Hanstad & Skille, 2010)
Growth of population participating in sport at least once a week: from 36% in 1983 to 47% in 1989 to 51% in 1995 (Truno, 1995 ).
OG London 2012 Legacy: Workplace Challenge Programme (WCP): increase in overall amount of physical activity’ [r= .43, n = 185, p<.000] and participation in new sports and leisure activities’ [r= .21, n = 184, p<.005] (Chen & Henry, 2012)
Positive significant correlation with tennis members (r 1⁄4 0.749) and courts (0.858); adjusted R Square: 38.2% of the total registered members explained by tennis success (V. De Bosscher, De Bosscher, De Knop, & Heyndels, 2003)
Increase participation; side/indirect effects related to programmes, increased resources and staff, increased exposure, identification (Frawley & Cush, 2011)
Manchester Commonwealth Games of 2002: increased participation of 7% in adults in the UK and 19% among 6 to 15-year-olds in the North West (Faber Maunsell, 2004)
An increasing number of rugby players in Australia in the first two years after organizing the 2003 World Cup (Veal & Frawley, 2009)
6% of respondents claimed that overall UK sporting success had resulted in them doing more sport (Sporting Motivations Survey; TNS, 2004)
9.2.1. Mixed
OG Sydney: Post-Games increases in participation in seven Olympic sports, declines in nine others, and a general increase in recreational and non-Olympic activities (Veal, 2003)
Curling OG success: raise in memberships but only 4% of the new curlers cited GB team success as the main reason for their participation (EdComs, 2007 , p. 43)
Australia: Sydney OG, Inconsistent results: only 4% had changed their participation (Veal, Toohey, & Frawley, 2012)
Growth in club membership due to successes of Dutch athletes, but only in a few sports: WC & OG Judo (in the early 1960s), the successful hosting of men’s and women’s hockey WC in 1998, and darts’ WC victories (1998, 1999) Van Bottenburg (2002, 2003)
Membership figures comparison: Flanders vs. Netherlands: Analysis across 20
sports revealed no consistent relationship. Positive correlations were notable in Flanders in four of the eight sports in which elite Flemish competitors achieved significant international successes during the study period (athletics, gymnastics, judo and tennis) (Veerle De Bosscher et al., 2013)
Elite sport success positive only for people (32%) already engaged in sport, for lapsed participants to re-engage (35%) and for activity switching. 32% of sub-criterion participants (participating between 2/month and 2x30/week) that are not club members are highly responsive to a demonstration effect for outcomes increasing participation frequency. 35% of lapsed participants (participating between 1/year and 1/month) are highly responsive to a demonstration effect for outcomes that re-engage former participants (M. Weed, 2009)
Capital 9: Fans development, cluster 9.9. ‘discouragement
Limited effect on club membership in the six sports; related to the lack of marketing and promotion in sports clubs; Demonstrations of sporting excellence by top-level athletes may hinder, rather than foster, attempts to promote sporting participation at the grassroots level (Hindson, Gidlow, & Peebles, 1994)
No positive effects of increasing elite sport success and elite sport spending: an increased sedentary adult population, as well as overweight (Hogan & Norton, 2000)
Participation rates for individuals over 16 years old remained the same for the years 2005–2006 and 2007–2008 and had decreased in the vicinity of the 2012 Olympic Park in East London (London Assembly, 2009).
No positive effects of ‘success interventions victory Boris Becker Wimbledon 1985’; decline in tennis membership figures after 1990: the strong growth of membership decreased by about 5,2%, still implying an absolute positive growth of 2,3% annually. Thus, there was a general trend towards reduced membership growth in German sports associations (Feddersen, Jacobsen, & Maennig, 2009)
No trickle down effect after Australian swimming successes at the 2000 Sydney Olympics (Toohey, 2008)
A lack of trickle down effect is not only applicable to organized sports (membership figures), but also to people’s exercise behaviour in general (Murphy & Bauman, 2007)
Appendix 4
1.
SOCIAL
EQUITY
+ 1.1. Integration of different cultures & religions
1.1.1. Bridging cultural differences
1.1.2. Bridging people with different religion
1.1.3. Stimulates cultural diversity
1.2. Social equality
1.2.1. Promotion racial equality
1.2.2. Promotion ethnic equality
1.3. Inclusion
1.3.1. Inclusion/recognition of people with mental disablilities (special
olympics)
1.3.2. Inclusion/recognition of people with physical disabilities
(paralympics)
1.3.3. Bridging age differences
1.4. Social Justice
1.4.1. Promotion of children rights
1.4.2. Platform for fighting for equal rights
1.5. Socio-economic equality
1.5.1. Chance for social mobility
1.5.2. Bridging people with different SES
- 1.6. Sexism
1.6.1. Sexual stereotyping
1.6.2. Under-representation of sportswoman
1.6.3. Sexual orientation/gender identity
1.7. Exclusion
1.7.1. Exclusion on the basis of physical characteristics
1.7.2. Exclusion on the basis of SES
1.8. Exploitation
1.8.1. Human trafficking
1.8.2. Deprivation
1.9. Discrimination
1.9.1. Racism
1.9.2. Nationality
2. + 2.1. Community image
2.1.1. Revitalize community image
2.1.2. City marketing tool
Appendix 5
Previous frameworks
The main legitimization for the development of our model lies in the point of fact that
there is rich literature suggesting and measuring the ways in which (mainly
grassroots) sport contributes to society, but no broad, encompassing conceptual map
has been developed for elite sport. Indeed, most frameworks give a valuable but
limited ‘slice’ of the evidence, but are less useful if they give only a partial picture
(Woodman et al., 2012). In the groundwork for mapping the social impact of sport,
there have been quit some frameworks but little agreement on how to approach it and
what core criteria should be installed (Lee et al., 2013). Indeed, there is an elite-sport
oriented framework of Zhang, Pease, and Hui (1996) on the perceptions of value
contributed to communities from professional sports. Their scale of items are solely
oriented to the value dimensions professional sport can bring to the community (Lee
et al., 2013). Their measurement includes eight dimensions: (a) community solidarity,
(b) public behavior, (c) pastime ecstasy, (d) excellence pursuit, (e) social equity, (f)
health awareness, (g) individual quality, and (h) business opportunity. In the case of
examining events, Horne and Manzenreiter (2006: 9) construe that ‘the legacies of
sports mega-events’ are the greatest attraction of hosting, but also form part of the
‘known unknowns’, as they classify it in (a) social, (b) cultural, (c) environmental, (d)
political, (e) economic and (f) sporting themes. According Brown & Massey (Brown
& Massey, 2001), is research concerning hallmark or major-events more or less
centered around six main subject areas: (a) Sports Participation and development, (b)