Course Introduction to Research Methodology Lecturer: Mr BARAKAT Private International Institute of Management and Technology American University of Leadership.

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Course

Introduction to Research Methodology

Lecturer: Mr BARAKAT

Private International Institute of Management and Technology

American University of Leadership

Executive Education Center

Spring term

Academic year 2012-2013

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OUTLINE

I. Meaning of ResearchII. Objectives of ResearchIII. Motivation in ResearchIV. Significance of ResearchV. Research and the Scientific MethodVI. Types of ResearchVII. Research ApproachesVIII. Examples of Past Research ProjectsIX. Research Methods and MethodologyX. The Research ProcessXI. Criteria of Good ResearchXII. Ethical Considerations in Research

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I. WHAT IS RESEARCH?

A scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic

Research is an academic activity, and as such the term should be used in a technical sense

It is “the manipulation of things, concepts or symbols for the purpose of generalizing to extend, correct or verify knowledge, whether that knowledge aids in construction of theory or in the practice of an art.” (D. Slesinger and M. Stephenson. The Encyclopaedia of Social Sciences, Vol. IX)

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II. OBJECTIVES OF RESEARCH

Research objectives fall into four components:

o To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into ito To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a groupo To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with something elseo To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables

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III. MOTIVATION IN RESEARCH

The motives for doing research may be either one or more of the following:

oA desire to get a research degree along with its consequential benefits

oA desire to face the challenge in solving the unsolved problems

oA desire to get intellectual joy of doing some creative work

oA desire to be of service to societyoA desire to get respectability

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IV. SIGNIFICANCE OF RESEARCH

“All progress is born of inquiry. Doubt is often better than overconfidence, for it leads to inquiry, and inquiry leads to invention” (Hudson Maxim)

Research provides the basis for nearly all government policies in our economic system

Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of business and industry.

Research is equally important for social scientists in studying social relationships, and in seeking answers to various social problems

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V. RESEARCH AND THE SCIENTIFIC METHOD

The scientific method is the same in all branches of science, and that method is the method of all logically trained minds … the unity of all sciences consists alone in its methods, not its material (Karl Pearson)

The ideal of science is to achieve a systematic interrelation of facts. The scientific method attempts to achieve “this ideal by experimentation, observation, logical arguments from accepted postulates, and a combination of these three in varying proportions

The scientific method is, thus, based on certain basic postulates

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VI. TYPES OF RESEARCHThe basic types of research are as follows:

o Descriptive vs. Analyticalo Applied vs. Fundamentalo Quantitative vs. Qualitativeo Conceptual vs. Empiricalo Deductive vs. Inductiveo Some Other Types of Research

One-time or longitudinal Field-setting, laboratory or simulation Clinical or diagnostic Exploratory or formalized Historical Conclusion-oriented and decision-oriented

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VII. RESEARCH APPROACHES

In light of the above description, there are two basic approaches to research:

o Quantitative (Positivistic Perspective)

Inferential (Survey research) Experimental (greater control over the environment) Simulation (artificial environment)

o Qualitative (Phenomenological Perspective)

Focus group and in-depth interviews Projective Techniques

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Surveys

Experimental Studies

Longitudinal Studies

Cross-sectional Studies

Case Studies

Action Research

Ethnography (Participant Observation)

Participative Inquiry

Feminist Perspectives

Grounded Theory

POSITIVIST PHENOMENOLOGICAL

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VIII. EXAMPLES OF PAST RESEARCH PROJECTS

Title Approach Methodology

How do financial adviceservices market to the‘youth market’?

Positivistic Cross-sectional study

Impact of IT developments on financial services

Positivistic Cross-sectional study and in-depth survey of one company

Disability awarenesstraining within leisureorganisations

Phenomenological Participant observation

Age discrimination in the workplace

Positivistic and phenomenological/Feminist perspective

Survey and case study

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VIII. EXAMPLES OF PAST RESEARCH PROJECTS

Title Approach Methodology

Personality Testing: isthis a valid tool in therecruitment and selection process?

Positivistic and phenomenological

Survey and participant observation

Impact of in-storemarketing campaign

Positivistic and phenomenological

Participant observation and survey

Competitor strategiesin the mortgage market

Positivistic approachmainly, but somephenomenologicalelements included

Cross-sectional study and focus groupSurvey/discussion among consumers

The use and applicationof purchasing within an organization

Phenomenological Participative Enquiry

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IX. RESEARCH METHODS VS. METHODOLOGY

Methods are techniques used for the conduct of research. They break down into three groups:

Data collection Statistical techniques determining relationships Tools used to evaluate the accuracy of the

results obtained

Methodology is a way to systematically solve the research problem and of studying how research is done scientifically (the steps and logic behind them)

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Type Methods Techniques

Library Research

o Analysis of historical records

o Analysis of documents

o Recording of noteso Content analysiso Tape and film listening

and analysis

o Statistical compilationso Reference and

abstract guides

Field Research o Participant/Non-participant observation

o Mail questionnaire

o Personal Interview

o Focused interview

o Observational behavioral scales, use of score cards, interactional recording, photographic techniqueso Identification of background of respondentso Use of a detailed schedule with closed and open questionso Focus on a given experience and its effects

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Type Methods Techniques

Field research

o Group interview

oTelephone survey

o Case study and life history

o Small groups interviewed simultaneously

o Used for information, and for discerning opinion

o Cross-sectional collection of data for intensive analysis

o Longitudinal collection of data of intensive character

Laboratory research

Small group study of random behavior, play and role analysis

Use of audio-visual recording devices, use of observers, etc.

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X. THE RESEARCH PROCESSIt consists of series of actions or steps necessary to effectively carry out research. (Actions overlap continuously, and steps are neither mutually exclusive nor distinct)

(1) Formulating the research problem(2) Extensive literature survey(3) Developing the hypothesis(4) Preparing the research design(5) Determining sample design(6) Collecting the data(7) Analysis of data(8) Hypothesis testing(9) Generalizations and interpretation(10) Preparation of the report or presentation of the

results

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FORMULATING THE RESEARCH PROBLEM

There are two types of research problems:

Related to states of nature Related to relationships between variables

A potential solution must be considered before a research problem is formulated. Two steps are involved:

oUnderstanding the problem thoroughly (a realistic preview)

oRephrasing the problem into meaningful analytical and operational terms

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EXTENSIVE LITERATURE SURVEY

To get himself acquainted with the selected problem, a researcher may review two types of literature:

A conceptual literature: The concepts and theories

An empirical literature: Studies made earlier which are similar to the one proposed

The outcome: The knowledge as to what data and other materials are available for operational purposesA good library will be a great help at this stage:

1. Published or unpublished bibliographies2. Academic journals, Conference proceedings, and

Government reports3. Scholarly books

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DEVELOPING THE HYPOTHESIS

A hypothesis

o Is a tentative assumption made in order to draw out and test its logical or empirical consequences

o Provides the focal point for researcho Affects the manner in which tests must be conducted in the

analysis of datao Should be very specific, and limited to the piece of current

research because it has to be tested.o Affects the quality of data which is required for the analysis,

and indicates the type of methods of data analysis to be used

A hypothesis arises as a result of:

o A-priori thinking about the subjecto An examination of the available data and material including

related studies o An advice from experts and interested parties

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PREPARING THE RESEARCH DESIGN

A research design: Facilitates research to be as efficient as possible

yielding maximal information Provides for the collection of relevant evidence

with minimal expenditure of effort, time and money

But this depends on the research purpose

Research purposes may be grouped into four categories:

Exploration: Provides the opportunity for considering many different aspects of a problem

Description, Diagnosis and Experimentation: Provide an accurate description of a situation, or of an association between variables

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DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN

All the items under consideration in any field of inquiry constitute a ‘universe’ or ‘population’

Quite often we select only a few items from the universe for our study purposes. The items so selected constitute a sample

A sample design is a definite plan determined before any data are actually collected for obtaining a sample from a given population

Samples can be either probability samples or non-probability samples

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DETERMINING SAMPLE DESIGN

With probability samples, each element has a known probability of being included in the sample

o Simple random samplingo Systematic samplingo Stratified samplingo Cluster/area sampling

The non-probability samples do not allow the researcher to determine this probability

o Convenience samplingo Judgment samplingo Quota sampling

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COLLECTING THE DATA

Primary data can be collected either through experiment or through survey. In the case of a survey, data can be collected by any one or more of the following ways:

o By observationo Through personal or telephone interviewo By mailing of questionnaireso Through schedules

The choice of these methods largely depends on the nature of the investigation, objective and scope of the inquiry, financial resources, available time and the desired degree of accuracy.

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ANALYSIS OF DATA

The analysis of data requires a number of closely related operations:

o Editing: The procedure that improves the quality of the data for coding which transforms data into symbols that may be tabulated and counted

o Establishment of categories and their application to raw data

o Tabulation: The classified data are put in the form of tables

o Computation of various percentages and coefficients, and drawing of statistical inferences

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HYPOTHESIS TESTINGDo the facts support the hypotheses or they happen to be contrary?

Various statistical tests have been developed for the purpose:

o Chi square testo F-testo T-test o Z-test

Hypothesis-testing will result in either accepting the hypothesis or in rejecting it (Alternative vs. Null hypothesis)If there are no hypotheses to start with, generalizations established may be stated as hypotheses to be tested by subsequent researches

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GENERALIZATIONS AND INTERPRETATION

o The real value of research lies in its ability to arrive at certain generalizations

o If a hypothesis is tested and upheld several times, it may be possible for the researcher to arrive at a generalization, i.e., to build a theory

o If the researcher had no hypothesis to start with, he might seek to explain his findings on the basis of some theory. It is known as interpretation

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The layout of the report should be as follows:

o The preliminary pageso The main texto The end matter

o The preliminary pages: The title, the date, acknowledgements, a table of contents, a list of tables, and a list of graphs and charts

o The main text: Introduction, summary of findings, the main report and a conclusion

o The end matter: Appendices in respect of all technical data, bibliography, a list of books, journals and reports consulted, and index

Preparation of the report or presentation of the results

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THE RESEARCH PROCESS (SUMMARY)

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XI. CRITERIA OF GOOD RESEARCH

Scientific research must satisfy the following criteria:

The goal should be clearly defined (systematic) The research should be repeatable (replicable) The procedural design should be carefully planned The researcher should report any flaws in design

and estimate their effects upon the findings (empirical)

Data analysis should be sufficiently adequate to reveal its significance

Conclusions should be confined to those justified by the research data

Greater confidence is warranted if the researcher is experienced and righteous

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XII. ETHICAL CONSIDERATIONS IN RESEARCH

Ethical concerns may emerge at all stages of research. In this respect, the main issues for a researcher to consider are:

The rights of privacy of individuals (no intrusion) The voluntary nature of participation (no coercion) Maintenance of the confidentiality of data provided by

individuals, or identifiable participants and their anonymity

Reactions of participants to the ways in which researchers seek to collect data

Effects on participants of the way in which data is analyzed and reported

Copyright protection Behavior and objectivity of the researcher