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American Educational Research Association
Counseling Students with Special ProblemsAuthor(s): D. David IslandSource: Review of Educational Research, Vol. 39, No. 2, Guidance and Counseling (Apr., 1969), pp.
239-250
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2/13
8: COUNSELING
STUDENTS
WITH
SPECIAL
PROBLEMS
D. David
Island*
University of
Washington
In
this
chapter,
research
reported
in
the
past
three
years
on
counseling
students
with
special problems
is
reviewed.
Problems
termed social-emotional
and educational
have served
as the
primary
focus,
although
some
attention
was
given
to
physical
and
intel-
lectual
problems.
A
special problem
was
defined
as
a
category
which
described
certain behavior
observed
in a
relatively
small
proportion
of
students.
Special
problem
was
not
used to
indicate
a
rigid,
unique
classi-
fication of
individuals.
In this
way,
the
interaction
between an
individual's
behavior and his environment was emphasized instead of stressing an
assumed
underlying
trait
or state.
Thus,
research
on
counseling
college-bound
students,
counseling
women,
or vocational
counseling,
for
example,
was not
searched and re-
viewed,
but
research
on
vocational
counseling
with
deaf students
or coun-
seling
students
with attendance
problems
was considered.
Experimental
research
articles
and
studies
pertaining
to
counseling
students with
special
problems
made
up
the
bulk of
the
material
reviewed.
Descriptive
studies,
theoretical
articles,
or
descriptions
of
guidance
and
counseling
programs
are
not
reviewed
here.
*Dr.
Kenneth
B.
Hoyt,
University
of
Iowa,
served
as
consultant
to Dr. Island
on
the
preparation
of
this
chapter.
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3/13
240
REVIEW
OF EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH
Special
Social and
Emotional
Problems
Research
on
counseling
students
who have
special
social
or
emotional
problems
was
unbalanced
and scattered.
Research
was either
scant
or
nonexistent on
counseling
students
with
many
kinds
of
special
social
or
emotional
problems.
For
example,
counseling
for
racial and
cultural
dis-
advantage
or
difference
and
the effects
of
poverty
or affluence
received
little
attention.
Student
nonconformity,
apathy,
alienation,
or
militancy
was
ignored.
Sexual
problems,
value
dilemmas
and
other
special
concerns
of students
were
not
investigated.
School Phobia
Recent advances in treating school phobia appear positively related
to
accurate
diagnosis
and careful
history-taking.
In
an
eight-year
study,
Kennedy
(1965)
found
that
fifty
school
phobic
cases
responded
to
treatment
with
complete
elimination
of
school
phobia.
The
therapy
described
by
Kennedy
involved:
1)
quick
referral,
2)
forced
school
attendance,
3)
brief
structured
interviews
with
parents
and
with
the
child,
and
4)
specific
instructions
to
parents
and
school
personnel
on
child
management.
A
careful
selection
of
subjects
for this
treatment
was no doubt
a
factor
in
its
success.
School
phobics
are
almost
always
treated
individually
with
a
specific
treatment.
Garvey
and Hegrenes (1966) demonstrated that systematic de-
sensitization
as
a
treatment of
choice
proved
successful.
For
twenty
consecu-
tive
days,
including Saturdays
and
Sundays,
a
therapist
worked
for
twenty
to
forty
minutes
with
a
seven-year
old
on a
step-by-step
desensitization
procedure
carried
out
entirely
in the school environment.
Getting
out of
a
car
at
school,
going
to the
steps,
walking
up
the
steps,
entering
school
and
approaching
the classroom constituted
some of
the minute
stages
of
therapy.
The entire
process
was
clearly
outlined
by
the authors.
No
subsequent
manifestations
of the
phobia
have
appeared
after
two
years.
The traditional approach to school phobia, typified by differential
diagnosis
and
individual
treatment,
may ultimately
serve
as
a
model
for
counseling
students
with
other
special
problems.
Behavior
Problems and
Delinquency
Systematic
exposure
to
identification
models who exhibit
socially
appropriate
behavior
can have a
positive
influence
in
changing
the behavior
of the
juvenile
offender.
Three
recent
studies
in
counseling
with
delinquents
illustrated
variations
of
social
modeling techniques
as
treatment
or as an
aspect
of treatment.
Persons and Pepinsky (1966) treated 41 boys at a reformatorymatched
with
controls on
age, intelligence,
race,
social
class
background,
number
of
arrests,
type
of
offense,
length
of incarceration to date and current
adjust-
ment.
For
twenty
weeks,
the
experimental boys
met twice
weekly
for
one
Vol.
39,
No. 2
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COUNSELING
STUDENTS
WITH
SPECIAL
PROBLEMS 241
and
one-half
hours
of
group
therapy
plus
one
hour
of individual
therapy.
After each
session,
each
boy anonymously
identified
another
boy
in
his
group as the peer leader. Pre- and posttreatment measures taken on thera-
pists
and
subjects
included the
Taylor
Manifest
Anxiety
Scale,
Delinquency
Scale,
Minnesota
Multiphasic Personality
Inventory
and the Kuder
Prefer-
ence Record.
The
therapy,
described
as
encouraging
warm
interpersonal
relationships
with
each
boy, developing
an
understanding
and
supportive
atmosphere
and
developing
insight
into
behavior,
was
inadequately
outlined and
not
readily
replicable.
Thirty
of the
41
experimentals
(as
compared
to
12
of
the
41
controls)
were considered
successfully
treated
on the basis of behavioral
observations
and
test scores.
Test
scores for the
thirty successfully
treated
boys
moved more toward the scores of the
therapists
than toward those
of
the
perceived
peer
leaders. The
authors
warned
that
such
convergence
may
not be an
inevitable
concomitant of successful
treatment,
but
may
be
a
phenomenon
correlated
with
the
subjects judged
to
be
improved.
Sarason
(1968)
reported
pilot
studies of
counseling
with institutional-
ized
delinquents.
Control and
experimental groups
were
matched on
age,
intelligence,
and
severity
and
chronicity
of
delinquency. Experimental
groups
of
four
boys
met
for 15 sessions
with two
graduate
students
who
served
as
group
leaders-social
models. Treatment
consisted almost
entirely
of role-playing life situations of relevance to the boys, such as applying
for
a
job,
talking
with
a
policeman
and
dealing
with an
angry
father.
In
one
experimental
group
the
leader-models
acted
the
roles;
then the
boys
each
role-played
what
had been
modeled.
In
another
experimental
group,
only
the
boys
played
the
roles.
Controls received
no
treatment.
Measure-
ments
were taken
with
two
self-rating
forms of
the semantic
differential,
Wahler's
self
description
inventory,
a
cottage
behavior
rating
scale,
a
weekly
behavior
summary,
individual
diagnoses
and review
board
placement
decisions.
Preliminary analysis
showed,
in
general,
that
the
boys
who
received
the modeled
role-playing
treatment
changed
the
most
in
behaviors
and attitudes.
High
anxiety
and neuroticism were correlated with
higher
change
in the
modeling
groups.
Sarason
is
to be
commended
for his
explicit
and detailed
account
of
the
treatment
procedures
and for
conducting
a
continuing
sequence
of
experiments
over
time,
rather than
conducting
an
ad
hoc
study.
Truax et
al.
(1966)
treated
eight
groups
of ten
patients
each which
met
twice
weekly
for 24 one-hour
sessions
over
three
months. Four
groups
were
hospitalized
mental
patients;
four were
juvenile delinquents.
One half
of
the
group
received
Vicarious
Training
Pretherapy
(an
audio
tape
of
excerpts of ideal client behavior played for the group); the other half of
the
groups
received 14 extra
sessions,
starting
after the tenth
regular
session,
with the
therapist
absent. The
treatment,
labeled
group therapy,
was
not described.
Results
of
pre-post
Q-sorts
of
positive
and
negative
state-
Island
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5/13
242
REVIEW
F
EDUCATIONAL
ESEARCH
ments
showed the mean
adjustment
was
in a
negative
direction for the
juvenile delinquents.
Effects
of
Vicarious
Training
Pretherapy
treatment,
however, suggested that the modeling tape facilitated change as measured
by
Q-sort.
The
use of
Q-sorts
leaves
unanswered how
and
to
what
extent,
if
at
all,
the
problem-related
behaviors
of
the
subjects
changed.
Complementing
the trend
toward the
use of
modeling
procedures
are
studies of individual
treatment
of
problem
behavior
with behavioral
tech-
niques,
illustrated
by
Wetzel
(1966).
One
boy's compulsive
stealing
be-
havior
was
virtually
eliminated
by
making
a
valued
relationship
with
a
friend
contingent
upon
certain
behavior. This
study
highlighted
the
impor-
tance
of total staff
involvement and
participation
in
the success of
any
behavior
modification
undertaking.
Cultural
and
Ethnic
Groups
Research
on
counseling
black students in
public
schools has
begun
to
appear
in
the
literature.
Gilliland
(1968)
found that black
adolescents
who
were
provided
small
group
counseling
significantly
increased
their
scores on the
Cooperative
English
Achievement
Tests,
Occupational Aspira-
tion
Scale,
and
Vocational
Development
Inventory;
they
also
improved
their Grade
Point
Average,
compared
to
nontreated controls. Two
experi-
mental
groups,
one
of
seven
boys
and
another
of
seven
girls,
received
something
called
group-centeredcounseling
once
a
week for the academic
year.
The results
seemed
altogether
too
sensational
to
be
attributed
solely
to
counseling.
What
actually
occurred
in the
weekly
sessions?
Impressive
findings
like these merit attention and
replication,
but
the treatment
was
so
vaguely
described
that
replication
would
prove
to
be most
difficult.
Schaeffer and
VonNessen
(1968)
described
a
non-experimental
study
in which
group counseling
and crisis-event
role-playing
were
used
with
acting-out
black adolescent
girls.
After four
group
sessions and
a
few
individual
contacts,
the
girls,
according
to
the
authors,
developed
skills
in
handling
aggression,
had better
relationships
with
peers
and
teachers,
and were not in any trouble requiring discipline. Unfortunately, no
objective
measures,
controls or
procedures
of
analysis
were
reported.
Thoresen
(1967)
used a behavioral
approach
in
counseling
one dis-
advantaged
black
youth
who
was not considered
college
material.
During
the student's first
year
at
a
junior
college,
he
participated
in
weekly
indi-
vidual
counseling (involving
selective
verbal and non-verbal
reinforcement
and modeled
role-playing), weekly
individual
tutoring
in
reading
and
writing,
and
had
part-time employment
as
an assistant in
a
laboratory;
he
was
paid
one dollar
per
hour for
attending
class,
taking
notes
and
being
tutored.
At
the end
of his first
year
the
student had a low B
average
in transfer level courses. This case study does not, of course, demonstrate
exactly
what combination of
activities
may
have
promoted
academic
success.
Experimentally
designed,
longitudinal
studies
could
answer some
important
questions
raised
by
this
case
study.
Vol.
39,
No.
2
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6/13
COUNSELING
TUDENTS
WITH SPECIAL ROBLEMS
243
These
beginnings,
while
inadequate,
represent
a
significant
step
in
research
into areas
such as
counseling
black
students,
where counselors
need to know more about what to do and how to do it. Studies of counseling
with
ethnic and
cultural
minorities
will
undoubtedly
increase
dramatically
during
the next
few
years.
Additional
References:
Blakeman
(1967);
Day
(1967);
Duncan
(1965);
Hosford
(1968);
Kuntz
(1966);
Laxer
et
al.
(1967);
Mason
(1968);
Stewart
and
Moulton
(1966).
Special
Educational
Problems
Concern with the academic achievement of students has produced
a
deluge
of
writing
and research. Since
counseling
students with
special
educational
problems
has
historically
been
the forte of
the
counselor,
it
is
not
surprising
that
the bulk
of
material
found for
review
in
this
chapter
falls into this section.
During
the last three
years,
the
topic
of
under-
achievement
was
the most
popular
special problem
studied
(19
of the
39
research
articles
reviewed were on
underachievement).
In
contrast,
little
interest
was
displayed
in
counseling
students
with
special
educational
problems
involving
academic
attitudes,
motivation,
aspiration
levels and
decision-making.
The
inclusive characteristic
of underachievement as
a
construct has interfered
with
clearly
defining
other
educational
problems.
General
Academic
Achievement
Kramer
(1968)
in
working
with
college
students
successfully
increased
the
oral
participation
behaviors
of a
group
of
college
students.
Sixty
freshmen
in
a
study
skills course
were
assigned
to
six
groups,
three
experi-
mental
and three
control.
Each
group,
led
by
a male
counselor,
had three
men and
seven
women
in
it and met
for six one-hour sessions.
In
reinforce-
ment
counseling,
the
counselor
verbally
reinforced
responses
termed
Questioning, Responsibility and Positive; traditional counseling control
groups
emphasized
reflection,
clarification and
interpretation.
All
groups
listened
to a
social
model
tape
demonstrating
desired
responses
during
the
first
and
fourth
interview.
The
reinforcement
group
significantly
increased
their
participation
behaviors
compared
to the traditional
group,
although
most
of
the
increase
was
accounted
for
by
one
of
the three
treatment
counselors.
This
finding
pointed
out that counselor
responses
intended
to
be
reinforcing
stimuli
were not
equally
effective. Future
investigations
are
needed
to
explore
the
differential
effects
of counselor and client
charac-
teristics
as
well
as the
effects of
modeling
and
expectancy
to discover
why
some individuals change more than others. Growth curves which plot
ongoing
changes
of individual verbal
responses
would
provide
important
data
on
such
questions.
Brown
(1965),
using
scores
on the
Survey
of
Study
Habits
and
Atti-
Island
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7/13
244
REVIEW
OP
EDUCATIONALESEARCH
tudes,
the.
Effective
Study
Test and Grade
Point
Average,
showed
that
peer
counselors
were
effective with
large
groups
of
college
freshmen.
Unfortunately, the treatment was not compared to a control or some
other
treatment,
nor
was
information
presented
on
what
happened
in
group counseling.
Despite
the serious
inadequacies
of
Brown's
report,
using
trained
peers
as
counselors deserves
further
investigation.
Underachievement
The notion of
underachievement is
very
confused and
complicated.
The causes
and
characteristics of
underachievement are
suggested
by
a
wealth of
labels such as
free-floating
anxiety,
negative
self-value,
hostility
toward
authority, high dependence-independence conflict and negative
interpersonal
relations
(Taylor,
1964;
Thelen
and
Harris,
1968).
Under-
achievement is
usually
defined
arbitrarily
by
the
investigator.
As
a
result,
depending
on
definition,
underachievement
is
found
both
among gifted
students
(Ewing
and
Gilbert,
1967)
and
low-ability
students
(LeMay
and
Weigel,
1966;
McGowan,
1968).
Subject
Variability
Different
methods of
selecting
subjects
not
only yield
different
types
of
underachievers,
but
also
significantly
influence
outcomes. The
study
by
Winkler et al.
(1965)
provided
an
example
of
negative
findings
due
to
improper subject
selection
and
poor
research
design.
A
group
of 121
heterogeneous
fourth-graders,
defined as
underachievers
by
a
derived GPA
and
WISC Verbal
Scale
IQ,
participated
in
one of
five
experimental
conditions. No
differences were
found,
probably
due
in
part
to
individual
differences.
Some
students
may
have had
reading
problems;
others
may
have needed individual
personal
attention;
others
may
have been
motivated
but
lacked certain academic skills.
Offering
a
treatment,
e.g.,
group
counseling,
to
a
mixed
group
is
highly likely
to
produce
no
average
gain,
since gains by some subjects are cancelled by losses of others. The Winkler
study
characterizes much that is
published
in
counseling
and offers
little
promise
of
advancing
professional
knowledge.
Such
research
should be
discouraged.
Dickenson
and Truax
(1966),
in
contrast,
limited
the
population
studied
to
a
certain
type
of
underachiever,
college
freshmen
whose ACT-
predicted
GPA was 2.2
or
higher,
but whose
first
semester
grades
were
between
1.49
and 2.00
(C
=
2.00).
Of
109
students,
48
accepted
an
invitation for
group
therapy,
thus further
homogenizing
the
subjects
on
motivation.
Students were
randomly assigned
to
treatment
conditions.
Compared to the controls, striking GPA improvements were found for the
treated
groups
after
24
counseling
sessions.
Homogeneity
on
relevant
factors
may
have
contributed to the
positive
finding.
This
study
would
have been
a
greater
contribution
if
the
nature of
the
treatment
had been
Vol.
398,
No.
2
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8/13
COUNSELING
TUDENTS
WITH SPECIAL
ROBLEMS
245
specified,
permitting
replication,
and
if
the
experimenters
had controlled
for
the
Hawthorne
Effect.
Benson and Blocher (1967) also selected subjects from a homogeneous
population,
tenth-grade
underachieving boys
with
negative
feelings
and
attitudes
toward
school.
The 28
boys
who
agreed
to
participate
were
randomly
assigned
to
experimental
and control
groups.
After
18
weeks of
group counseling,
thoroughly
described but
difficult
to
replicate,
the
experimental
groups
showed
GPA
improvement
that
was
significantly
greater
on
the
average
than the
controls.
Chestnut
(1965)
suggested
that since
data on underachievers
may
not
be
linear,
different treatments
may
not
produce
changes
within
subjects
within the
same
amount of time.
In
comparing
two
types
of
group
coun-
seling
for
underachieving
male
college
students,
Chestnut found
that
one
group
had
significantly
greater
rates of
change
in
GPA after
counseling
than the other
counseling
group
or the
controls
had.
Gilbreath
(1967),
working
with the
same
students as
Chestnut,
discovered
that
treatment
effects were related
to
personality
variables as
assessed
by
the Sterns
Activity
Index.
Those
subjects
whose
scores
indicated
strong
dependency
needs,
guardedness,
emotional
constriction,
submission,
orderliness
and
deliberation were more
likely
to
improve
in
GPA if
they
participated
in
counselor-structured
group
counseling.
The converse held
true
for
their
polar opposites who were more likely to improve in GPA in group-
structured
counseling.
Since
assignment
to treatment
groups
was
not
based
on
Stems
Activity
Index
scores,
both
personality types
existed
in
all
groups,
a fact
(among
many)
which
may
have
been
partially responsible
for
neutralizing
the
effects of the two treatments.
LeMay
and
Weigel
(1966)
looked
for
possible
differential effects in
group
counseling
by
focusing
on
study
skills with
high-
and
low-ability
groups
of
poorly
achieving college
freshmen.
At the end
of one
term,
the
high-ability
experimental
groups
had a
significantly
higher
GPA
than the
low-ability groups
and
all
the
controls,
although
the
low-ability
experi-
mental
groups
had a
higher
GPA than the
low-ability
controls
only.
The
effects
of treatment
over three
months
were known
only
for the
high-ability
experimentals,
who maintained
a
significantly
higher
GPA than
the
high-
ability
controls.
Specificity of
Treatment and
Criterion
The
nature of the
treatment
is often
insufficiently
outlined
in the
reports
of
experiments.
Authors and
editors,
rather
than
limiting
treatment
descriptions
to
a few sentences
or
labels,
should
insist
on
accurate,
extensive
and detailed treatment descriptions including observation schedules and
check
lists
of
activities. The
profession
should find no comfort in the
widespread
notion
that
one
counseling
treatment
equals
another
counseling
treatment
with the
same
name
or that
something
labeled
counseling
Island
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9/13
246 REVIEW OF
EDUCATIONAL
RESEARCH
applies
similarly
across
subjects. Ewing
and Gilbert
(1967,
p.
236)
typified,
unfortunately,
the
usual treatment
description
in
stating:
The nature of the counseling received can be summarized as
a combination
of normal
counseling
procedures,
in which the
counselor
attempts
to
be
helpful
to
the
client
in
regard
to whatever
problems
the
client
presents,
and
counseling
aimed
especially
at
assisting
students achieve better
grades.
However,
what
actually
are normal
procedures
and
helpful
attempts?
Katahn
et
al.
(1966),
illustrating
the trend
toward
differential
treat-
ment,
used
systematic
desensitization
coupled
with
suggestions
and advice
to
assist
14
test-anxious,
underachieving
college
students
develop
skills for
improved academic performance. In a thorough report of the treatment,
Katahn outlined
the
eight,
one-hour sessions which
resulted
in
significant
increases
in
experimental group
GPA
and
lower
anxiety
scores,
compared
to the
controls.
Using
highly
motivated volunteers with
specific
objectives
in
mind,
who
are
exposed
to
specific
brief treatment
relevant
to
their
psychodynamic
needs,
resulted
in
positive
outcomes.
Thoresen
and Neuman
(1968)
found that
group
desensitization
methods
in
general
caused
significantly
greater
decreases in
mean
change
scores than
group
insight
procedures.
Two
professionals
and
two
sub-
professionals
(first
semester
graduate
students)
each
conducted both
treatments to group of three for five sessions over a five-week period. Sub-
professional
counselors
were,
in
general,
as
effective as the
professionals.
Both
treatment
groups
showed
significant
decreases on
self-report
measures,
an
observer
checklist of anxious behaviors and
physiological
data
when
compared
to wait controls
and
no-contact
controls. A
one-year
follow-up
is
presently
being
completed.
Roth et
al.
(1967)
concluded that
control and
specificity
of
therapeutic
approaches
could lead to
developing
more
explicit
and effective
counseling
techniques,
which could
then
be
applied differentially
to certain kinds of
underachievers.
Improved
GPA is
a
commonly
found
short-term
gain
in
many
under-
achievement
investigations (Benson
and
Blocher,
1967;
Schmieding,
1966;
Dickenson
and
Truax,
1966;
Thelen
and
Harris, 1968;
Katahn
et
al.,
1966;
Leib
and
Snyder,
1967).
Many contradictory
and
negative
findings
are
also
common
(Heller
and
Gurney,
1968;
Hill
and
Grieneeks, 1966;
Chest-
nut,
1965).
Long-range
results need
greater
attention,
but
unfortunately,
few
long-range
follow-ups
have
been
published.
Goodstein
(1967),
in
following
the
original
study by
Marx
(1959),
found
that
initial
gain
in
GPA was
completely
negated
five
years
later.
In
fact,
higher
proportions
of control subjects graduated than did counseled subjects.
The rationales
for
length,
intensity,
frequency
and
schedule of treat-
ment are also
important
concerns
that
are
seldom
discussed.
For
example,
Schmieding
(1966)
exposed
his
subjects
to
three
counseling
sessions of
Vol.
39,
No. 2
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10/13
COUNSELING
STUDENTS
WITH SPECIAL
PROBLEMS
247
one-half
hour
in
length
over
one
semester.
Why
three?
At
the
other
extreme,
Dickenson
and
Truax
(1966)
held
weekly
one-hour
sessions
for
12 weeks. Why 24 sessions?
Additional
References:
Abel
(1967);
D'Zurilla
(1966);
Hendrix
(1965);
Katahn
(1967);
LeMay
(1966);
Peres
(1965); Shepherd
(1965).
Implications
and Conclusions
This
selective review of research
on
counseling
students with
special
problems
revealed
four
major
trends:
1)
a
striking
increase
in
the
use
of
group counseling; 2)
increased
concern
for
behavior
change
outside the
interview
and its
relationship
to
treatment;
3)
increased
specificity
of
behavior
to
be
changed;
and
4)
some
use
of differential and
specific
treatment.
The
conspicuous
absence of
research
activity
on
counseling
students
who
have
neurological,
physical
and communication
disabilities
was dis-
turbing.
Special
problems
confronting
the
very
slow
or
the
very
rapid
learner
also
received
little attention
(Ramsey,
1967;
Sulzbacher
and
Houser,
1968;
Bimbrauer
et
al., 1965;
Wiesen
and
Watson,
1967;
Drews,
1965).
To deal
more
effectively
with the
complex
human
concerns
of students
with special problems, the profession needs well-designed experimental
studies,
others
that
replicate
and
follow-up prior
well-designed
studies,
and some
large-scale
cooperative
studies.
Investigators
should
consider
specific, psychodynamic
and
behavior-
related
diagnosis
before
treatment.
Specific
delineation of treatment
is
vital
to
the
achievement
of
an
understanding
of what
works.
A
variety
of
criterion
measures
must be
considered
as well
as new
ways
of
analyzing
data.
Dickenson
and
Truax
(1966),
in
examining
pre-
and
posttreatment
results,
counted
the
number
of
subjects
who moved from
probation
to
nonprobation status. Such data may be more important than determining
whether
or
not
significant
increases
in
average
GPA
occurred.
Helping
one
college
student
raise his
GPA
from
1.96 to 2.01
may
be,
for
him,
the
difference
between
graduating
or
not
graduating.
In
the
probation-or-
nonprobation,
pass-or-fail,
graduate-or-dropout
realistic
world
of
the stu-
dent,
the
idea
of
seeking
practical
and statistical
solutions
to
problems
seems
eminently
rational.
Research
is
needed
which
comes closer
to the
single-subject,
own-
control
design
that
has
long
characterized
operant
conditioning
studies.
(See
the
Journal
of Applied
Experimental
Analysis.)
Such
a
research
model
would focus primary attention on the behavior of individuals, baseline,
treatment
and
follow-up
performances,
and
would
move
away
from
the
increasingly
limited
value
of
designs
requiring large
N's
concerned
only
with
mean
differences.
Island
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11/13
248
REVIEWOF EDUCATIONAL
ESEARCH
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Counseling with College Underachievers. Doctor's thesis. Eugene: University of
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1966.
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27:
3694-3695-A;
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Mason, Evelyn
P.
Project
Catchup:
An Educational
Program
or
Junior
High
Students
from
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Mexican and Caucasian Ethnic
Backgrounds.
Psychology
in
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Island
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13/13
250
REVIEW
OF
EDUCATIONALESEARCH Vol.
39,
No.
2
Preus,
J.
B.
The
Effect of
Four StudentPersonnel
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Performance
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Underachieving
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thesis.
Minneapolis:
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of
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E.
The
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Journalof CounselingPsychology
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244-247;
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Stewart,
L.
H.
and
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W.
Increasing
he AcademicAchievement
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(ED
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AUTHOR
Island,
D. David Address:
University
of
Washington
at
Seattle,
Washington
Title:
Assistant
Professor
Age:
33
Degrees:
B.S.,
Portland State
College;
M.A.,
Univ.
of
Minn.;
Ph.D.,
Univ.
of
Minn.
Specialization:
Nonverbal
Behavior
in
Counseling.