Corrosion Control in the Oil and Gas Industry Sankara Papavinasam ELSEVIER AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
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Corrosion control in the oil and gas industry - GBV Control in the Oil and Gas Industry Sankara Papavinasam ELSEVIER AMSTERDAM • BOSTON• HEIDELBERG • LONDON NEWYORK •OXFORD
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Corrosion Control in the Oil
and Gas Industry
Sankara Papavinasam
ELSEVIER
AMSTERDAM • BOSTON • HEIDELBERG • LONDON
NEW YORK • OXFORD • PARIS • SAN DIEGO
SAN FRANCISCO • SINGAPORE • SYDNEY • TOKYO
Gulf Professional Publishing is an imprint of Elsevier
Contents
Foreword xix
Preface xxi
Acknowledgements xxv
Reviewers xxvii
CHAPTER 1 The Oil and Gas Industry 1
1.1 Introduction 1
1.2 Energy from hydrocarbons 1
1.3 What are hydrocarbons? 4
1.3.1 Alkanes (Paraffins) 4
1.3.2 Cycloalkanes (Naphthenes) 5
1.3.3 Aromatic hydrocarbons 6
1.4 Hydrocarbon sources 6
1.4.1 Conventional 7
1.4.2 Unconventional 8
1.4.3 Renewables 11
1.5 History of the oil and gas industry 13
1.6 Regulations 17
1.7 The significance and impact of corrosion in the oil and gas industry 26
1.7.1 Production sector 28
1.7.2 Transportation - pipeline sector 30
1.7.3 Transportation - other modes sector 33
1.7.4 Storage tank sector 34
1.7.5 Refinery sector 35
1.7.6 Distribution sector 35
1.7.7 Special sector 36
References 37
CHAPTER 2 Oil and Gas Industry Network 41
2.1 Introduction 41
2.2 Drill pipe 42
2.3 Casing 44
2.4 Downhole tubular 47
2.5 Acidizing pipe 55
2.6 Water generators and injectors 56
2.7 Gas generators (Teritiary recovery) 59
2.8 Open mining 61
2.9 In situ production 62
2.9.1 Cyclic steam stimulation (CSS) 62
2.9.2 Steam assisted gravity drainage (SAGD) 63
V
vi Contents
2.9.3 Toe to heel air injection (THAI) or fireflooding (In situ combustion) 63
2.9.4 Cold heavy oil production with sand (CHOPS) 65
2.9.5 Vapor extraction process (VAPEX) 65
2.10 Wellhead 65
2.11 Production pipelines 67
2.12 Heavy crude oil pipelines 70
2.13 Hydrotransport pipelines 70
2.14 Gas dehydration facilities 71
2.14.1 Oil separation 7'
2.14.2 Acid gas removal 7'
2.14.3 Water removal 72
2.15 Oil separators 72
2.15.1 Oil-gas separator 7^
2.15.2 Oil-water separator 73
2.15.3 Oil-solid separator 74
2.16 Recovery centers (Extraction plants) 74
2.17 Upgraders 75
2.18 Lease tanks 75
2.19 Waste water pipelines 76
2.20 Tailing pipelines 77
2.21 Transmission pipelines 78
2.21.1 Gas transmission pipelines 81
2.21.2 Oil transmission pipelines 82
2.22 Compressor stations 83
2.23 Pump stations 85
2.24 Pipeline accessories 87
2.25 Oil tankers 90
2.26 Liquid natural gas (LNG) transportation 91
2.27 Transportation by railcars 92
2.28 Transportation by trucks 93
2.29 Gas storage 93
2.30 Oil storage tanks 94
2.31 Refineries 97
2.31.1 Desalter unit 102
2.31.2 Atmospheric distillation unit (ADU) 102
2.31.3 Vacuum distillation unit (VDU) 105
2.31.4 Hydrotreating unit 105
2.31.5 Catalytic cracking unit (CCU) 106
2.31.6 Thermal cracking unit (TCU) 108
2.31.7 Hydrocracking unit (HCU) 108
2.31.8 Steam cracking unit (SCU) 109
2.31.9 Mercaptan oxidation unit (Merox) 109
2.31.10 Catalytic reforming unit (CRU) 109
2.31.11 Visbreaker unit 110
Contents vii
2.31.12 Coker Ill
2.31.13 Gas plants Ill
2.31.14 Alkylation unit 112
2.31.15 Isomerization unit 113
2.31.16 Gas treating unit 113
2.31.17 Water stripper 113
2.31.18 Claus sulfur plant 114
2.31.19 Heat exchangers 114
2.31.20 Cooling towers 115
2.31.21 Solvent extraction unit 116
2.31.22 Steam reforming unit 116
2.31.23 Methyl tertiary butyl ether (MTBE) unit 117
2.31.24 Polymerization unit 117
2.31.25 Hydrogen plant 117
2.31.26 Ammonia plant 117
2.31.27 Methanol plant 118
2.31.28 Other units 118
2.32 Product pipelines 118
2.33 Terminals 119
2.34 City gate and local distribution centers 120
2.35 Compressed natural gas (CNG) 120
2.36 Diluent pipelines 121
2.37 High vapor pressure pipelines 121
2.38 C02 pipelines 121
2.39 Hydrogen pipelines 122
2.40 Ammonia pipelines 123
2.41 Biofuel infrastructure 123
2.41.1 Bioethanol 124
2.41.2 Biodiesel 126
Bibliography 128
References 128
CHAPTER 3 Materials 133
3.1 Introduction 133
3.2 Properties of metals and alloys 133
3.2.1 Mechanical properties 135
3.2.2 Phase diagram 140
3.2.3 Metallography 141
3.3 Types of metals and alloys 142
3.3.1 Carbon steels 142
3.3.2 Cast irons 151
3.3.3 Alloy steels 152
3.3.4 Copper alloys 152
3.3.5 Stainless steels 155
viii Contents
3.3.6 Nickel alloys 158
3.3.7 Titanium alloys158
3.3.8 Corrosion resistant alloys '59
3.4 Classification of metals and alloys 159
3.4.1 AISI 159
3.4.2 API 160
3.4.3 ASTM 164
3.4.4 ASME 164
3.4.5 UNS 170
3.5 Non-metals 170
3.5.1 Plastics 170
3.5.2 Concrete 174
3.5.3 Cement '74
References '7^
CHAPTER 4 The Main Environmental Factors Influencing Corrosion 179
4.1 Introduction I79
4.2 Flow '79
4.2.1 Pressure drop 182
4.2.2 Flow regimes 196
4.2.3 Water accumulation 205
4.2.4 Effect of flow on corrosion 208
4.3 Oil phase 211
4.3.1 Chemical and physical constituents 211
4.3.2 Emulsion type 214
4.3.3 Wettability 215
4.3.4 Partition of chemicals between oil and water phases 216
4.4 Water (Brine or Aqueous) phase 217
4.4.1 Effect of anions 218
4.4.2 Effect of cations 219
4.4.3 The combined effect of anions and cations 219
4.5 CO; 220
4.5.1 Effect of temperature 221
4.5.2 Effect of velocity 221
4.5.3 Effect of microstructure 221
4.5.4 Effect of pH 224
4.5.5 Effect of H2S 224
4.6 H2S 224
4.6.1 Effect of temperature 226
4.6.2 Effect of velocity 226
4.6.3 Effect of microstructure 226
4.6.4 Effect of pH 226
4.6.5 Effect of C02 227
4.7 02 227
4.7.1 Effect of temperature 229
Contents ix
4.7.2 Effect of velocity 229
4.7.3 Effect of microstructure 230
4.7.4 Effect of pH 231
4.8 Sand and solids 231
4.9 Microorganisms 234
4.10 Pressure 236
4.11 Temperature 236
4.12 pH 236
4.13 Organic acids 237
4.13.1 Aliphatic acids 238
4.13.2 Naphthenic acids 238
4.14 Mercury 239
References 240
CHAPTER 5 Mechanisms 249
5.1 Introduction 249
5.2 Electrochemical nature of corrosion 249
5.3 General corrosion 264
5.4 Galvanic corrosion 265
5.5 Pitting corrosion 265
5.6 Intergranular corrosion 267
5.7 Selective leaching (Dealloying) 269
5.8 Deposition corrosion 270
5.9 Crevice corrosion 270
5.10 Cavitation-corrosion 271
5.11 Mechanical forces 272
5.12 Fretting corrosion 274
5.13 Underdeposit corrosion 275
5.14 Microbiologically influenced corrosion 276
5.14.1 Classical mechanism 276
5.14.2 Modern mechanism 277
5.15 High temperature corrosion 279
5.15.1 Gaseous environments 279
5.15.2 Liquid (Molten) environments 281
5.16 Corrosion fatigue 282
5.17 Stress-corrosion cracking (SCC) 283
5.18 The hydrogen effect 287
5.18.1 Hydrogen blistering (HB) 288
5.18.2 Hydrogen induced cracking (H1C) 288
5.18.3 Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) 288
5.18.4 Sulfide stress cracking (SSC) 292
5.18.5 High temperature hydrogen induced cracking (HTHIC) 292
5.18.6 Hydrogen induced disbondment (HE)) 293
5.18.7 Hydrogen grooving 293
x Contents
5.19 Liquid metal cracking (LMC) or liquid metal embrittlement (LME) 293
5.20 Corrosion under protective coating and corrosion under insulation (CU1) 294
5.21 Stray current corrosion 294
5.22 Telluric current corrosion 294
5.23 Alternating current (AC) corrosion 295
5.24 Top-of-the-line corrosion (TLC) 297
Bibliography 297
References 298
CHAPTER 6 Modeling - Internal Corrosion 301
6.1 Introduction 301
6.2 Hydrogen effects 301
6.2.1 Susceptibility of the material 302
6.2.2 Severity of the environment 304
6.3 General corrosion of carbon steel 305
6.3.1 The de Waard-Milliams models 307
6.3.2 The Srinivasan model 312
6.3.3 The Crolet model 319
6.3.4 The Nesic model 322
6.3.5 The Mishra model 323
6.3.6 The Dayalan model 323
6.3.7 The Anderko model 326
6.3.8 Oddo model 326
6.3.9 Pots model 327
6.3.10 Garber model 327
6.4 Pitting corrosion of CRAs 329
6.4.1 PREN 329
6.4.2 Laboratory evaluation 329
6.4.3 Electrochemical models 330
6.5 Localized pitting corrosion of carbon steel 334
6.5.1 The Papavinasam model 336
6.6 Erosion-corrosion 344
6.6.1 The Zhou model 345
6.6.2 The Nesic model 345
6.6.3 The Shadley model 345
6.7 Microbiologically influenced corrosion 345
6.7.1 The Checkworks model 345
6.7.2 The union electric model 346
6.7.3 The Lutey model 347
6.7.4 The Pots model : 347
6.7.5 The Maxwell model 347
6.7.6 The Sooknah model 348
6.8 Scaling 351
6.8.1 The Langelier saturation index (LSI) 351
Contents xi
6.8.2 The Ryznar stability index (RSI) 353
6.8.3 Other indices 3536.9 High-temperature corrosion 353