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Corrosion and Degradation of Materials
Interaction of the material with its environment.Changes in
properties due to the interaction (mechanical – ductility or
strength, physical properties, or appearance).Mechanisms of
Deterioration :These depend on the type of material:Metals : Either
materials loss by dissolution (corrosion) or formation fo a
non-metallic scale (oxidation).Ceramic : Highly resistance to
deterioration. Deterioration at high temperature or extreme
environments (corrosion).Polymers : May dissolve or absorb and
swell when exposed to liquid solvents, or deteriorate in the
presence of UV and heat (degradation).
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• Cost:--4 to 5% of the Gross National Product (GNP)*--this
amounts to just over $400 billion/yr**
Cost of Corrosion
* H.H. Uhlig and W.R. Revie, Corrosion and Corrosion Control: An
Introduction to Corrosion Science and Engineering, 3rd ed., John
Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1985.**Economic Report of the President
(1998).
Corrosion of MetalsDestructive electrochemical attack of a
metal. Usually begins at the surface.It can be classified in two
different types:• Dry corrosion – Oxidation (scaling). It takes
place in gaseous atmospheres, normally air• Wet corrosion –
Electrochemical corrosion. It takes place in aqueous solution,
humid environments.
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OxidationMechanisms
The process of an oxide layer formation is an electrochemical
process. In the case of iron heated to high temperature the
reaction is as follows:
2Fe + O2 2FeOOxidation Fe Fe2+ + 2e-Reduction ½ O2 + 2e- O2-
For the oxide layer to increase is necessary that electrons be
conducted to the scale gas interface at which reduction occurs.In
addition, M2+ must diffuse away from the metal-scale interface,
and/or O2-ions must diffuse towards the metal-scale interface. The
oxide scale layer serves as an electrolyte through which ions
diffuse and as an electrical circuit for the passage of
electrons.
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The scale may protect the metal from rapid oxidation (barrier to
ionic diffusion and/or electrical conduction).
Scale TypesWhere AO is the molecular or formula weight of the
oxide; AM is the atomic weight of the metal, and ρO and ρM are the
oxide and metal densities respectively.When P-B < 1 the oxide
film tends to be porous and unprotective.When P-B > 2-3 the
oxide film has compressive stresses that may crack and flake off,
continuously exposing a new fresh and unprotected surface.
OM
MO
AA
ratioBPRatioBedworthPillingρρ
=−=−
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If P-B = 1 is the ideal ratio for a protective film.
Pilling-Bedworth ratios for a number of metalsProtective
Nonprotective
Al 1.28 K 0.45Pb 1.40 Na 0.57Ni 1.52 Ag 1.59Cu 1.68 Ti 1.95Fe
1.77 Mo 3.40Cr 1.99 W 3.40
Other factors also influence the oxidation resistance imparted
by the film; these include the degree of adherence between film and
metal, comparable coefficients of thermal expansion, good high
temperature plasticity, high melting point.
Electrochemical Corrosion (wet corrosion)Metal atoms
characteristically lose or give up electron (oxidation).The site at
which oxidation takes place is called the anode. −+
−+
−+
−+
+→
+→
+→
+→
eAlAleFeFeeFeFe
neMM n
332
3
3
2
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The electrons generated from each metal atom that is oxidized
must be transferred to and become a part of another chemical
species (reduction). Examples
( )( )
MneMMeM
OHeOHO
OHeHO
HeH
n
nn
→+
→+
→++
→++
→+
−+
+−−+
−−
−+
−+
122
22
2
442
244
22Corrosion in acid solution having a high concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+)…………..Acid solutions having dissolved
oxygen……….
For neutral or basic aqueous solution …………
Metals ions present in the solution may also be reduced (if
exists in different valence states).........
The metal may be totally reduced………………..
The location at which reduction - cathode
Example•Consider Zn metal immersed in an acid solution
containing H+ ions.
)(2
)(222
22
2
2
gasHZnHZn
gasHeHeZnZn
+→+
→+
+→
++
−+
−+
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•Rusting of iron in water which contains dissolved oxygen. This
process occurs in two stages:
( )
( ) ( )3222
22
22
2212
221
OHFeOHOOHFe
OHFeOHFeOHOFe
→++
→+→++ −+ ….dissolved in water
…. it is the familiar rust
Electrode PotentialsConsider the following cells each one
immersed in 1M concentration of its ions. (molarity = 1 mol per
1dm3).
CuFeCuFeCueCu
eFeFe
+→+
→+
+→
++
−+
−+
22
2
2
22
Cu2+ ions deposits (electrodeposit) as metallic copper on the
copper electrode (cathode)Fe dissolves (corrodes) on the other side
of the cell and goes into solution as Fe2+ (anode).Galvanic couple
– two metals electrically connected in a liquid electrolyte.An
electrical potential or voltage will exists between the two cell
halves (0.78V).
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++ +→+ 22 ZnFeZnFeThe electrode potential associated with this
reaction is 0.323V.Thus, various electrode pairs have different
voltages; the magnitude of such a voltage may be though of as
representing the driving force for the electrochemical
oxidation-reduction reaction.Then, metallic materials may be rated
as to their tendency to experience oxidation when coupled to other
metals in solutions of their respective ions.
A half cell of a pure metal electrode immersed in a 1M solution
of its ions at 25oC is termed a standard half cell.
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Standard EMF SeriesIt is convenient to establish a reference
point, or reference cell, to which other cell half may be
compared.The reference cell, arbitrarily chosen, is the standard
hydrogen electrode.
It consists of an inert platinum electrode in a 1M solution of
H+ ions, saturated with hydrogen gas that is bubble through the
solution at a pressure of 1 atm and a temperature of 25oC.
The platinum electrode does not take part in the electrochemical
reaction
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4
• Two outcomes:--Metal sample mass --Metal sample mass
Pla
tin
um
me
tal,
M
Mn+ ions
ne- H2(gas)
25°C 1M Mn+ sol’n 1M H+ sol’n
2e-
e- e-
H+
H+
--Metal is the anode (-) --Metal is the cathode (+)
Vmetalo < 0 (relative to Pt) Vmetal
o > 0 (relative to Pt)
Standard Electrode Potential
STANDARD HYDROGEN (EMF) TEST
Mn+ ions
ne-
e- e-
25°C 1M Mn+ sol’n 1M H+ sol’n
Pla
tin
um
me
tal,
M
H+ H+
2e-
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The electromotive force (emf) series is generated by coupling to
the standard hydrogen electrode, standard half cells for various
metals and ranking them according to measured voltage.It represents
the corrosion tendency of various metals.Those at the top, are
noble, or chemically inert.Those at the bottom are highly
active.
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5
• EMF series • Metal with smaller VO METALcorrodes.• Ex: Cd-Ni
cell
-
Ni
1.0 M
Ni2+ solution
1.0 M
Cd2+ solution
+
Cd 25°C
mo
re a
no
dic
mo
re c
ath
od
ic AuCuPbSnNiCoCdFeCrZnAlMgNaK
+1.420 V+0.340- 0.126- 0.136- 0.250- 0.277- 0.403- 0.440- 0.744-
0.763- 1.662- 2.262- 2.714- 2.924
metal Vmetalo
ΔV = 0.153V
o
Data based on Table 17.1, Callister 6e.
STANDARD EMF SERIES
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Consider the generalized reactions
01
022121
0222
0111
VVVMMMM
VMneM
VneMM
Onn
n
n
−+=Δ+→+
+→+
−+→
++
−+
−+
For the reaction to occur spontaneously, ΔVO must be
positive.
If it is negative the reaction is reverse.
Influence of Concentration and Temperature on Cell
potential.
( ) [ ][ ]( ) [ ][ ]+
+
+
+
−−=Δ
−−=Δ
n
nOO
n
nOO
MM
nVVV
MM
nFRTVVV
2
112
2
112
log0592.0
lnNerst equation: R =gas constant; n = number of electrons
participating; F is the Faraday constant (96,500C/mol;
[M1n+] and [M2n+] are the molar concentrations of M1 and M2.
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In the copper electrode:
2H+ + 2e- 2H H2 in the iron electrode:
Fe2+ + 2(OH)- Fe(OH)2Soluble in water
4Fe(OH)2 + 2H2O + O2 4Fe(OH)3(rust)
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Example:One half of an electrochemical cell consists of a pure
nickel electrode in a
solution of Ni2+ ions; the other half is a cadmium electrode
immersed in a Cd2+ solution.
(a) If the cell is a standard one write the spontaneous overall
reaction and calculate the voltage generated.
(b) Compute the cell potential at 25oC if the Cd2+ and Ni2+
concentrations are 0.5 and 10-3M respectively. Is the spontaneous
reaction direction still the same as for the standard one
Solution
(a)
(b)
( ) VVVVCdNiCdNiV .- V Ni eNi
V. VeCd CdO
Ni
OCd
153.0403.0205.0
20502
40302
22
2
2
+=−−−=Δ+→+
=→+
−=+→
++
−+
−+
( ) VV 073.010
50.0log2
0592.0153.0 3 =⎟⎠⎞
⎜⎝⎛−+=Δ −
-
- +
Ni
Y M
Ni2+ solution
X M
Cd2+ solution
Cd T
• Ex: Cd-Ni cell withstandard 1M solutions
VNio − VCd
o = 0.153
• Ex: Cd-Ni cell withnon-standard solutions
VNi − VCd = VNi
o −VCdo −
RTnF
lnXY
-
Ni
1.0 M
Ni2+ solution
1.0 M
Cd2+ solution
+
Cd 25°C
n = #e-
per unitoxid/redreaction(=2 here)F =
Faraday'sconstant=96,500C/mol.
• Reduce VNi - VCd by--increasing X--decreasing Y
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Galvanic Series• Ranks the reactivity of metals/alloys in
seawaterm
ore
an
od
ic
(ac
tive
)m
ore
ca
tho
dic
(i
ne
rt)
PlatinumGoldGraphiteTitaniumSilver316 Stainless SteelNickel
(passive)CopperNickel (active)TinLead316 Stainless
SteelIron/SteelAluminum AlloysCadmiumZincMagnesium Based on Table
17.2, Callister 6e. (Source of Table 17.2 is M.G.
Fontana, Corrosion Engineering, 3rd ed., McGraw-Hill Book
Company, 1986.)
More realistic and practical ranking.
Alloys are the top are cathodicand unreactive, whereas those at
the bottom are most anodic.
No voltages are provided.
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Forms of CorrosionThe classification according to the manner in
which it is manifest.
Uniform Attack - Oxidation & reduction occur uniformly over
surface.Galvanic Corrosion - Dissimilar metals are physically
joined. The
more anodic one corrodes. (see emf table)Crevice Corrosion -
Between two pieces of the same metal.Pitting - Downward propagation
of small pits & holes.Intergranular Corrosion - Corrosion along
grain boundaries, often
where special phases exist.Selective Leaching - Preferred
corrosion of one element/constituent
(e.g., Zn from brass (Cu-Zn)).Erosion-Corrosion - Break down of
passivating layer by erosion (pipe
elbows).Stress Corrosion - Stress & corrosion work together
at crack tips.Localized Cold Work – Due to the presence of parts in
the metal that
are heavily cold workedHydrogen Embrittlement – Produces by
hydrogen atoms dissolved in
the metal.
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Galvanic Corrosion:
It occurs when two metals or alloys having different
compositions are electrically coupled while exposed to an
electrolyte.
The more noble metal in that environment will act as cathode
andwill be protected by the less noble metal (anode).
Example: (a) copper and steel tube joined in a domestic water
heater.
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Pitting CorrosionPitting is a form of a very localized surface
attack in which small pits or holes form.
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Intergranular CorrosionIt occurs preferentially along grain
boundaries for some alloys and in specific environments. The net
result is that a macroscopic specimen disintegrates along its grain
boundaries.Example: Stainless steels heated at temperatures between
500 and 800oC for long periods (weld decay)
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Localized Cold WorkDue to the stored energy difference between
areas of cold work and annealed material.
Crevice CorrosionIt occurs as a consequence of concentration
differences or ions or dissolved gases in the electrolyte solution,
and between two regions of the same metal piece.After oxygen has
been depleted within the crevice, oxidation of the metal occurs at
this position.
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Corrosion PreventionSelection of materials: Use of the standard
corrosion references to select the appropriate material for the
environment.Changing the character of the environment: Lowering
temperature, velocity or concentration of the fluids.
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•Using inhibitors: These are substances that when added in low
concentrations to the environment decreases its corrosiveness. The
inhibitor depends on both the alloy and the corrosive environment.
They are used mainly in closed systems: e.g. car radiators, steam
boilers.•Using physical barriers: Films and coatings applied to the
surface. There is a large diversity of metallic and non-metallic
coatings with a high degree of surface adhesion. •Cathodic
Protection: Very effective. It involves supplying from an external
source electrons to the metal to be protected, making it a
cathode.
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Galvanizing : a layer of zinc is applied to the surface of the
steel by hot dipping.
Tin plating: a layer of tin is applied to the surface of the
steel.