Core Study: World War I 1914–1919: A Source-based Study

Core Study: World War I 19141919: A Source-based Study

Core Study: World War I 19141919: A Source-based Study

1. War on the Western Front

the reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front

the nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers

overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, Passchendaele

changing attitudes of Allied and German soldiers to the war over time

1. 1 the reasons for the stalemate on the Western Front

The Germans were halted at the Marne and pushed back to the Aisne River where on 15th Sept, trenches were dug, the war of movement ended and the stalemate and a war of attrition commenced.

The Schlieffen PlanGermans General Von Schlieffen planning for victory in the war assumed it would be a war against two fronts, France and Russia simultaneously. Developed 1891-1905.Assumed France would mobilise faster than Russia.Relatively small German force would hold the Russians in East Prussia the rest would be dealt with when France had been conquered.The right wing of German army would mobilise in the North and invade France through Neutral BelgiumSmaller left wing would hold French Army on the Rhine Border against expected attack through Alsace-Lorraine The Frenchs Plan 17 had worked into German hands.After quick advance through Belgium and a takeover of their railways, north German armies would encircle Paris the French capital then wheel around to capture the armies attacking the German border.

Alliance system meant German faced a war on two fronts.Solution: The Schlieffen PlanThe Schlieffen plan

The Schlieffen Plans failure

Russia mobilised quicker than expected. Austria did not provide the support Germany neededSome German forces needed to be redirected away from the invasion of France to the Eastern Front, further weakening the forces after Moltkes alterations. Belgiums resistance to grant permission to Germany Liege, a vital railway juncture, held out for 12 days, slowing German momentum. Belgiums invasion outraged Britain, who came into the war to support their French Ally. The BEF was quickly sent to France and held up the Germans at the Battle of Mons. Germany experienced major supply problems, separated up to 128km from base to frontline.Gaps between the wheeling manoeuvres meant that British and French armies could move in between them Paris was not encircled.

Delays in the German advance gave French time to regroup 5th September, General Joffre, counter-attacked on the front of the River Marne, assisted by the BEF after 5 days of fighting, the German advance was stopped.

Germans withdrew to River Aisne, then even further beyond, where they began to dig in for the winter.

Unable to dislodge the Germans from trenches, the Allied soldiers also dug in the beginning of the trench system.

The Race to the SeaBoth sides attempted to get around each others trenches and gain control of the sea ports the race to the English Channel. Trench lines were extended across Northern France and Belgium the same in the south.

Eventually there was a line of trenches stretching from the English Channel to Switzerland.

In Brief1. The Schlieffen Plan was aimed at the rapid defeat of France.2. It failed.3. The war of movement ended.4. Trench systems were established5. A stalemate developed.

Other Reasons for the Stalemate

With both sides entrenched, the war of movement had ended on the Western Front, taken over by static warfare where neither could make breakthroughs.The Schlieffen Plan had failed based on a war of rapid movement and quick victory.Once it broke down, each side established defensive positions and new technology favoured the defensive side.Machine guns as new technology advantage was given to entrenched defenders. It had the equivalent firepower per minute of 40-50 well-trained riflemen. Overheating and jamming were problems faced, but machine guns working in pairs, overlapping the perimeter of fire, made frontal attacks on trenches very costly.

Advances in technology made artillery far more effective. Advanced in High explosive and recoilless field guns allowed the delivery of a bombardment of shrapnel on advancing troops. The rapid development of the heavily defended trench systems from English Channel to Switzerland meant neither side could outflank the enemy.Trenches were meant to be temporary, until the forces were replenished (over 600,000 casualties for Germany, 850,000 for France in first 4 months) and able to adopt a strategy of movement and offence again.Trenches were guarded by machine guns and barbed wire, supported by artillery. This required a rethinking of tactics. It took a long time for Generals to come to terms with this; meanwhile the soldiers became accustomed to trench warfare.

1.2 the nature of trench warfare and life in the trenches dealing with experiences of Allied and German soldiers

Trench SystemTrenches ran from the English Channel to the Swiss border about 780 KM. Allied Side 3 Lines of trenchesGerman Side defence in depth could have up to 10 lines of trenches they had chosen the best defensive positions and intended on retaining them permanently.

Landscape of TrenchesNo Mans Land disputed area between front line trenches. 10 m Several hundred m in width.Frontline (Firing) Trench Where attacks were launched and attackers repelled. Command Trench Parallel to, 20 m behind Frontline trench. Gave access to dugout shelters & latrines.Support Trench up to 200m behind the frontline soldiers ready to move up in defence/support, medical stations, supply depots and command posts. Reserve Trench 600 m behind frontline had dugouts for reserves waiting to move up front.

Strong Point Scattered in back areas were slit trenches for specialist weapons, mortars, and machine guns.Communication trenches Ran between each line of trenches, allowing movement of men and equipment to front and back. Saps and Listening Posts Allowed observation for early warnings of an attack. Barbed wire Erected on steel posts in front of the trenches. Prevented a barrier to stop enemy from getting close enough to throw bombs into trenches. Salient Area of front line jutting into enemy side particularly vulnerable.

Trench FeaturesSandbags Earth excavated from trench was used to fill sandbags and reinforce trenches Parapet Front of trench was reinforced with sandbags/other materials to a height of about 50cm.Parados Back of trench heightened to protect soldiers from enemy fire/artillery behind the trenchFiring Step Built along the front wall, allows soldiers to fire through loopholes or between sandbagsLoop Holes Some trenches had spaces for firing through parapetRevetment Trench walls often reinforced with materials corrugated iron/wooden planksDuck boards used to floor a trench, attempt to keep soldiers feet out of mud/waterDugouts Shelters dug into ground, accommodation for officers. Deep enough or reinforced with concrete (many German ones) provide effective shelter during artillery bombardmentFunk Holes Conditions allowed, soldiers excavated shelter or sleeping spaces in sides of trenchesBreastworks When ground was unsuitable for excavation, trenches had to be constructed above ground by piling soil in sand bags or erected any available material to a height suitable for shelter.

The Soldiers Experience

A soldier did not spend all of his time at the front line. Divisions were rotated in and out of the front to keep the men as fresh as possible. Typically, this meant spending 4 days in the frontline, 12 days in support/reserve and 14 days in the rear performing other duties or on leave. During battles this would vary greatly. Training Training emphasized discipline, marching, bayonet practice and other routines.Work Soldiers might spend considerable time engaged in hard work mess/latrine duty or assisting the loading/delivery of food/ammunition to the front. Transporting food to the front was a major problem affecting the food and its nutritional value it would take 8 days for a loaf of bread to reach the frontline.

British troops in a frontline trench--waiting for whatever will happen next.A German hiding in a shell crater in No Man's Land prepares to toss a hand grenade. The distance between opposing trenches varied greatly along the Front from as little as 60 feet to as much as a mile.

Frontline duty (1) Stand to Hour before dawn, soldiers stood on firing shelf, weapon loaded, bayonet fixed, in anticipation of an enemy attack.(2) Stand down Issue of black rum Breakfast consisted of tea, bacon and bread, heating over stoves. Days activities consisted of: cleaning weapons, trench repairs, letter writing. Monotony and boredom combines with the mental strain of staying alert for grenades, shells, gas attack, sniper fire(3) Stand to Hour before sundown, soldiers stood on the alert on the firing step once more(4) Stand down Another issue of rum. Nights activities might include: fixing barbed wire, patrolling no mans land, raiding enemy trenches or bringing up supplies. Those on guard duty at night were exposed to sniper fire.

An attack(1) Briefing Soldiers briefed by divisional or battalion commander. (2) Moving up Before a major attack, a soldier would be given an opportunity to write to their loved ones. (3) Going over the top Reserve trenches and frontline, soldiers would wait for the final order to go over the top then they would be exposed to direct enemy fire.

Rest - Troops who came out of the front line were given a rest period: rest, showers, and better food. Also might mean manual labour. Leave Soldier may be given a short leave to go home.Hospitalisation Blighty = injured enough to go home. If recovered, they would be sent back to the front.

Canadian soldier suffering the burns from mustard gas that turns to liquid when it touches the soft tissue

World War I soldiers recuperating at Walter Reed Hospital in August 1918.

Australian Troops in a Hospital Ward in the Middle East.Aggression on the FrontlineEven when there was no attack, the frontline was a dangerous place to be due to the aggressive approach the commanders insisted on the soldiers maintaining.Weapons & tactics were developed to ensure this happened:1914 The BEF used 70 grenades per weekBy 1916, BEF was being issued with 800,000 grenades per week1916 Orders To harass Germans in every possible way Raids night attacks on enemy trenches.Sniping was a tactic of mutual harassment. 1915 each battalion had 25 specialist snipers, with telescopic sighted rifles with a 2000m range. As a result, a third of all casualties in the trenches occurred during the normal daily routine.

Casualties7000 men killed and wounded on each side, every day of the war.Western front 4/9 men were casualties. 1/3 of these died.Many men died of wounds. Wounds became septic in six hours. Gangrene was fatal in 44% of cases.Disease was rampant. Crowded and unsanitary conditions. Unburied dead, human excreta and horse manure encouraged plague of fliesTrench Fever was contracted from lice that infested soldiers uniforms.In early stages of war men reporting trench fever were treated as malingerers.Poor nutrition, dampness and exposure contributed to many causes of pneumonia and bronchitis.

Infectious diseases: diarrhoea, dysentery, typhus and influenza thrived in crowded and cramped living conditions.Most hospital admissions came from excess of weather, cold and damp. Number of cases of foot rot or trench foot.Strain of constant fear and lack of sleep rise in mental illness. During the war, British identified 80,000 men suffering from shell shock.Shell shock is a psychological or emotional condition caused by prolonged experiences of artillery barrages. Shell shock was not accepted or identified at first treated as cowardice/malingering. 1922 Great Britain had registered 50,000 Great War mental cases

1.3 Overview of strategies and tactics to break the stalemate including key battles: Verdun, the Somme, and Passchendaele Verdun, 1916Eastern border of France surrounded by thirteen massive concrete forts. Most structure was underground and guns had been removed by French Falkenhayn originally hoped to break the French army by forcing it to defend Verdun correct in his assessment that they would fight to the death to defend Verdun, for its strategic position and historical status as a great French fortress.

Search for a breakthrough 1915-1916

Began massive bombardment of the French defences in February 1916, using 1400 heavy guns to draw French defenders in and then use artillery to inflict huge numbers of casualties and bleed the French army to death.General Petain was given the job of defending Verdun the resistance of it became symbolic in the eyes of the French, Petain They shall not pass.

French soldiers of the 87th Regiment, 6th Division, at Cte 304, (Hill 304), northwest of Verdun, 1916.

French soldiers at Verdun

French trucks are lined up as they move to the front along the Sacred Way.

He co-ordinated the movement of soldiers and supplies among La Voie Sacree (The Sacred Way) the only road in and out of Verdun.6000 vehicles a day used the road, despite intensive German shelling the road was never closed.Germans called off their attack in July, 1916 fighting went on around Verdun until DecemberThe town of Verdun was destroyed. Germans fired 23 million shells at the French positions.The Germans did not break the French resistance.

Summary1. The Battle of Verdun 21st February- 18th December 1916Aim: attritionSite: Verdun, a series of old fortresses near the German-French boarder that were not very well defended and had no rail supply. General Falkenhayn chosen Verdun, a historically significant place for France where he knew French troops would defend till the end The Campaign: German bombarded the French with shells, especially gas. Heavy attacks continued through to July. Though the aim was to deplete the French forces, the Germans ended up wearing out their own alsoCasualties: 315 000 French, 281 000 Germans, both military commanders were replaced, French morale was starting to decline heavilyhttp://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=4oabxoP_jVM#t=35

Multimediahttp://www.youtube.com/watch?feature=player_embedded&v=4oabxoP_jVM#t=35

The Somme, 1916

First day of the Somme, was in casualties, perhaps the worst ever in the history of the British army.Somme resulted in Britains new armies of volunteers being thrown into the war with the result of an enormous cost in lives, the destruction of the finest flower of Britains young generation. Before Verdun, Haig and Joffre had agreed that the British would stage an attack on the Somme River with French support Verdun changed this. Somme was mainly a British battle. Proposed reasons for the Somme battle:The Somme offensive was needed to help the French and force the Germans to take pressure off Verdun.Haig sought to achieve a breakthrough on the Somme to break the stalemate on the Western Front.The attack on the Somme was designed to wear down the German defenders, until a few weeks later; the main breakthrough would be launched at Ypres in Belgium.

July 1st November 18thProceeded by weeklong bombardment of German trenches in which one and a half million shells were fired designed to destroy German barbed wire and wipe out front line trenches. This was not effective as Germans new of the attack and prepared accordingly with 12m underground chambers.Many historians emphasised the overconfidence and poor confidence of high command that lead to 57,000 British casualties in one day; the instructions towards the soldiers were that they could walk across no mans land, smoking their cigarettes/pipes and take possession of the empty trenches as no Germans would have survived the barrage. The troops were ordered to advance slowly, in line abreast as on a parade ground, allowing German machine gunners to emerge and mow them down.Prior & Wilson argue the vast majority of British casualties did not meet their fate like this.

A ration party of the Royal Irish Rifles in a communication trench during the Battle of the Somme.

If the [British] artillery had done their job it mattered little if the infantry walked or ran or executed the Highland fling across no mans land. Prior & WilsonThe British did not achieve any of Haigs targets for the first two days. Still, the British commander persisted and the offensive continued.Results of the SommeAllied: 620,000 German: 500,000 = accepted figuresKitcheners new armies the volunteers of 1914, were virtually wiped outBritish line advanced a mere 15 Km in its furthest extentFeb 1917 Germans withdrew to their newly completed Hindenburg Line of fortifications.

An early model British Mark I "male" tank, named C-15, near Thiepval, 25 September 1916.

Summary2. The Battle of the Somme 1st July- 18th November 1916Aim: To break through German lines, date was pushed forward to help relieve pressure off the French at Verdun Site: The Somme River Valley (very silly idea, as Germans would be on higher ground)The Campaign: The week of heavy bombardment completely destroyed the landscape, making it very muddy when the rains came. British used tanks unsuccessfully for the first time. Australians arrived from Gallipoli, and in the first day of their first major battle (at Fromelles) on 19th July they lost 5000 men. The battle turned into one of attrition, making it a failure for all with the British only making small dents in the German lines. Causalities: 418 000 British, 194 000 French, 650 000 Germans60% of the AIF were casualtiesThe Allies gained 10.5km, breaking it down: 77metres per day, 3000 casualties a day, or 40 men per metre, or one man for every 2.5cm of ground gained.

MultimediaThe Battle of the Somme: From Defeat to Victory:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=6cK5xL6QBM0

Line of Fire: The Battle of the Somme:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=yPD9sldu6ZE

The Somme: Here Comes Kitcheners Army:http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=Jy3Eg0c15RU

French Mutinies and Passchendaele 1917

1917 began positively for the Allies British naval blockade continued to deprive Germany of vital raw materials, Allies gained control of air and industrial production was upNivelle replaced Joffre. Joffre had wanted attrition, Nivelle wanted breakthrough.Nivelles offensive failed Petain replaced him. Disillusionment led to mutinies in some French units some suggest from here on in French army ceased to be a potent force.Third battle of Ypres Passchendaele lasted from the end of July until December.

Many parallels between the Somme and Passchendaele. A huge bombardment of 4 and a half million shells combined with the worst rains in 30 years turned battlefield into a quagmire movement became impossible, men, horses and equipment became stuck in the mud. Even without a breakthrough, Haig claimed the losses caused German to suffer a fearful defeat. Embodied attrition: although the Allies suffered heavy losses, as long as the Germans lost more the Allies won in the end.British 245,000 and the Germans a few less for a gain of just over 10 km.

Summary3. The Battle of Passchendaele Aim: To launch a new offensive and fore a breakthrough, to free the ports of Ostende and Zeebrugge from German control Site: Area known as Flanders, which the Hindenburg Line did not cover Campaign: Three phases, first two phases had very limited success due to the weather, third resulted in the capture of the town on Passchendale by the Canadian forces, eventually called off by Haig Casualties: 300 000 British, 260 000 German with a total of 8km gained by the Allies

MultimediaHorribly cliche-ridden movie but reasonable battle scenes at the end: http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JalDBZ-W5PESee me for a documentary on PasschendaeleMajor Offensives

Germans could rely on defensive therefore besides a few exceptions (Verdun 1916) they remained on the defensive until 1918Onus was on the Allies to break the Stalemate. Offensive strategy was given to them as Germany was occupying territory that the French and British wanted to reclaim. Most battles, infantry assaults did capture enemy trenches but there were issues with holding them. The generals responsible for planning and organising these assaults have been condemned for not caring about the casualties that resulted.

New Weapons

Poison gas was used as a weapon of terror, but provision of gas masks quickly reduced its impact as an assault weapon.Improvements in artillery on both sides did not amount to much as neither side gained a significant advantage. Tank British. Could cross no man land, crush barbed wire, clear trenches; carry the same equipment as 1000 men. When first used in 1916 they were unreliable, but by July 1918 they became an effective assault weapon giving Britain an advantage in the final year of the war.

Attrition

Gradually had to wear down the opposition until it had run out of men Included the home front effort through economic blockades and propaganda. On the Western front it was based on killing men.Attrition embodied the Battle of the Somme and Battle of VerdunIgnored the fact that killing others inevitably wore down your own troops. However, Haigs commitment to offensives on the Western front did force the Germans to expand conscription and devote more of their economic effort to the war. This put pressure on the German home front.

New Tactics

British developed the creeping barrage advancing just behind where their own artillery shells were landing. When timing was accurate, it was an effective tactic.1918 Germans used specially trained storm troopers who advanced in small groups rather than massed attacks. Helped break the stalemate in 1918 before they ran out of reserves and Allies recovered. 1918 Allies teamed the creeping barrage with use of tanks and planes to support advancing infantry.

Attempts to break the stalemate beyond the western front

a) Naval WarfareBoth Germany and Britain had built up large, modern navies. When war broke out there were minor battles around the world.Only major battle between the two great fleets took place in the North Sea, off the Danish coast of Jutland in 1916. Resulted in both sides claiming victory the last time the two fleets met. Returned homeports.Britishs naval superiority forced Germany to concentrate its naval efforts on submarines.

b) BlockadeBritains surface fleet successfully blockaded Germany this contributed to the economic collapse of the German home front.Germany resorted to submarine warfare in an attempt to blockade Britain was a major factor in drawing America into the war on the Allied side.

c) PropagandaGovernments had to keep their populations behind the war and promote the justice of their causeGermany lost the propaganda battle the invasion of neutral Belgium in 1914, the sinking of the Lusitania in 1915 and the resumption of unrestricted submarine warfare in 1917 all created propaganda opportunities for the Allies.

1.4 Changing Attitudes of Allied and German Soldiers to the war over time

The original positive attitude towards the war being necessary and acceptable changed when the carnage of trench warfare in the Western front confronted Allied and German soldiers. Reaction to the outbreak of warBritain there was widespread enthusiasm with cheering crowds around Buckingham PalaceGermans were wildly enthusiastic. The Military Law Proclamation of 31st of July 1914 called up all men for military service. Widespread belief the war would be over by Christmas 1914.Christmas 1914The war had not ended. It had instead bogged down, after shocking casualties, to trench warfare.

On Christmas day, an unofficial truce operated on several parts on the frontline. Commanders on both sides saw the dangers of such fraternisation. This was soon banned and emphasis placed on aggressive attitude.After the Somme, 1916-1918 The carnage of the Somme brought home to everyone the realities of industrial age warfare the casualty rate was higher than any other day in British history those who died were volunteers, Lord Kitcheners new Army. Germany also suffered Ludendorff The Somme was the muddy grave of the German field army. During the Nivelle Offensive of 1917, French troops Baa-ed as they went to the frontline, suggesting they were being lead like sheep to be slaughtered. After this, 750,000 men mutinied. After negotiations conditions bettered but French stayed mostly on the offensive. 1918 German army experienced desertion and mass surrenders. 8th of August 1918 Ludendorffs Black Day 12,000 Germans were taken prisoner. Remarkably, most soldiers remained committed to fighting. 1918 Enthusiasm had been replaced with Grim Duty.

2. The home fronts in Britain and Germany

total war and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany

recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and Germany

the variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany

the impact of the war on womens lives and experiences in Britain

2.1 Total War and its social and economic impact on civilians in Britain and Germany

Total war: the nation becoming involved in the war effort.Important to maintain the unified support of civilian population in the face of hardship, shortages and the seemingly futile progress of the war. Can be argued that Germany was defeated because its home front collapsed first.Government RegulationCivilians tolerated and supported measures that limited their freedom/denied their democratic rights because it was win the interests of the nation and victory to do BritainGermanyImmediate requisitioning of horses27th November 1914 Defence of the Realm Act (DORA) which: Nationalised coal minesGave the government control of railwaysIntroduced censorship in newspapers, books and lettersIntroduced daylight savingIntroduced restrictions on alcohol consumptionIncrease loyalty: God save the king was to be played after theatre/cinemaRents were pegged to 1914 pricesMilk price was controlledSeemingly harmless activities were prohibited such as: loitering near railway bridges, tunnels, flying kites, keeping homing pigeons, whistling for taxis, owning/using binocularsCurfew 10pm lights out Cinema/Music hall/theatre finish at 10.30Government launched national campaign to reduce alcohol consumption. Nov 1915 drinking hours reduced to 12.30-2pm and 6.30-9.30 pmGermany was more of an authoritarian society than BritainConscription gave control over the military aged population. This eventually stretched to all ages.In 1916, as part of the Hindenburg Program, the National Service Law was introduced government had right to control all males, to direct them into any part of the economy or militaryThe Economy

In Germany and Britain economic control was centralised.All production was directed towards war effort creating shortages in other areas that had to be managed by rationing Governments also tried to control prices, wages and trade unions.

BritainGermanyThe Ministry of Munitions (1915) headed by Lloyd George given power to requisition raw materials, take control of key factories. War Munitions Volunteer Scheme gave the government power to direct workersShipping, Labour, Food, National Service & Food production state departments were opened with substantial power to control their area of the economyFood shortages and prince increases biggest cause of complaint for ordinary people.So began the que. Government appointed a Food Controller and appealed for people to eat less meat. Board of Agriculture authorised to use unoccupied land, commons and parks for growing food. Archbishop of Canterbury sanctioned work on Sundays. Early 1918 food prices were fixed to stop profiteering.Rationing was greeted with relief in 1918. Two cards required for meat and food. Income tax: 2.5% to 12.5% August 1914 Rathenau was placed in charge of War Raw Materials Department (KRA.) Aim: to centralise control of all raw materials so they could be used for war production. Also organised the production of synthetic materials to replace resources, eg: rubber.1916 the Hindenburg Program gave the government increased control of labour, lead to many more men being taken out of agriculture and transferred to war industries/military.Relative efficiency of KRA & Hindenburg program ensured Germanys production of war materials was efficient. Relative neglect of consumer sector/food productionMade worse by shortages created from British Naval Blockade and Germanys lack of support from Allies: 1916 Food shortage. Turnip Winter Poor harvests worsened Government introduced mobile soup kitchens1918 Starvation2.2 Recruitment, conscription, censorship and propaganda in Britain and Germany

Recruitment

BritainGermanyOnly the small BEF could be sent to France in 1914Major task was for recruitment5th August, Lord Kitchener Secretary of State for War, immediately launching a recruitment campaign. YOUR KING AND COUNTRY NEED YOU Kitchener called for 100,000 unmarried men 18-30yrs 28th August 100,000 18-35 yrs of age, married/unmarriedBy Late September 1914 750,000 men had volunteered to enlist. Still not enough pressure was placed to do the right thing and enlist Lord Derby Director of Recruitment October 1915Young women used in posters that suggested cowardice and irresponsibility for those who did not enlist. Some women gave white feathers, a symbol of cowardice to eligible young men. Existence of large number of eligible and continuing demands made conscription inevitable.Conscription was introduced 5th January 1916 Military Service Bill Liberal party and minsters resigned. All single men and childless widowers, 18-40yrs were called up for service. March 1916, all men became liable for conscription.1918 men up to the age of 51 were being conscripted. Conscription created conscientious objectors pacifists, person; religious reasons were opposed to war. Provision was made for special exemptions 13,000 sent to gaol. 16,000 joined non-combatant corps, driving ambulances, etc. No reason to embark on conscription campaignTraditionally been accepted in Germany in peace timeBecause so many men had been diverted into the arm or essential war industries, German agriculture suffered. PropagandaFirst modern propaganda warExternally, USA was the target as both sides attempted to gain support for their war effortIntended to turn war into a crusade, maintain morale in the face of losses and hardship Inspire patriotism, hatred of enemy, self-sacrifice, acceptance of losses and to encourage service and recruitment.

BritainGermanyRecruitment: Before conscription, recruitment posters were a major part of propoganda. Targeted eligible men and those who might influence them, such as young women. Sept 1915: 54million. War Funding: Civilians encouraged to contribute to war effort by investing in government war bonds.Anti-German Propoganda: Atrocity stories were spread about the conduct of German army when it invaded Belgium. Events (sinking of the Lusitania) were exploited to demonstrate the evil and uncivilised Germans.Practical Messages: Focused on practical messages.Morale Boosting: Much effort was devoted to sustaining morale and passing on positive news from the front. War Funding: Desperate need to raise funds for war effort.Anti-British Propoganda: National Hate Campaign taught to recite Hymn of Hate One foe and one foe alone: ENGLAND Gott Strafe England (God Punish England) was stamped on envelopes, engraved on jewellery.Morale Boosting: Germans focused less on anti-British messages and more on positive celebration of the efforts of their military forces. Myth making was devoted to creating a national hero out of Hindenburg. Censorship

BritainGermanyDORA gave the government to right to regulateBritains Ministry of Information sent artists to the front to produce paintings, films and cartoons. While there was an effort to provide the public with information about British troops, images of the dead or severely wounded were carefully excluded. The weekly Illustrated London News added the Illustrated War News so the public could be kept up to date with the latest news from the front. By 1918 casualty figures were no longer published.The High Command maintained an even tighter control over information. Good news, such as the early German victories over the Russians was highlighted. Ludendorff told an advisor to the Kaiser not to report bad news. Misinformation was fed to the people.Leipzig airship sheds were attacked by Allied, it was reported that they had collapsed because of accumulated snow.2.3 The variety of attitudes to the war and how they changed over time in Britain and Germany BritainGermanyPoliticsLloyd George effective wartime leader effective with dealing with unions and strikes. Germany was not fully democratic in 1914, the elected government Reichstag had little influence over the head of the government Chancellor appointed by the KaiserArmy held a special positionUnder pressure of war, Government became even less democraticAs disillusionment with the war gradually spread, extreme socialists broke away from the Social democrats and began to call for peace and socialism they provided leadership for the revolution that broke out in 1918 existing pre-war political tensions contributed to the collapse of the German home frontHigh command was militarily efficient but was not suited to dealing with the political and economic challenges to the home front food supply neglected, discontented workers were dealt with harshly War Weariness Civilians faced increasing economic hardship and the terrible impact of the long casualty list that affected so many familiesWorking class suffered costs rose but wages did not. 1917 668 industrial disputes with 800,000 workers Strain became evident in 1916 and eventually worsened 1916 Hindenburg Program placed tighter controls on society and the economy which increased resentment and took away labour from farms and guaranteed a worsening food situation1916 Rosa Luxembourg and Karl Liebknecht gathered anti-war socialists into the Spartacist Groups gained support as many began to realise that this was not the defensive war they had been told it was April 1917 Germany experienced major strikes in metalworking and munitions centres.January 1917 Reichstag passed a peace resolution calling for peace without annexations ignored by governmentJanuary 1918 a dozen major German cities experienced major strikes 29th October 1918 Mutinies broke out in main German fleet at Kiel rebels controlled Kiel, Hamburg and other cities and a socialist republic was called in Bavaria. Kaiser was called to abdicate and High command advised the government to end the war.War weariness contributed to the loss of the war: Economic hardship was much greaterGerman high command mismanaged the economy placed greater emphasis on industry, military and ignored agricultural needsHigh command had little experience and skill in dealing with political opposition. Lloyd George would negotiate and German generals used confrontation. Peace MovementsNumber of groups and individuals made attempts to arrange peace between belligerents faced challenge against governments that wanted military victory and the benefits that came with this Ultimately it was President Wilsons proposal that provide the basis for peace in 1918.Other developments:International Womens movement was a consistent voice for peaceBritain opposed the war from the outset. Prominent leaders include:December 1916 former leader of British Labour party, Ramsay MacDonald, expressed a desire for peaceNovember 1917, former cabinet minister, Lord Lansdowne, sent a letter to the Daily Telegraph calling for negotiated peace1917, Pope Benedict XV made a peace proposal based on compromise. The central powers were interested, but Britain and France did not reply. President Wilson replied to his proposal, declining it and saying no negotiations were possible with the existing German government. Wilson wanted the removal of the Kaiser before any peace terms were negotiated.September 1917, a Dutch initiated International socialist conference began in Stockholm. Britain and France refused to allow delegates to attend. Pacifism and InternationalismWWI changed attitudes towards war future wars could not be avoided, they would no longer be accepted with innocence/faith of 1914.A strong anti-war, pacifist response is evident in the work of post-war poets, artists & novelists. All Quiet on the Western Front written by Erich Maria Remarque a German soldier who had served at the Western Front

2.4 The impact of the war on womens lives and experiences in Britain

Traditional RoleWomen suffered the brunt of the tragedy of the loss of more than 760,000 Britains losing their lives for WWI. Women were used in recruiting propoganda images presented women in a traditional role women urging men to go off and fight and protect them while they looked after the home and family. New Roles for WomenWorking class women had always worked but had been restricted to a range of menial occupations domestic services for wealthy. Total war of attrition demanded the mobilisation of entire societys resources many more women were given the opportunity to take on traditional male roles. July 1915, Emmeline Pankhurst led a demonstration of 30,000 women who chanted, Womens Battle cry is work, work, work. Recruitment drives of 1914 + 15 changed official attitudes.March 1915 The Board of Trade called on all women to sign up on the register of war serviceBy May 1915, 1,400 of 80,000 that had registered where employed as nurses, ambulance drivers, postal workers, bus conductors, policewomen and fire fighters. November 1918 more than 7 million women employed in War work

Munitions WorkersThe largest single new employer of womenDORA demanded women were given equal pay and conditions no other controls/guarantees until the introduction of the Lady Welfare Supervisor in 1917 12 hour days, sometimes overtime, 1 day off a monthDangerous industry explosions caused 200 deaths. Toxic jaundice killed 44 in 1917Exposure to TNT turned skin/hair yellow led to nickname of canaries Women in Uniform More than 25,000 women served at the front in Europe, Africa or Asia NursingServed from end of 1914November 1918 23,000Served in war zone, sometimes at front subject to same dangers as soldiersVADMiddle-upper class women employed as nurses by Voluntary Aid Detachments2,500 organizations by August 1914Tended to unexpected flood of wounded from Belgium and France in hospitals across EnglandFaced hostility form nurses who resented their being trained on the job

Womens Land ArmyFormed in 1916 to attract women to work on the landFood production was a priority attracted middle/upper class women Worked 10-12 hours a day, 6 day a weekDiscipline was strict in the 3 sections agriculture, forestry and forage 1917 260,000 women

Womens Armed ForcesFirst allowed to serve in uniform in Womens Auxiliary Army corps established in 1917November 1918 57,000 had served Drove ambulances, operated food canteens, entertained soldiers, worked as cooks/waitresses, clerks, typists, telegraphists, telephonistsHours long, discipline strict, facilities barely adequate. The womens royal naval serve forced in November 1917 Free a man for sea service 1918 it had 6,000 women serving Formed in 1918, Womens Royal Air Force had 9,000 serving as clerks, drivers, cooks, and fitters by Nov.

Impact on Womens LivesYoung working class women were largely the ones who moved into the traditional male working class jobs impact on their social and economic independenceMiddle/Upper class women mainly worked in volunteer jobs or uniformed services war experience but had less of an impact on their place in society Womens munitions workers had the independence and money to make choices about social activitiesNew responsibilities of war work and financial independence forced them to redefine ideas about acceptable behaviour for women no longer needed escorts to maintain their reputations. Now smoked in public.Encouraged romance and leisure activity dance halls, nightclubs. 1915 London had 150 nightclubs New sexual freedom 1914 and 1918 there was a 30% increase in illegitimate births

A lasting impact? Women retained some social independence superficially the roaring twenties seemed to build on the changes to social mores and leisure activities evident during the war. Crucial area of employment little permanent change. Guarantees that men would return to their job when they returned most women had to give up their jobs. Secretarial work was one area they retained, it proved it was a female work area1918 British Parliament gave women the right to vote only to female households over the age of 30

3. Turning points

impacts of the entry of the USA and of the Russian withdrawal

Ludendorffs Spring Offensive and the Allied response3.1 Impacts of the entry of the USA and the Russian Withdrawal U.S. ENTRY Outbreak of war in 1914, USA declared its neutrality.Under international law, USA was allowed to trade with both sides. Britain imposed a blockade on all merchant ships trading with Germany and Germany responded with submarine campaign against ships trading with Britain. Wilson protested against bothBritain used some flexibility in their blockade did not sink ships, simply stopped them. German submarine campaign was much more confrontational demonstrated by the Sinking of the Lusitania on the 31st of May 1915 by a German U boat. American civilian passengers were amongst the 1200 that lost their lives.

Germany altered the aggressiveness of their submarine campaign in fear of USA entering the war. US greatly favoured the AlliesFaced with trade imbalance, effectiveness of British blockade against Germany and the need for a strategy to break the Stalemate on the Western front, on the 31st of January 1917 Germany reintroduced Unrestricted submarine warfareGerman attacks on US merchant vessels soon convinced Wilson that America had to enter the war against Germany.

The release of the Zimmerman Telegram was the last straw the telegram was set by German Foreign Minister Zimmerman to Mexican government, putting forward a proposal encouraging Mexico to invade the USA (to distract US from the European war) In a propoganda coup, British made such the US government and newspapers received a copy of the telegram 7th April 1917 US Congress voted to declare war on Germany Immediately, Wilson mobilised US resources, signing War bond bills and making loans to Great Britain. May 17th he signed a draft bill calling up all men aged 21-31 27th of June 1917 first troops of the American Expeditionary Force (AEF) arrived in France

Would take a year to draft, train and transport a large army to Europe however the Submarine Campaign had failed to starve Britain out of the war and had indeed failed with Allies discovering effective defensive measuresEarly 1918 estimated 500,000 US soldiers in France and launched 95 new ships in July 23, 2009Ludendorffs great Spring Offensive was an attempt to force a decision in the war before American men and resources could soon become decisiveUS troops played an important part in stopping his offensive presence meant that more experienced troops could be rested away from the frontline before being used in the offensives planned for late 1918

RUSSIAN WITHDRAWAL

March 1917 Russian setbacks and deterioration in the conditions on home front culminated in the forced abdication of Tsar Nicholas II. Russian Provisional Government chose to continue with the war effort. July 1917 saw a Galacian offensive that held initial success but eventually the Russians were defeated. Attempts to keep Russian soldiers on the field were met by mutiny and desertion. Early august general retreat

Russian setbacks on front contributed to revolution at home Provisional government was then overthrown by Bolshevik government who began negotiations with Germany in December 1917 for armistice. The treaty of Brest-Litovsk was signed in March 1918 Germany had won the war on the Eastern front. The treaty gave Germany a new empire in the east. No longer fighting a two front war, Germany was free to transfer large numbers of extra troops and resources across to the Western front. Ludendorff planned to use these reinforcements in a final major push to achieve victory before American troops could begin to make a different on the allied side.

3.2 Ludendorffs Spring Offensive and the Allied Response

Ludendorffs Spring OffensiveMeant to make use of the window of opportunity between the Russian withdrawal and the arrival of German reinforcements before American troops could be trained and placed in allied front lines. Ludendorff used specially trained storm troops. Objective was to destroy specific objectives then move on quickly without an effort to consolidate in order to sow panic in the Allied rear areas and make rapid progress Comprised 5 major attacks between March and JulyEach attack was initially successful: German troops advanced 65 kilometres closed to Paris than they were in 1914. Allied casualties were heavy; many POWs were taken. However, each attack ground to a halt when Germans needed reserves to be able to continue Ludendorffs offensive had been successful in breaking the Allied lines, taking large areas and restoring a war of movement, once the attack broke down Germanys last reserves had been expended. The exhausted German armies then faced an Allied Counter Offensive.

THE ALLIED RESPONSE

The Battle of Hamel, July 1918July 1918, 7500 Australians and 1000 American troops were used to capture the fortified village of Le Hamel.Planned by General John Monash using newly arrived Mark V tanks as an assault weapon supported by infantry. Tanks went forward with a creeping artillery barrage using chlorine gas and were supported by aircraft dropping bombs on enemy positions. Village was captured in 96 minutes and with minimal casualties secured and held.

The Allied Counter Offensive Spring offensive grounding to a halt in July 1918; it was time for the Allied response.Attack at Amiens on 8th of August 1918 was an immediate success every available man and tank was used. Even though the Germans successfully halted the Allied advance at Amiens on 12th August, Ludendorff referred to 8th of August as the black day of the German army. Foch and Haig launched a new offensive at Albert on 21st of August with the AEF. Germans halted the advance by AEF was captured. 23rd of August 8000 Germans had been captured and by the end of august they had reached the Hindenburg line.

Foch ordered an attack at Meuse Argonne to cut off the Germans. Germans began to retreat and Fresh US troops were moved to the front and had advanced 32 KM when the Cease when the cease-fire was announced. Allied forces attacked the German frontline at the Canal Du Nord on 27th of September by the time it had been called off on 1st of October, 10 kilometres had been gained. The success of the Allide counter offensive, along with the collapse of the German home front, forced the Germans to agree to a cease-fire and accept an Allied victory.

4. Allied Victory

events leading to the Armistice, 1918

reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse

the roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles

4.1 Events leading to the Armistice, 1918

Wilson had been exploring peace-making role for much of the war. In early 1917 he was promoting the idea of peace without victory which had little appeal to the waring countries. Once USA entered war, Wilson became insistent that Germany change government. On 8th of January 1918 he announced his 14 points as a basis for world peace.Ludendorffs Peace offensives dominated German affairs. German military were interested in peace but on their terms, believing that they could force the Allies to accept their terms if they could win enough territory or threaten victory the successful allied offensives changed attitudes quicklyWith Allies rapidly gaining the upper hand, German High Command was forced to consider Wilsons demands the choice now seemed to be a just peace based on Wilsons proposal or a punitive peace at the hands of a vengeful Britain and France if they were made to fight their way into Germany.

October 1918, German High Command requested that the politicians seek an armistice and peace negotiations based on Wilsons proposal. Unrest and revolution spreading on the home front, Germans sought an armistice. 9th November, Kaiser Wilhelm II abdicated and a new provisional government was formed with Frederich Ebert as leader his government had the task of negotiating peace terms and signing the Armistice on the 11th of November.

4.2 Reasons for the Allied victory and German collapse

Strategic Advantages and DisadvantagesOutbreak of war advantages for Germany: Strongest economy in EuropeLarge standing army well equipped and well trainedOccupied a position in central Europe that was strategically compact and relatively easy to defend Allied powers were relatively poorly prepared for a land war in EuropeAllied generals also adopted costly offensive strategies and took a long time to accept trench warfare

Disadvantages that appeared as the war continued:Germany had planned on the success of the Schlieffen Plan to ensure quick victory but had to face a war on two frontsAlthough Germany had a strong industrial economy, the British Naval blockade effectively cut off its world trade whereas German submarine warfare essentially brought the US into the war and did not achieve the British loss it wished to.Austria-Hungary, Bulgaria and Turkey provided limited military or economic support for Germany.

In the long term, Germany was unable to match the technological and industrial potential of the Allies and their empires the longer the war lasted, the more the blockade would disadvantage Germany. When the Allies began producing tanks and aircraft Germany was unable to answer to them.Collapse of the German Home Front The demands of a war economy, the Allied blockade and inflation led to food shortages by 1918 some people were actually starvingGerman High Commands control of the economy meant that it was able to insist on shifting manpower away from agriculture to industry and military longer term had a disastrous impact Political breakdowns and even revolution on the German home front Evidence of the growing discontent can be seen in a dramatic increase in the number of strikes in Germany, from about 100/month in 1915 to 100,000/month in 1918

The Battle Front Russias withdrawal and initial successes of the Spring offensive gave some hope to Germany in early 1918 however it exhausted its reserves and they now faced the Allied counter offensiveBy late 1918 the Allied commanders had finally figured out how to use the technology available: infantry, machine guns, tanks, aircrafts and the appointment of Marshal FochWar weariness and weak morale affected soldiersGermany could not produce enough war materials to do much more than resist defeat and it had no more men to replace those lost.

U.S. entry into the warIndustrial might of the USA with its massive potential for the provision of resources (material and human) was a major blow to German MoraleWhen Germany was struggling to fill its divisions, the Allies had access to millions of US draftees. German treasury was nearly empty, the Allies had access to millions of US dollarsGerman factories were grinding to a halt the U.S. was just beginning to reach something approaching full output

4.3 The roles and differing goals of Clemenceau, Lloyd George and Wilson in creating the Treaty of Versailles

THE BIG THREE - DIFFERENT MOTIVATIONS/GOALS WilsonLloyd GeorgeClemenceauPersonalityAcademic, genuine internationalist visionLimited appreciation of the complexity of the European disputes and border issues- Shared some of Wilsons farsighted concerns also a practical politician who was influenced by the home front and the need to reach compromise- A fierce French patriot- Sought revenge for both WWI and the Prussian Invasion of 1871War InfluenceWinning the war for the Allies gave him enormous influenceU.S. was enriched by the warUs lost 114,095 lives in the warBritain had lost 761,213 lives many more severely woundedWar pensions were an enormous costWar had almost ruined British economyFrance lost 1,358,000 lives. Many more were severely wounded War pensions were an enormous costHad destroyed factories, farmlands & ForestsHomeFrontInfluenceRepublicans winning recent Congressional elections Wilson did not have strong support at homeIsolationism undermined his own internationalism- At the end of 1918 Lloyd George had won a khaki election highlighting a victory in the war amongst the population there was a strong mood to make Germany pay- France suffered more than Britain and there was even stronger pressure to punish and weaken GermanySecurityUS was not under any threatWilson agreed to the return of Alsace & Lorraine to France and other border adjustments based on ethnic grounds he would not agree to a separate Rhineland, which was ethnically German. Wilson offered France a security guarantee this was not ratified by the US congressWilson also felt that the League of Nations would safeguard all nations against aggressionOnce the German navy was destroyed, Britain had little to fear from GermanyBritain did not want to see Germany so weakened that France dominated Europe it sought a stable EuropeLloyd George opposed the separation of the Rhineland as unjustifiable Lloyd George offered to support Wilson guaranteeing French borders. When the US Congress withdrew this guarantee, so did BritainWith a higher population, birth rate and economic potential, Germany was a long term threat to FranceClemenceau sought to weaken Germany by setting up the Rhineland border region as a separate stateBlocked in this goal he was forced to accept: the demilitarisation and allied occupation of the Rhineland, US and British guarantee of French bordersWhen the latter was not ratified by the US congress, France was largely left to defend itselfNationalism& InternationalismDifficult to impartially apply notions like just peace or Self determination in drawing up bordersWilson gave way to Britain and France in many ways but insisted on the establishment of the League of Nations held hopes for internationalismIn caring up Germany and Turkeys former colonies between them, Britain and France were largely following their own national interestBritain had some interest in the League of Nations but was unwilling or unable to back it with the resources that the US could have appliedNew borders in Europe were seen as a way of weakening Germany, creating new French allies or building a buffer zone between communist Russia and the rest of EuropeThere was limited interest in the League of nations unless it could be used to guarantee French securityReparations- Recognised that Germany should pay reparations according to its capacity to pay - Sought reparations from Germany, partly in order to pay their US war loans- Demanded reparations to cover war damage, pensions and debt- Reparations were also designed to push and weaken Germany