CORE 2 FACTORS AFFECTING PERFORMANCE. (FQ1) HOW DOES TRAINING AFFECT PERFORMANCE.

CORE 2CORE 2FACTORS FACTORS

AFFECTING AFFECTING PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE

(FQ1) HOW DOES (FQ1) HOW DOES TRAINING AFFECT TRAINING AFFECT

PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE

ATP/PC SYSTEMATP/PC SYSTEM Fuel:Fuel: Creatine Phosphate is fuel, only used Creatine Phosphate is fuel, only used

after ATP has been usedafter ATP has been used Efficiency of ATP Production: Efficiency of ATP Production: ATP is ATP is

rapidly available however the supply is very rapidly available however the supply is very limited if the demand is highlimited if the demand is high

Duration: Duration: 10-12 seconds. ATP splitting 10-12 seconds. ATP splitting (2sec) cretin-phosphate (8-10sec following)(2sec) cretin-phosphate (8-10sec following)

Cause of fatigue: Cause of fatigue: The inability of the body to The inability of the body to continually resynthesise ATP. Occurs when continually resynthesise ATP. Occurs when the body has used up all its stored CP.the body has used up all its stored CP.

By-Products:By-Products: heat heat

CONTINUEDCONTINUED Recovery Time:Recovery Time: creatine phosphate is creatine phosphate is

naturally replenished by the body in up naturally replenished by the body in up to 2 minsto 2 mins

Intensity of effort:Intensity of effort: very high, 85-100% very high, 85-100% of max effort, explosive actionsof max effort, explosive actions

Examples:Examples: 100m sprint, weight lifting, 100m sprint, weight lifting, discus, javelin, high jumpdiscus, javelin, high jump

LACTIC ACID SYSTEMLACTIC ACID SYSTEM

Fuel:Fuel: glycogen (carbohydrates are broken down in glycogen (carbohydrates are broken down in the body as blood glucose. Stored glucose is the body as blood glucose. Stored glucose is glycogen)glycogen)

Efficiency of energy production: Efficiency of energy production: ATP is supplied ATP is supplied rapidly but requires large quantities of glucoserapidly but requires large quantities of glucose

Duration:Duration: varies, if working at high intensity, one varies, if working at high intensity, one minute. If working at moderate intensity up to minute. If working at moderate intensity up to three minutes. Sub-maximal even longerthree minutes. Sub-maximal even longer

Cause of fatigue: Cause of fatigue: build up of hydrogen ions due build up of hydrogen ions due to production of lactic acidto production of lactic acid

By- Products:By- Products: pyruvic acid pyruvic acid

CONTINUEDCONTINUED

Recovery Time:Recovery Time: 20mins-2hrs to break 20mins-2hrs to break down lactic acid, if glycogen all down lactic acid, if glycogen all depleted , it takes 24hrs to replenish depleted , it takes 24hrs to replenish glycogen storesglycogen stores

Intensity of effort:Intensity of effort: 75-85%. This is the 75-85%. This is the point at which lactic acid is producedpoint at which lactic acid is produced

Examples:Examples: 200m, 400m sprint, 100m 200m, 400m sprint, 100m swim, 800 runswim, 800 run

AEROBIC SYSTEMAEROBIC SYSTEM

Source of FuelSource of Fuel: Carbohydrates, fats, glycogen, : Carbohydrates, fats, glycogen, proteinprotein

Efficiency of ATP production: Efficiency of ATP production: Extremely efficient Extremely efficient in the provision of energy for long periods of timein the provision of energy for long periods of time

Duration: Duration: From 2-3 minutes to hours depending on From 2-3 minutes to hours depending on the intensity of effortthe intensity of effort

Cause of fatigue: Cause of fatigue: The depletion of glucose to the The depletion of glucose to the working muscles working muscles

Waste Products:Waste Products: Carbon Dioxide which is breathed Carbon Dioxide which is breathed out, water which is removed from the body as sweat out, water which is removed from the body as sweat and water vapor, cooled as evaporated off skinand water vapor, cooled as evaporated off skin

CONTINUEDCONTINUED

Recovery Time:Recovery Time: can take up to 48hrs can take up to 48hrs depending on intensitydepending on intensity

Intensity of effort:Intensity of effort: low intensity, up to low intensity, up to 75%75%

Examples:Examples: marathon, long distance marathon, long distance walking, netball triathlonwalking, netball triathlon

TYPES OF TRAINING & TYPES OF TRAINING & TRAINING METHODSTRAINING METHODS

Aerobic trainingAerobic training

Anaerobic trainingAnaerobic training

Flexibility trainingFlexibility training

Strength trainingStrength training

AEROBICAEROBICAerobic training's main objective is to Aerobic training's main objective is to increase an athlete's ability to use oxygen. increase an athlete's ability to use oxygen. This involves training the larger muscle This involves training the larger muscle groups (arms, chest and legs) to efficiently groups (arms, chest and legs) to efficiently combine with the cardiovascular system to combine with the cardiovascular system to supply a higher volume of oxygen to the supply a higher volume of oxygen to the athlete and therefore improve performance. athlete and therefore improve performance.

Continuous trainingContinuous training Fartlek TrainingFartlek Training

Aerobic interval trainingAerobic interval training Circuit trainingCircuit training

CONTINUOUSCONTINUOUS Continuous training involves sustained effort Continuous training involves sustained effort

– no rest intervals.– no rest intervals. Training must persist beyond 20 minutes to Training must persist beyond 20 minutes to

be categorised as continuous.be categorised as continuous. The heart rate must rise above the aerobic The heart rate must rise above the aerobic

threshold and remain within the target zone threshold and remain within the target zone for the entire timefor the entire time

Examples include jogging, cycling and Examples include jogging, cycling and aerobics.aerobics.

The two types of continuous training are:The two types of continuous training are: LONG SLOW DISTANCE TRAININGLONG SLOW DISTANCE TRAINING HIGH INTENSITY, MODERATE DURATIONHIGH INTENSITY, MODERATE DURATION

FARTLEKFARTLEK The word FARTLEK means SPEED PLAY.The word FARTLEK means SPEED PLAY. Participants vary their speed and the Participants vary their speed and the

terrain on which they are working.terrain on which they are working. This engages both the aerobic and the This engages both the aerobic and the

anaerobic system.anaerobic system. It resembles a combination of interval and It resembles a combination of interval and

continuous training.continuous training. It is good for most athletes but particularly It is good for most athletes but particularly

beneficial for games players.beneficial for games players.

AEROBIC INTERVALAEROBIC INTERVAL Aerobic interval training involves alternating Aerobic interval training involves alternating

sessions of work and recovery.sessions of work and recovery. An athlete performs a given amount of work, An athlete performs a given amount of work,

such as 8, 400m runs to repeat every 2 minutes. such as 8, 400m runs to repeat every 2 minutes. The the rest period is very short compared to the The the rest period is very short compared to the time taken to complete the task. This short rest time taken to complete the task. This short rest period does not allow enough time for full period does not allow enough time for full recovery and thus maintains stress on the recovery and thus maintains stress on the aerobic system.aerobic system.

This training method effectively develops aerobic This training method effectively develops aerobic endurance.endurance.

CIRCUITCIRCUIT Circuit training develops aerobic capacity and has Circuit training develops aerobic capacity and has

the potential to make substantial improvements in the potential to make substantial improvements in muscular endurance, strength and flexibility.muscular endurance, strength and flexibility.

Participants move from one activity to the next Participants move from one activity to the next after completing the required number of after completing the required number of repetitions or allocated time period.repetitions or allocated time period.

Circuit training can be aerobic or anaerobic in Circuit training can be aerobic or anaerobic in nature depending on the type of activity, the time nature depending on the type of activity, the time spent at each activity and the number of circuits spent at each activity and the number of circuits required.required.

The effectiveness of circuit training relies heavily The effectiveness of circuit training relies heavily on how well the overload principle is applied.on how well the overload principle is applied.

ANAEROBICANAEROBIC Anaerobic training uses high intensity work Anaerobic training uses high intensity work

coupled with limited recovery.coupled with limited recovery. Anaerobic training is shorter in duration than Anaerobic training is shorter in duration than

aerobic training, lasting less than two minutes.aerobic training, lasting less than two minutes. Activity is brief but effort is maximal and short Activity is brief but effort is maximal and short

rest periods.rest periods. Anaerobic training develops greater tolerance Anaerobic training develops greater tolerance

for the lactic acid created as a result of the for the lactic acid created as a result of the work.work.

Different types of anaerobic training can Different types of anaerobic training can develop different energy systems.develop different energy systems.

ANAEROBIC INTERVALANAEROBIC INTERVAL

Anaerobic interval can best be described as Anaerobic interval can best be described as sprint training over short distances using sprint training over short distances using maximal effort.maximal effort.

Most anaerobic interval training is directed Most anaerobic interval training is directed towards the development of speed. E.g. 100m towards the development of speed. E.g. 100m sprinting and sports such as touch football.sprinting and sports such as touch football.

To develop speed while focusing on technique, To develop speed while focusing on technique, rest periods need to be extended slightly to rest periods need to be extended slightly to allow lactate to disperse as this build up can allow lactate to disperse as this build up can inhibit quality movement.inhibit quality movement.

FLEXIBILITYFLEXIBILITY

Flexibility training is designed to improve Flexibility training is designed to improve the possible range of motion of a joint and the possible range of motion of a joint and reduce the likelihood of an injury. There are reduce the likelihood of an injury. There are a number of ways in which flexibility can be a number of ways in which flexibility can be developed including static stretching, developed including static stretching, Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation Proprioceptive Neuromuscular Facilitation (PNF) and ballistic stretching. Each of these (PNF) and ballistic stretching. Each of these types of stretches can be used to develop an types of stretches can be used to develop an individual’s flexibility and improve overall individual’s flexibility and improve overall performance as a result. performance as a result.

STATICSTATIC

During static stretching, the muscle is slowly During static stretching, the muscle is slowly stretched to a position(end point or limit) stretched to a position(end point or limit) which is held for about 30 seconds.which is held for about 30 seconds.

The movement is smooth and performed The movement is smooth and performed slowly, taking the muscle to a point where slowly, taking the muscle to a point where there is stretch without discomfort.there is stretch without discomfort.

Static stretching is safe and is used Static stretching is safe and is used extensively in the rehabilitation of injury and extensively in the rehabilitation of injury and in the warm up and cool down of training in the warm up and cool down of training sessions. sessions.

BALLISTICBALLISTIC Ballistic stretching involves repeated movements Ballistic stretching involves repeated movements

such as swinging and bouncing to gain extra such as swinging and bouncing to gain extra stretch.stretch.

This is potentially dangerous as it activates the This is potentially dangerous as it activates the STRETCH REFLEX.STRETCH REFLEX.

Ballistic stretching should only be used by Ballistic stretching should only be used by advanced athletes after a thorough warm up and advanced athletes after a thorough warm up and other styles of stretching.other styles of stretching.

Movements must be executed rhythmically to Movements must be executed rhythmically to avoid jerky actions and too much momentum at avoid jerky actions and too much momentum at the end point of the stretch.the end point of the stretch.

PNFPNF PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEUROMUSCULAR PROPRIOCEPTIVE NEUROMUSCULAR

FACILITATIONFACILITATION This is a progressive cycle incorporating a static This is a progressive cycle incorporating a static

stretch, an isometric contraction and a period of stretch, an isometric contraction and a period of relaxation in the lengthened position.relaxation in the lengthened position.

It is aimed at stretching and strengthening the It is aimed at stretching and strengthening the muscle in a safe movement.muscle in a safe movement.

Resistance is provided by a partner or a fixed Resistance is provided by a partner or a fixed object.object.

PNF is useful in rehab as the isometric PNF is useful in rehab as the isometric component strengthens the muscle.component strengthens the muscle.

DYNAMICDYNAMIC Dynamic stretching attempts to mimic Dynamic stretching attempts to mimic

movements experienced in a game.movements experienced in a game. It is popular for warm ups and pre-training It is popular for warm ups and pre-training

routines.routines. Actions attempt to reduce muscle tightness Actions attempt to reduce muscle tightness

rather than lengthen muscle fibres.rather than lengthen muscle fibres. It is more controlled than ballistic but still not It is more controlled than ballistic but still not

as safe as static and PNF due to the tension as safe as static and PNF due to the tension placed on muscles and joints.placed on muscles and joints.

An example is arm circling.An example is arm circling.

STRENGTH TRAININGSTRENGTH TRAINING

Strength training involves the use of resistance Strength training involves the use of resistance which helps to increase the amount of force a which helps to increase the amount of force a muscle can exert. Muscles are required to muscle can exert. Muscles are required to contract in a number of ways and each of these contract in a number of ways and each of these needs to be trained in a specific way. Isotonic needs to be trained in a specific way. Isotonic contractions require the muscle to lengthen contractions require the muscle to lengthen and shorten against a resistance, isometric and shorten against a resistance, isometric contractions involve no movement, while contractions involve no movement, while isokinetic contractions involve the exertion of isokinetic contractions involve the exertion of force at all angles of a joint movement. force at all angles of a joint movement.

FREE/FIXED WEIGHTSFREE/FIXED WEIGHTS Free weights are dumbells and barbells. Free weights are dumbells and barbells. Dumbells are two weights of equal size held Dumbells are two weights of equal size held

in each hand to execute a movement.in each hand to execute a movement. A barbell is a long bar that is weighted or A barbell is a long bar that is weighted or

has extra weights added to each end with a has extra weights added to each end with a cuff.cuff.

Fixed weights refer to universal pin weight Fixed weights refer to universal pin weight systems for example where the weights are systems for example where the weights are more secure and the machine assists with more secure and the machine assists with balance balance

ELASTICELASTIC Resistance bands are a cheap and Resistance bands are a cheap and

portable form of resistance training and portable form of resistance training and are commonly used in home gyms.are commonly used in home gyms.

Bands are anchored by a wall fixture or Bands are anchored by a wall fixture or against the body.against the body.

The strong rubber bands are stretched, The strong rubber bands are stretched, creating a resistancecreating a resistance

HYDRAULICHYDRAULIC The resistance provided by hydraulic exercise The resistance provided by hydraulic exercise

equipment is directly related to the amount of equipment is directly related to the amount of force provided by the user.force provided by the user.

The harder you push or pull and the faster you The harder you push or pull and the faster you move, the more resistance you create.move, the more resistance you create.

Instead of free weights or a weight stack, the Instead of free weights or a weight stack, the machine has a cylinder with a valve you use to machine has a cylinder with a valve you use to adjust the setting. Most allow you to make a few adjust the setting. Most allow you to make a few adjustments to the cylinder to further tailor the adjustments to the cylinder to further tailor the resistance to your needs. resistance to your needs.

HYDRAULICSHYDRAULICS They are designed to apply pressure in They are designed to apply pressure in

both directions, both lifting and lowering.both directions, both lifting and lowering. These types of machines are typically These types of machines are typically

designed to be used in settings in which designed to be used in settings in which you participate in a 30-minute circuit-you participate in a 30-minute circuit-training program. training program.

Each machine is designed to target a Each machine is designed to target a specific muscle group. specific muscle group.

PRINCIPLES OF TRAININGPRINCIPLES OF TRAINING Progressive OverloadProgressive Overload

SpecificitySpecificity ReversibilityReversibility

VarietyVariety Training ThresholdsTraining Thresholds

Warm UpWarm Up Cool DownCool Down

PROGRESSIVE OVERLOADPROGRESSIVE OVERLOAD

Implies gains in fitness will occur only when Implies gains in fitness will occur only when the training load is greater than normal and the training load is greater than normal and is progressively increased as improvements is progressively increased as improvements in fitness occur.in fitness occur.

Training produces certain physiological Training produces certain physiological changes that allow the body to work at a changes that allow the body to work at a higher level of intensity.higher level of intensity.

As the body becomes familiar with a As the body becomes familiar with a particular level of training stress, it adapts to particular level of training stress, it adapts to it and further training at this level will fail to it and further training at this level will fail to sufficiently stress the system. sufficiently stress the system.

SPECIFICITYSPECIFICITY

Implies that the effects of a training Implies that the effects of a training program will be specifically related to program will be specifically related to the manner in which the program is the manner in which the program is conducted.conducted.

The principle implies the greatest gains The principle implies the greatest gains will be made when the activity in will be made when the activity in training programs resemble the training programs resemble the movements in games and the activity. movements in games and the activity.

REVERSIBILITYREVERSIBILITY

This implies that fitness gained can be This implies that fitness gained can be lost just as quickly.lost just as quickly.

Fitness increases with activity and Fitness increases with activity and decreases with inactivity. decreases with inactivity.

The longer the build up of fitness, the The longer the build up of fitness, the slower the decline will be. slower the decline will be.

VARIETYVARIETY

Using the same drills and routines will Using the same drills and routines will not be productive as repetition without not be productive as repetition without creativity leads to boredom.creativity leads to boredom.

Mental well being is vital to maximize Mental well being is vital to maximize effort in physical training.effort in physical training.

Cross training increases interest and Cross training increases interest and motivation.motivation.

TRAINING THRESHOLDSTRAINING THRESHOLDS Refers to the levels of intensity that can Refers to the levels of intensity that can

improve our physical conditionsimprove our physical conditions Aerobic ThresholdAerobic Threshold: level of exercise intensity : level of exercise intensity

which is sufficient to cause a training effect. which is sufficient to cause a training effect. This a approximately 70% of a persons max This a approximately 70% of a persons max heart rateheart rate

Aerobic training ZoneAerobic training Zone: a level of intensity : a level of intensity which causes the heart rate to be high enough which causes the heart rate to be high enough to cause significant training gainsto cause significant training gains

Anaerobic ThresholdAnaerobic Threshold: a level of intensity in : a level of intensity in physical activity where the accumulation of physical activity where the accumulation of lactic acid increases very quickly in the blood.lactic acid increases very quickly in the blood.

WARM UPWARM UP Reduces the risk of injury by increasing joint Reduces the risk of injury by increasing joint

mobility (flexibility)mobility (flexibility) Increases heart rate and body temperatureIncreases heart rate and body temperature Improves mental preparationImproves mental preparation Warm up should consist of:Warm up should consist of:

General Body warm up e.g. joggingGeneral Body warm up e.g. jogging Specific flexibility exercises (shouldn’t Specific flexibility exercises (shouldn’t

stretch cold muscles, flexibility >by 20% stretch cold muscles, flexibility >by 20% when warm)when warm)

Calisthenics-sit ups and push upsCalisthenics-sit ups and push ups Skill rehearsalSkill rehearsal

COOL DOWNCOOL DOWN

Minimises muscle stiffness and sorenessMinimises muscle stiffness and soreness Helps disperse lactic acidHelps disperse lactic acid Helps prevent blood poolingHelps prevent blood pooling Cool Down should consist of low Cool Down should consist of low

intensity aerobic work and some intensity aerobic work and some stretchingstretching

PHYSIOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGICAL ADAPTATIONS IN ADAPTATIONS IN

RESPONSE TO TRAININGRESPONSE TO TRAINING

RESTING HEART RATERESTING HEART RATE

This is a reliable indicator of how hard the This is a reliable indicator of how hard the heart is workingheart is working

A trained athlete should have a lower A trained athlete should have a lower resting heart rate than an untrained athleteresting heart rate than an untrained athlete

Continued aerobic training should decrease Continued aerobic training should decrease the resting heart ratethe resting heart rate

Rates as low as 40 bpm are possible for Rates as low as 40 bpm are possible for highly conditioned athleteshighly conditioned athletes

STROKE VOLUMESTROKE VOLUME A substantial increase in stroke volume is a long A substantial increase in stroke volume is a long

term effect of endurance trainingterm effect of endurance training As a result of an increase in blood plasma there is As a result of an increase in blood plasma there is

more blood in circulation following training( can more blood in circulation following training( can increase by as much as ½ a litre after eight days increase by as much as ½ a litre after eight days of training). This causes the ventricles to fill more of training). This causes the ventricles to fill more than in the untrained athlete and will also cause than in the untrained athlete and will also cause more forceful contractions which results in less more forceful contractions which results in less blood remaining in the ventriclesblood remaining in the ventricles

Regular training causes the left ventricle to more Regular training causes the left ventricle to more completely fill during diastolecompletely fill during diastole

The increased oxygen available to working The increased oxygen available to working muscles results in improved performancemuscles results in improved performance

CARDIAC OUTPUTCARDIAC OUTPUT

Cardiac output in trained individuals is much Cardiac output in trained individuals is much higher during exercise than untrained higher during exercise than untrained individualsindividuals

This greater output is achieved through This greater output is achieved through increases in stroke volumeincreases in stroke volume

As we grow older decreases in stroke volume As we grow older decreases in stroke volume will result in decreases in cardiac output will result in decreases in cardiac output

OXYGEN UPTAKEOXYGEN UPTAKE Maximal oxygen intake (VOMaximal oxygen intake (VO2 2 max) refers to max) refers to

the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles the maximal amount of oxygen that muscles can absorb and utilise at that level of workcan absorb and utilise at that level of work

This is relatively easy to estimate using This is relatively easy to estimate using submaximal tests such as the bicycle submaximal tests such as the bicycle ergometer test or the 12 minute runergometer test or the 12 minute run

Measurements are expressed in ml/kg/min Measurements are expressed in ml/kg/min I.e. How much oxygen is consumed per I.e. How much oxygen is consumed per kilogram of weight every minute kilogram of weight every minute

OXYGEN UPTAKEOXYGEN UPTAKE Training appreciably increases VOTraining appreciably increases VO2 2 max max

this is most evident in untrained athletes this is most evident in untrained athletes who will see the greatest improvementwho will see the greatest improvement

The highest recorded value for a female The highest recorded value for a female 74ml/kg/min74ml/kg/min

The highest recorded value for a male is The highest recorded value for a male is 94ml/kg/min94ml/kg/min

It would normally take an 8-12 week It would normally take an 8-12 week period of training to see an appreciable period of training to see an appreciable increase in VOincrease in VO2 2 maxmax

LUNG CAPACITYLUNG CAPACITY

No matter how efficient the cardiovascular No matter how efficient the cardiovascular system is in supplying blood to the tissues, system is in supplying blood to the tissues, endurance is hindered if the respiratory endurance is hindered if the respiratory system does not supply enough oxygen to system does not supply enough oxygen to meet demandmeet demand

Total lung capacity is about 6000ml in males Total lung capacity is about 6000ml in males slightly less in femalesslightly less in females

Vital capacityVital capacity is the amount of air that can is the amount of air that can be expended after maximal inspiration – this be expended after maximal inspiration – this increases slightly with trainingincreases slightly with training

LUNG CAPACITYLUNG CAPACITY

Residual volumeResidual volume is the amount of air is the amount of air that cannot be moved out of the lungs – that cannot be moved out of the lungs – decreases slightly with trainingdecreases slightly with training

Tidal volume is the amount of air Tidal volume is the amount of air breathed in and out during a normal breathed in and out during a normal respiration – appears to increase at respiration – appears to increase at maximal levels of exercise but is maximal levels of exercise but is unchanged at submaximal and restunchanged at submaximal and rest

HAEMOGLOBIN LEVELHAEMOGLOBIN LEVEL Haemoglobin is contained in the red Haemoglobin is contained in the red

blood cells of the body. Most oxygen in blood cells of the body. Most oxygen in the body is transported by the the body is transported by the haemoglobin in the red blood cellshaemoglobin in the red blood cells

Haemoglobin levels increase as a Haemoglobin levels increase as a result of training and this increases result of training and this increases oxygen carrying capacityoxygen carrying capacity

Training increases blood plasma as Training increases blood plasma as well as increasing red blood cell well as increasing red blood cell numbers.numbers.

MUSCLE HYPERTROPHYMUSCLE HYPERTROPHY

This refers to an increase in muscle size.This refers to an increase in muscle size. As an immediate response to training, the As an immediate response to training, the

muscle fibres increase in size as more fluid muscle fibres increase in size as more fluid goes to the muscle.goes to the muscle.

As a response to extended training, the As a response to extended training, the muscles used will increase in size again as muscles used will increase in size again as the fibres adapt to the training load and the fibres adapt to the training load and lead to an overall increase in muscle size.lead to an overall increase in muscle size.

FAST/SLOW TWITCH FAST/SLOW TWITCH MUSCLE FIBRESMUSCLE FIBRES

The effect of training on the type of muscle The effect of training on the type of muscle fibre developed relates directly to specificity.fibre developed relates directly to specificity.

Fast-twitch (Explosive Movement).Fast-twitch (Explosive Movement). Slow-twitch ( Longer Slower Contraction).Slow-twitch ( Longer Slower Contraction). Low to moderate activity will recruit slow-Low to moderate activity will recruit slow-

twitch fibres and increase the cross sectional twitch fibres and increase the cross sectional area of these fibres. These fibres have a high area of these fibres. These fibres have a high aerobic endurance capacity and they are aerobic endurance capacity and they are recruited also in our daily lifestyle.recruited also in our daily lifestyle.

MUSCLE FIBRESMUSCLE FIBRES Fast-twitch muscle fibres need to be Fast-twitch muscle fibres need to be

specifically developed through particular specifically developed through particular types of training. E.g. speed training & types of training. E.g. speed training & plyometrics.plyometrics.

Any training athletes do for fast-twitch fibres Any training athletes do for fast-twitch fibres must be maintained, otherwise the effects of must be maintained, otherwise the effects of training will be lost due to reversibility.training will be lost due to reversibility.

It is a documented fact that athletes of dark It is a documented fact that athletes of dark skin origin have genetically more fast-twitch skin origin have genetically more fast-twitch muscle fibres. muscle fibres.

(FQ2) HOW CAN (FQ2) HOW CAN PSYCHOLOGY AFFECT PSYCHOLOGY AFFECT

PERFORMANCE?PERFORMANCE?

MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

Motivation is the increased state of Motivation is the increased state of arousal or excitement an individual arousal or excitement an individual experiences when trying to reach a experiences when trying to reach a optimal level of performance. optimal level of performance. Motivation greatly influences the Motivation greatly influences the amount of interest and effort an athlete amount of interest and effort an athlete gives to a task. Motivation is a gives to a task. Motivation is a personal thing and what motivates one personal thing and what motivates one person may not motivate another person may not motivate another person at that point in time.person at that point in time.

POSITIVE & NEGATIVE POSITIVE & NEGATIVE MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

The use of positive motivation tends The use of positive motivation tends to be more effective than negative to be more effective than negative motivation in improving an motivation in improving an individual’s performance.individual’s performance.

It results in higher levels of It results in higher levels of improvement in performance, and improvement in performance, and tends to last longer than any gains tends to last longer than any gains made from the use of negative made from the use of negative motivation.motivation.

INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC INTRINSIC & EXTRINSIC MOTIVATIONMOTIVATION

Individuals who are motivated to Individuals who are motivated to perform because of intrinsic (internal) perform because of intrinsic (internal) feelings are said to be intrinsically feelings are said to be intrinsically motivated.motivated.

This is believed to be more effective This is believed to be more effective than an athlete relying upon extrinsic than an athlete relying upon extrinsic (external) factors for a successful (external) factors for a successful performance.performance.

REINFORCEMENTREINFORCEMENT• The type of reinforcement an athlete The type of reinforcement an athlete

receives may also affect an athlete’s receives may also affect an athlete’s motivation. Reinforcement refers to the motivation. Reinforcement refers to the consequences that arise as a result of the consequences that arise as a result of the behaviour. It can be positive or negative behaviour. It can be positive or negative and internal or external. and internal or external.

• Reinforcement most often comes in the Reinforcement most often comes in the form of rewards (positive reinforcement). form of rewards (positive reinforcement). The rewards reinforce the act and let the The rewards reinforce the act and let the athlete know that further progress will be athlete know that further progress will be rewarded in the same way. Athletes rewarded in the same way. Athletes should be continually reinforced as they should be continually reinforced as they progress towards producing the desired progress towards producing the desired response. response.

ANXIETYANXIETY

TRAIT ANXIETYTRAIT ANXIETY

Trait Anxiety refers to a general level of Trait Anxiety refers to a general level of stress that is characteristic of each stress that is characteristic of each individual. individual.

Trait anxiety varies according to how Trait anxiety varies according to how individuals have conditioned themselves to individuals have conditioned themselves to respond to and manage stress.respond to and manage stress.

ANXIETYANXIETY

• STATE ANXIETYSTATE ANXIETY

State anxiety is more specific. It refers State anxiety is more specific. It refers to a heightened presence of distress in to a heightened presence of distress in response to a particular situationresponse to a particular situation

The non specific responses of the body to The non specific responses of the body to a demand placed on it. It can come from a demand placed on it. It can come from a number of places e.g. parents, media or a number of places e.g. parents, media or from within e.g. how you cope with a from within e.g. how you cope with a certain situation/problem. certain situation/problem.

• Stepping outside comfort zoneStepping outside comfort zone• Break up of relationshipBreak up of relationship• Change in playing conditionsChange in playing conditions• Making a big decision that could affect Making a big decision that could affect

othersothers

SOURCES OF STRESSSOURCES OF STRESS

AROUSALAROUSAL

• The level of stress under which you The level of stress under which you operate is important:operate is important:

• If you are not under enough stress, If you are not under enough stress, then you may find that your then you may find that your performance suffers because you are performance suffers because you are bored and unmotivated.bored and unmotivated.

• If you are under too much stress, then If you are under too much stress, then you will find that your results suffer as you will find that your results suffer as you find it difficult to focus on you find it difficult to focus on technique and fail to flow with the technique and fail to flow with the performance. performance.

AROUSALAROUSAL• Where stress is too high, your performance can Where stress is too high, your performance can

suffer from all the symptoms of stress. Your flow suffer from all the symptoms of stress. Your flow can be disrupted, you can be distracted, and can be disrupted, you can be distracted, and competition can become threatening and competition can become threatening and unpleasant.unpleasant.

• In the middle, at a moderate level of stress, there In the middle, at a moderate level of stress, there is a zone of best performance. If you can keep is a zone of best performance. If you can keep yourself within this zone, then you will be yourself within this zone, then you will be sufficiently aroused to give a high quality sufficiently aroused to give a high quality performance, while not being over-stressed and performance, while not being over-stressed and unhappy.unhappy.

• Within this zone is called OPTIMAL AEROUSALWithin this zone is called OPTIMAL AEROUSAL

OPTIMAL AROUSALOPTIMAL AROUSAL

• This zone of optimum performance is in a different This zone of optimum performance is in a different place and is a different shape for different people. place and is a different shape for different people. Some people may operate most effectively at a Some people may operate most effectively at a level of stress that would leave other people either level of stress that would leave other people either bored or in pieces. It is possible that someone who bored or in pieces. It is possible that someone who functions superbly in a low level competition might functions superbly in a low level competition might experience difficulties in high level competition. experience difficulties in high level competition. Alternatively someone who performs only Alternatively someone who performs only moderately at low level of competition might give moderately at low level of competition might give exceptional performances under extreme pressure. exceptional performances under extreme pressure.

• Not only will the zones of optimum Not only will the zones of optimum performance be in different places for different performance be in different places for different athletes, they will also be different heights and athletes, they will also be different heights and different widths. This is why you must take different widths. This is why you must take responsibility for controlling your own levels of responsibility for controlling your own levels of stress, particularly in a team situation: if the stress, particularly in a team situation: if the team generally needs motivation, but you are team generally needs motivation, but you are in an optimum zone, then paying attention to a in an optimum zone, then paying attention to a motivating team talk may move you to a state motivating team talk may move you to a state of being over-stressed. Similarly if some team of being over-stressed. Similarly if some team members need to be relaxed, then relaxation members need to be relaxed, then relaxation techniques applied to an entire team may techniques applied to an entire team may move you to a state of bored demotivation. move you to a state of bored demotivation.

• You may also find that fine and complex You may also find that fine and complex skills are less tolerant to stress than skills are less tolerant to stress than simple skills - your zone of optimum simple skills - your zone of optimum performance may be narrower for very performance may be narrower for very difficult skills than for the basic skills of difficult skills than for the basic skills of the sport. the sport.

FINDING OPTIMAL FINDING OPTIMAL AROUSAL LEVELSAROUSAL LEVELS

• An effective way of finding the stress level at An effective way of finding the stress level at which you operate best is to keep a training and which you operate best is to keep a training and performance log. In this record the quality of performance log. In this record the quality of every training session or performance, along with every training session or performance, along with the level of stress that you felt during that the level of stress that you felt during that performance. If you have stress monitoring performance. If you have stress monitoring equipment, and can score your performance, then equipment, and can score your performance, then this gives you hard, objective figures to use in this gives you hard, objective figures to use in your training log. If you do not have the ability to your training log. If you do not have the ability to do this, then record your subjective views of the do this, then record your subjective views of the stress levels you felt and the quality of the session. stress levels you felt and the quality of the session.

• After a time review the training log - After a time review the training log - this should give you some good this should give you some good information on the way that you information on the way that you respond to stress. This information will respond to stress. This information will help you to decide and implement a help you to decide and implement a stress management program that is stress management program that is appropriate to the different sporting appropriate to the different sporting situations you find yourself in. situations you find yourself in.

INCREASING AROUSALINCREASING AROUSAL

• Increase your rhythm and rate of Increase your rhythm and rate of breathingbreathing• Focus on the task at hand Focus on the task at hand • Stretch and exercise more prior to play Stretch and exercise more prior to play • Listen to upbeat music prior to play Listen to upbeat music prior to play • Visualize powerful forces (e.g., leaping Visualize powerful forces (e.g., leaping cheetah, rocket blast) cheetah, rocket blast) • Draw energy from the crowd Draw energy from the crowd

DECREASING AROUSALDECREASING AROUSAL

(1)(1)Breath deeply and slowly from the Breath deeply and slowly from the diaphragmdiaphragm(2) Engage in a popular form of meditation (2) Engage in a popular form of meditation (3) Quietly repeat a key word or phrase to (3) Quietly repeat a key word or phrase to yourself (e.g., calm, easy, cool) yourself (e.g., calm, easy, cool) (4) Direct your focus on performance rather (4) Direct your focus on performance rather than outcome than outcome (5) Engage in Progressive Muscle (5) Engage in Progressive Muscle Relaxation-briefly tensing and relaxing Relaxation-briefly tensing and relaxing muscle groups, noting differences between muscle groups, noting differences between tension and relaxation tension and relaxation

DECREASING AROUSALDECREASING AROUSAL

Dictate your own pace and take your time Dictate your own pace and take your time between points between points Practice adjusting your level of arousal on Practice adjusting your level of arousal on a regular basis until you find the level at a regular basis until you find the level at which you perform best. You'll know it which you perform best. You'll know it when you are optimally aroused! when you are optimally aroused!

MANAGING ANXIETYMANAGING ANXIETY

Athletes need to be able to manage Athletes need to be able to manage anxiety effectively if they are to anxiety effectively if they are to achieve their optimal performance achieve their optimal performance level.level.

Anxiety can be defined as the concerns, Anxiety can be defined as the concerns, thoughts and feelings associated with thoughts and feelings associated with an approaching performancean approaching performance

PSYCHOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE STRATEGIES TO ENHANCE

MOTIVATION AND MOTIVATION AND MANAGE ANXIETYMANAGE ANXIETY

• Concentration/Attention skills (focusing)• Mental Rehearsal/Visualisation/Imagery• Relaxation Techniques• Goal - Setting

CONCENTRATION/CONCENTRATION/ATTENTIONATTENTION

SKILLS (FOCUSING)SKILLS (FOCUSING)• This refers to the ability of the athlete This refers to the ability of the athlete

to focus their thoughts and energy into to focus their thoughts and energy into the task at hand. It allows for the task at hand. It allows for distractions (e.g. a crowd) to be distractions (e.g. a crowd) to be minimised.minimised.

MENTAL MENTAL REHEARSAL/VISUALISATIREHEARSAL/VISUALISATI

ON/IMAGERYON/IMAGERY• This involves practising the performance This involves practising the performance

in your mind. in your mind. • When mentally rehearsing you produce a When mentally rehearsing you produce a

successful performance over and over successful performance over and over again.again.

• This allows you to picture a performance This allows you to picture a performance in your mind and gives your body a ‘map’ in your mind and gives your body a ‘map’ or ‘blue print’ to produce a movement. or ‘blue print’ to produce a movement.

• It helps the performer focus on the It helps the performer focus on the movements required to produce an movements required to produce an optimal performance.optimal performance.

RELAXATION RELAXATION TECHNIQUESTECHNIQUES

• These are ways to reduce the risk of These are ways to reduce the risk of over-arousal before a performance.over-arousal before a performance.

• Relaxation helps lower the stress level Relaxation helps lower the stress level of the body before a performance.of the body before a performance.

• E.g. Meditation, Progressive muscular E.g. Meditation, Progressive muscular relaxationrelaxation

GOAL SETTINGGOAL SETTING

• Setting goals allows an athlete’s progress to Setting goals allows an athlete’s progress to be planned and monitored over a period of be planned and monitored over a period of time.time.

• It can also increase motivation and It can also increase motivation and commitment levels of the athlete.commitment levels of the athlete.

• Goals need to be realistic and achievable in Goals need to be realistic and achievable in the time frame established.the time frame established.

• Goals may relate to areas such as the overall Goals may relate to areas such as the overall performance, specific skills involved, performance, specific skills involved, strategies and fitness.strategies and fitness.

(FQ3) HOW CAN NUTRITION AND (FQ3) HOW CAN NUTRITION AND RECOVERY STRATEGIES AFFECT RECOVERY STRATEGIES AFFECT

PERFORMANCE?PERFORMANCE?

NUTRITIONAL NUTRITIONAL CONSIDERATIONSCONSIDERATIONS

Macronutrients:Macronutrients: ProteinProtein CarbohydratesCarbohydrates FatFat

These are the major These are the major nutrients which nutrients which supply energy and supply energy and are essential for are essential for growth and growth and development.development.

MicronutrientsMicronutrients VitaminsVitamins MineralsMinerals WaterWater These are These are

essential nutrients essential nutrients but do not supply but do not supply energyenergy

CARBOHYDRATESCARBOHYDRATES Ideal fuel for activityIdeal fuel for activity Complex-cereals, wholegrain, fruit and Complex-cereals, wholegrain, fruit and

vegetablesvegetables Simple- cakes, sweets, biscuitsSimple- cakes, sweets, biscuits Should be predominant energy sourceShould be predominant energy source Muscle and liver glycogen is synthesized Muscle and liver glycogen is synthesized

directly from carbohydratesdirectly from carbohydrates Only source of fuel used during Only source of fuel used during

anaerobic Glycolosis (short, high anaerobic Glycolosis (short, high intensity)intensity)

Brain and nervous system rely on Brain and nervous system rely on carbohydrates exclusively as they are carbohydrates exclusively as they are unable to use either protein or fatunable to use either protein or fat

Muscle glycogen stores take 24 hrs to Muscle glycogen stores take 24 hrs to restorerestore

Glycogen sparing – this is the metabolism Glycogen sparing – this is the metabolism of fat instead of carbohydrates during of fat instead of carbohydrates during endurance work even though the body has endurance work even though the body has sufficient energy stores of carbohydratessufficient energy stores of carbohydrates

Glycogen – this is the storage form of Glycogen – this is the storage form of carbohydrates found in muscles and livercarbohydrates found in muscles and liver

FATFAT

Important for low intensity, long durationImportant for low intensity, long duration Becomes fuel supplier as glycogen Becomes fuel supplier as glycogen

reserves become depletedreserves become depleted Dense in energy however needs more Dense in energy however needs more

oxygen for metabolism and ensuing oxygen for metabolism and ensuing energy production. Results in increased energy production. Results in increased respiration, increased body temperature respiration, increased body temperature and increased need for fluidand increased need for fluid

Endurance athletes have no need for Endurance athletes have no need for extra fatextra fat

Unsaturated fats are best, found in Unsaturated fats are best, found in vegetable and fish oilvegetable and fish oil

Excess fat, carbohydrates and protein Excess fat, carbohydrates and protein is stored in fat cells is stored in fat cells

PROTEINPROTEIN

Important for structural role in holding Important for structural role in holding the cells together and in growth as well the cells together and in growth as well as repair and maintenance of body as repair and maintenance of body tissuetissue

Used as energy source under extreme Used as energy source under extreme conditionsconditions

Athletes need 1mg of protein for every Athletes need 1mg of protein for every kilogram of body weightkilogram of body weight

WATERWATER

Second to oxygen as an essential life Second to oxygen as an essential life providing elementproviding element

Body stores water both within the cells Body stores water both within the cells (intracellular) and outside the cells (intracellular) and outside the cells (extra cellular)(extra cellular)

Doesn’t provide energyDoesn’t provide energy Losses higher than 15% can be fatalLosses higher than 15% can be fatal

PRE-PERFORMANCE PRE-PERFORMANCE NUTRITIONNUTRITION

A high complex carbohydrate meal A high complex carbohydrate meal should be consumed several hours prior should be consumed several hours prior to an event so it has time to be digested to an event so it has time to be digested properly. E.g. spaghetti bolognaise.properly. E.g. spaghetti bolognaise.

Two hours prior a carbohydrate based Two hours prior a carbohydrate based snack to top up glucose levels. E.g. snack to top up glucose levels. E.g. muffinmuffin

Continued hydration with water or Continued hydration with water or carbohydrate drinks prior to competing.carbohydrate drinks prior to competing.

CARBOHYDRATE LOADINGCARBOHYDRATE LOADING

Carbohydrate Loading: Carbohydrate Loading:

This is a process that seeks to maximize is a process that seeks to maximize the amount of glycogen stored in the the amount of glycogen stored in the muscles and liver, for use during muscles and liver, for use during aerobic performance.aerobic performance.

There are variations in the process for There are variations in the process for athletes to consider. athletes to consider.

NUTRITION DURING NUTRITION DURING PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE

Depending on the length of the activity, Depending on the length of the activity, nutritional demands will differ.nutritional demands will differ.

Any activity under one hour only requires Any activity under one hour only requires hydration with water and food is not hydration with water and food is not necessary.necessary.

Endurance athletes E.g. Triathlete will Endurance athletes E.g. Triathlete will require hydration from water and possibly require hydration from water and possibly energy drinks. They will also need to eat energy drinks. They will also need to eat carbohydrate snacks E.g. bananas during carbohydrate snacks E.g. bananas during the event.the event.

POST PERFORMANCE POST PERFORMANCE NUTRITIONNUTRITION

After performance nutrition includes a meal After performance nutrition includes a meal that contains protein (for repair of tissue) that contains protein (for repair of tissue) and carbohydrate to replenish blood sugar and carbohydrate to replenish blood sugar levels.levels.

Endurance athletes eat basically anything Endurance athletes eat basically anything carbohydrate as soon as possible after the carbohydrate as soon as possible after the completion of their event. completion of their event.

Foods with protein are also essential as is Foods with protein are also essential as is hydration for the next 24-48 hours hydration for the next 24-48 hours depending on the length of the event. depending on the length of the event.

SUPPLEMENTATIONSUPPLEMENTATION

Supplementation is the process used by Supplementation is the process used by athletes who cannot derive sufficient athletes who cannot derive sufficient nutrient intake from their food nutrient intake from their food consumption to meet their needs.consumption to meet their needs.

In many cases normal dietary intake is In many cases normal dietary intake is in fact sufficient and athletes using in fact sufficient and athletes using supplements are then taking in supplements are then taking in unnecessarily high amounts of certain unnecessarily high amounts of certain nutrients.nutrients.

VITAMINS/MINERALSVITAMINS/MINERALS

Vitamins are essential to maintain bodily Vitamins are essential to maintain bodily functions. Most athletes get the required functions. Most athletes get the required amount through their diet or a multivitamin. amount through their diet or a multivitamin. Excess vitamin intake is expensive, wasteful & Excess vitamin intake is expensive, wasteful & potentially dangerous.potentially dangerous.

Minerals are also essential for the body to Minerals are also essential for the body to function properly. Iron & calcium are the two function properly. Iron & calcium are the two minerals that are most commonly deficient in minerals that are most commonly deficient in athletes. Inadequate supplies will affect athletes. Inadequate supplies will affect performance and contribute to health problems.performance and contribute to health problems.

PROTEINPROTEIN

Proteins function is in the growth, repair & Proteins function is in the growth, repair & maintenance of body tissue.maintenance of body tissue.

Research supports the idea that most Research supports the idea that most athletes do not need or benefit from protein athletes do not need or benefit from protein supplementation.supplementation.

Some supplementation in specific cases Some supplementation in specific cases such as strength athletes, endurance such as strength athletes, endurance athletes in heavy training and possibly athletes in heavy training and possibly adolescents undergoing a growth spur is adolescents undergoing a growth spur is acceptable. acceptable.

CAFFEINECAFFEINE

Caffeine improves cognitive processes such as Caffeine improves cognitive processes such as alertness, improved concentration, improved alertness, improved concentration, improved memory & reasoning following mild consumption.memory & reasoning following mild consumption.

It does not appear to enhance performance in It does not appear to enhance performance in short term high intensity activities such as short term high intensity activities such as sprinting.sprinting.

Some studies suggest it should be avoided to Some studies suggest it should be avoided to avoid dehydration from its diuretic properties.avoid dehydration from its diuretic properties.

Caffeine has ergogenic aid properties as it Caffeine has ergogenic aid properties as it promotes “glycogen sparing”promotes “glycogen sparing”

CREATINE PRODUCTSCREATINE PRODUCTS

Creatine cannot be stored in the body Creatine cannot be stored in the body therefore the idea of supplementation is therefore the idea of supplementation is supported by many athletes, particularly supported by many athletes, particularly those involved in predominately anaerobic those involved in predominately anaerobic programs.programs.

Creatine supplementation may assist with Creatine supplementation may assist with muscle hypertrophy when weight training muscle hypertrophy when weight training but it does have negative effects such as but it does have negative effects such as cramps, weight gain and the possibility of cramps, weight gain and the possibility of developing renal disease.developing renal disease.

RECOVERY STRATEGIESRECOVERY STRATEGIES

PHYSIOLOGICAL STRATEGIESPHYSIOLOGICAL STRATEGIES NEURAL STRATEGIESNEURAL STRATEGIES

TISSUE DAMAGE STRATEGIESTISSUE DAMAGE STRATEGIES PYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIESPYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIES

PHYSIOLOGICAL PHYSIOLOGICAL STRATEGIESSTRATEGIES

COOL – DOWNCOOL – DOWN

NUTRITIONAL PLANNUTRITIONAL PLAN

Fluid RecoveryFluid Recovery

Fuel RecoveryFuel Recovery

NEURAL STRATEGIESNEURAL STRATEGIES

HYDROTHERAPYHYDROTHERAPY

MASSAGEMASSAGE

TISSUE DAMAGE TISSUE DAMAGE STRATEGIESSTRATEGIES CRYOTHERAPYCRYOTHERAPY

This involves the use of cooling to treat This involves the use of cooling to treat injury or quicken recovery from injury or quicken recovery from performances, particularly those that performances, particularly those that involve collisions and/or sustained involve collisions and/or sustained intensity.intensity.

ICE, ICER & ICE BATHSICE, ICER & ICE BATHS

PSYCHOLOGICAL PSYCHOLOGICAL STRATEGIESSTRATEGIES

POSITIVE DEBRIEFING SESSIONSPOSITIVE DEBRIEFING SESSIONS READINGREADING

LISTENING TO MUSICLISTENING TO MUSIC WATCHING MOVIESWATCHING MOVIES

PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR PROGRESSIVE MUSCULAR RELAXATIONRELAXATION

MEDITATION VISUALISATIONMEDITATION VISUALISATION FLOATATIONFLOATATION

POSITIVE SELF TALKPOSITIVE SELF TALK

(FQ4) HOW DOES THE ACQUISITION OF SKILL

AFFECT PERFORMANCE?

STAGES OF SKILL AQUISITION

COGNITIVEASSOCIATIVE

AUTONOMOUS

COGNITIVE– –

Also known as the learning stage.Also known as the learning stage. The cognitive stage is the first learning The cognitive stage is the first learning

process of the learner. process of the learner. It is during this stage when the athlete is It is during this stage when the athlete is

first introduced to the new skill and then first introduced to the new skill and then attempts to perform it for the first time. attempts to perform it for the first time.

During this stage mot of the learning During this stage mot of the learning process has been done. The athlete’s skill process has been done. The athlete’s skill levels are very low but they quickly adapt levels are very low but they quickly adapt and get better.and get better.

There are lots of errors and lots of feedback. There are lots of errors and lots of feedback.

ASSOCIATIVE

Also known as the practice stage.Also known as the practice stage. This stage is when most practice is This stage is when most practice is

performed.performed. There are less errors then in the first There are less errors then in the first

stage but they still occur.stage but they still occur. Errors start decreasing and more Errors start decreasing and more

understanding begins to be processed understanding begins to be processed by the athlete.by the athlete.

AUTONOMOUS

Also known as the automatic stage.Also known as the automatic stage. This stage is the final stage in when This stage is the final stage in when

there are very little or no errors. there are very little or no errors. For the athlete it is no longer necessary For the athlete it is no longer necessary

to concentrate on the action so much, to concentrate on the action so much, and there is more internal feedback. and there is more internal feedback.

They have the correct kinaesthetic They have the correct kinaesthetic movements involvemovements involved. d.

CHARACTERISTICS OF THE CHARACTERISTICS OF THE LEARNERLEARNER

PERSONALITYPERSONALITY

HEREDITARYHEREDITARY

CONFIDENCECONFIDENCE

PRIOR EXPERIENCEPRIOR EXPERIENCE

ABILITYABILITY

PERSONALITYPERSONALITY

Some individuals possess certain Some individuals possess certain personality traits, I.e. confidence, personality traits, I.e. confidence, curiosity, reliability, are more likely to curiosity, reliability, are more likely to learn motor skills quickly.learn motor skills quickly.

They are also more likely to attempt They are also more likely to attempt new skills and to strive to achieve their new skills and to strive to achieve their potentialpotential

HEREDITARYHEREDITARYIt would seem that skill acquisition would not It would seem that skill acquisition would not be hereditary because they younger generation be hereditary because they younger generation would still have to go through the learning would still have to go through the learning process.process.

However important factors in skill acquisition However important factors in skill acquisition such as slow or fast twitch muscle fibres are such as slow or fast twitch muscle fibres are hereditary which helps in a persons ability to hereditary which helps in a persons ability to learn. Motivation is also hereditary which learn. Motivation is also hereditary which helps in the learning process. Other hereditary helps in the learning process. Other hereditary factors include a person’s somatotype factors include a person’s somatotype (endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph), gender (endomorph, mesomorph, ectomorph), gender and age.and age.

CONFIDENCECONFIDENCE

• People with confidence are more likely People with confidence are more likely to attempt a new skill.to attempt a new skill.

• People with confidence are also more People with confidence are also more likely to not be put off by failure at early likely to not be put off by failure at early stages.stages.

• It is important for coaches to build a It is important for coaches to build a level of confidence in every new athlete.level of confidence in every new athlete.

PRIOR EXPERIENCEPRIOR EXPERIENCE

• Some skills occur in other sports so it is Some skills occur in other sports so it is an advantage if an athlete has a general an advantage if an athlete has a general idea of the movement from a past idea of the movement from a past movement. This is known as a movement. This is known as a positive positive transfer of learning.transfer of learning.

• When prior learning in another skill When prior learning in another skill makes it more difficult to learn the new makes it more difficult to learn the new skill this is known as a skill this is known as a negative transfer negative transfer of learningof learning. .

ABILITYABILITYSome athletes, although much hard work is put Some athletes, although much hard work is put into obtaining the skill, have an underlying into obtaining the skill, have an underlying influence that makes them perform better or influence that makes them perform better or more gracefully.more gracefully.

Ability may come down to one or more of the Ability may come down to one or more of the following three areas…following three areas… Kinaesthetic sense – an awareness of body Kinaesthetic sense – an awareness of body

positioning an muscle movement during positioning an muscle movement during performance.performance.

Multi-limb coordination – the capacity to Multi-limb coordination – the capacity to structure movements that involve many body structure movements that involve many body parts into a fluent and effective performance.parts into a fluent and effective performance.

Perceptive sense – the capacity to receive and Perceptive sense – the capacity to receive and interpret information effectively, thus interpret information effectively, thus enhancing the quality of the response.enhancing the quality of the response.

THE LEARNING THE LEARNING ENVIRONMENTENVIRONMENT

• The learning process should take The learning process should take place in a safe and comfortable place in a safe and comfortable environment for the learner. environment for the learner.

• By achieving this environment the By achieving this environment the learner can focus on the new skill learner can focus on the new skill rather than be distracted by external rather than be distracted by external problems.problems.

NATURE OF THE SKILLNATURE OF THE SKILL

Skills can be categorized into several groups.Skills can be categorized into several groups.OpenOpen skills are skills that are performed in skills are skills that are performed in circumstances that are unpredictable and circumstances that are unpredictable and totally uncontrollable. This may include totally uncontrollable. This may include windsurfing or bull riding. They tend to windsurfing or bull riding. They tend to externally-paced, which means the timing of externally-paced, which means the timing of the movement is greatly influenced by external the movement is greatly influenced by external factors.factors.ClosedClosed skills are skills that take place when skills are skills that take place when circumstances are always the same and circumstances are always the same and constant. They very rarely affect the outcome constant. They very rarely affect the outcome of the skill. Egg, throwing a javelin, free throw of the skill. Egg, throwing a javelin, free throw in basketball, chess.in basketball, chess.

Gross motorGross motor skills are skills that involve large skills are skills that involve large groups of muscles such as running, swimming groups of muscles such as running, swimming and hurdling.and hurdling.Fine motorFine motor skills are skills that involve only skills are skills that involve only small muscle groups, such as knitting, archery small muscle groups, such as knitting, archery release. release. DiscreteDiscrete skills have a distinct beginning and skills have a distinct beginning and end that can be identified. E.g. Shot putend that can be identified. E.g. Shot putSerialSerial skills involve a sequence of smaller skills involve a sequence of smaller movements that are assembled to make a total movements that are assembled to make a total skill. E.g. Lay Upskill. E.g. Lay UpContinuousContinuous skills are skills that do not have a skills are skills that do not have a beginning and an end. Examples are beginning and an end. Examples are swimming, running.swimming, running.Self Paced Self Paced skills are movements where the skills are movements where the performer determines the timing & speed of performer determines the timing & speed of execution.execution.Externally paced Externally paced is where an external source is where an external source controls the timing.controls the timing.

THE PERFORMANCE THE PERFORMANCE ELEMENTSELEMENTS

DECISION MAKINGDECISION MAKING

STRATEGIC & TACTICAL STRATEGIC & TACTICAL DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

DECISION MAKINGDECISION MAKINGProductive decision making is best achieved Productive decision making is best achieved through:through:

OBSERVATION-coaching boards, demonstrations OBSERVATION-coaching boards, demonstrations & observation of skilled players and their & observation of skilled players and their movements during a game.movements during a game.

QUESTIONING-by the coach for particular QUESTIONING-by the coach for particular scenarios.scenarios.

WHOLE,PART,WHOLE APPROACH-A game WHOLE,PART,WHOLE APPROACH-A game strategy needs to be taught as a whole so players strategy needs to be taught as a whole so players can see the overall plan. Individuals then need to can see the overall plan. Individuals then need to learn their specific roles. Players then need to walk learn their specific roles. Players then need to walk through emphasising good technique & execution.through emphasising good technique & execution.

The strategy then needs to be practised The strategy then needs to be practised against non-invasive opposition.against non-invasive opposition.

VARIATION- Exploring variation of VARIATION- Exploring variation of strategy is important. Players need to strategy is important. Players need to be encouraged into innovative & be encouraged into innovative & imaginative options.imaginative options.

CREATIVITY-Players need to be involved CREATIVITY-Players need to be involved in all processes to make worthwhile in all processes to make worthwhile contributions and feel valued. This is contributions and feel valued. This is productive in developing decision productive in developing decision making skills.making skills.

STRATEGIC & TACTICAL STRATEGIC & TACTICAL DEVELOPMENTDEVELOPMENT

Strategic understanding refers to the way we Strategic understanding refers to the way we play, where we should be and what to do.play, where we should be and what to do.

Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of Tactical awareness is about utilising ways of gaining an advantage over an opponent.gaining an advantage over an opponent.

Tactical awareness matures gradually through Tactical awareness matures gradually through using drills & mini-games that provide players using drills & mini-games that provide players with match-like situations.with match-like situations.

Strategic & tactical development is built on: Strategic & tactical development is built on: TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY, TECHNICAL EFFICIENCY, UNDERSTANDING & SKILLFULL UNDERSTANDING & SKILLFULL EXECUTIONEXECUTION

PRACTICE METHODSPRACTICE METHODS

MASSEDMASSED

DISTRIBUTEDDISTRIBUTED

WHOLEWHOLE

PARTPART

MASSED/DISTRIBUTEDMASSED/DISTRIBUTED

Massed practice involves a continuous Massed practice involves a continuous practice session, with the rest intervals practice session, with the rest intervals being shorter than the practice being shorter than the practice intervals.intervals.

Distributed practice(or spaced practice) Distributed practice(or spaced practice) involves a broken practice session, with involves a broken practice session, with the intervals of rest or alternative the intervals of rest or alternative activities being longer than the practice activities being longer than the practice intervals.intervals.

WHOLE/PART PRACTICE

Whole practiceWhole practice is when movements in a is when movements in a sport are practiced as a whole. This may sport are practiced as a whole. This may be the case when a tennis serve is be the case when a tennis serve is practiced through the whole range of practiced through the whole range of movement to get a feel for it.movement to get a feel for it.Part practicePart practice is when the full range of a is when the full range of a skill is broken down and the individual skill is broken down and the individual components are practiced by components are practiced by themselves. E.g. in a tennis serve the themselves. E.g. in a tennis serve the throw up of the ball or just the follow throw up of the ball or just the follow through may be practiced.through may be practiced.

FEEDBACKFEEDBACK

Feedback is the information provided to Feedback is the information provided to the learner about the nature or result of the learner about the nature or result of their performance.their performance.

All learners derive internal feedback All learners derive internal feedback from performing a particular skill and from performing a particular skill and from external sources such as the from external sources such as the coach.coach.

Feedback is provided following analysis Feedback is provided following analysis of the output.of the output.

INTERNAL/EXTERNALINTERNAL/EXTERNAL Intrinsic or internal feedbackIntrinsic or internal feedback is when is when

an athlete gets a kinaesthetic sense for an athlete gets a kinaesthetic sense for the movement they are performing. the movement they are performing. E.g. such as seeing the ball and E.g. such as seeing the ball and hearing it hit the bat.hearing it hit the bat.

Extrinsic, or external feedbackExtrinsic, or external feedback is the is the feedback that an athlete gets from feedback that an athlete gets from another person, such as a coach or another person, such as a coach or parent, on how they are performing the parent, on how they are performing the skill and what they can do to correct it.skill and what they can do to correct it.

CONCURRENT/DELAYEDCONCURRENT/DELAYED

Concurrent feedbackConcurrent feedback is feedback is feedback received during performance.received during performance.

Delayed feedback Delayed feedback is feedback which is is feedback which is given when the athlete is finished, given when the athlete is finished, after the skill is completed.after the skill is completed.

KNOWLEDGE OF KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS/KNOWLEDGE OF RESULTS/KNOWLEDGE OF

PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE Knowledge of results Knowledge of results feedback is information feedback is information

about the outcome of a movement. E.g. what about the outcome of a movement. E.g. what distance was covered in the long jump.distance was covered in the long jump.

Knowledge of performanceKnowledge of performance is feedback given is feedback given to an athlete about skill weakness that they to an athlete about skill weakness that they have, which is not making them achieve full have, which is not making them achieve full potential. This may be the case in tennis potential. This may be the case in tennis when a tennis player is not getting full power when a tennis player is not getting full power in their shot because of poor stroke in their shot because of poor stroke technique. The coach will advise them on technique. The coach will advise them on how to improve this.how to improve this.

ASSESSMENT OF SKILL & ASSESSMENT OF SKILL & PERFORMANCEPERFORMANCE

To improve performance, assessment To improve performance, assessment needs to be made.needs to be made.

Each type of performance has a number Each type of performance has a number of ways by which it can be measured.of ways by which it can be measured.

An athletes skill can be observed and An athletes skill can be observed and analysed, tests can be used and they analysed, tests can be used and they can be judged in competition.can be judged in competition.

CHARACTERICTICS OF CHARACTERICTICS OF SKILLED PERFORMERSSKILLED PERFORMERS

Kinaesthetic sense:Kinaesthetic sense: This is the awareness of body and This is the awareness of body and

muscle positioning while performing a muscle positioning while performing a skill, during performance. A cricket skill, during performance. A cricket player feels the hit of the ball was player feels the hit of the ball was smooth.smooth.

Anticipation and timing:Anticipation and timing: The athlete’s capacity to accurately The athlete’s capacity to accurately

predict and read the game or the predict and read the game or the movement, and then act accordingly. movement, and then act accordingly. This may include an intercept in football.This may include an intercept in football.

SKILLED PERFORMERSSKILLED PERFORMERS

Consistency:Consistency: A skilled performer is likely to always A skilled performer is likely to always

give a consistent performance give a consistent performance whereas the unskilled performer is whereas the unskilled performer is not.not.

TechniqueTechnique Technique is a procedure applied to a Technique is a procedure applied to a

particular task. Good techniques have particular task. Good techniques have been established whereby players can been established whereby players can learn to carry out the procedure in learn to carry out the procedure in the most effective manner.the most effective manner.

OBJECTIVE & SUBJECTIVE OBJECTIVE & SUBJECTIVE PERFORMANCE MEASURESPERFORMANCE MEASURES

Objective measurement Objective measurement is when the is when the result is unanimous based on the fact result is unanimous based on the fact that they cannot be changed. E.g. that they cannot be changed. E.g. electronic staring and finishing in electronic staring and finishing in swimming, archery.swimming, archery.

Subjective measurement Subjective measurement is when the is when the results are influenced by judges etc. the results are influenced by judges etc. the methods of measurement are not obvious methods of measurement are not obvious to the user. E.g., gymnastics, diving.to the user. E.g., gymnastics, diving.

Strategies that are in place to make Strategies that are in place to make subjective measurement more even and fair subjective measurement more even and fair are…are…

Prescribed judging criteria. Using people Prescribed judging criteria. Using people with the required expertise.with the required expertise.Ensure that everybody concerned with the Ensure that everybody concerned with the competition is aware of the criteria.competition is aware of the criteria.Use a panel of judges.Use a panel of judges.Using judges that have no personal Using judges that have no personal affiliation with any of the athletes.affiliation with any of the athletes.When a number of scores is presented, When a number of scores is presented, the highest and lowest score are the highest and lowest score are disregarded then the remaining scores are disregarded then the remaining scores are averaged out.averaged out.Using established measurement such as Using established measurement such as checklists and rating scales.checklists and rating scales.

VALIDITY & RELIABILITY OF VALIDITY & RELIABILITY OF TESTSTESTS

ValidityValidity is the honesty of a test – that is, is the honesty of a test – that is, the degree to which it measures what it is the degree to which it measures what it is supposed to measure. E.g. The standing supposed to measure. E.g. The standing broad jump measures power. This is valid.broad jump measures power. This is valid.

ReliabilityReliability refers to the degree of refers to the degree of consistency of a test – that is, the ability of consistency of a test – that is, the ability of the test and tester to produce the same the test and tester to produce the same results on successive occasions. Again the results on successive occasions. Again the standing broad jump is reliable as it is standing broad jump is reliable as it is simple and easy to set up and measure simple and easy to set up and measure accurately in almost any environment.accurately in almost any environment.

PERSONAL V PRESCRIBED PERSONAL V PRESCRIBED JUDGING CRITERIAJUDGING CRITERIA

Objective measurement Objective measurement of a performance of a performance can assist in making can assist in making a subjective a subjective or or personal opinion. Subjectiveness is based on personal opinion. Subjectiveness is based on a judge or selectors opinion.a judge or selectors opinion.

In a dance routine, a judge may view the In a dance routine, a judge may view the dancer to have an aesthetically pleasing dancer to have an aesthetically pleasing performance, therefore a performance, therefore a subjectivesubjective measurement.measurement.

When she makes an When she makes an objectiveobjective measurement measurement by using a scorecard or checklist, it may by using a scorecard or checklist, it may further support her argument that the further support her argument that the dancer performed a great routine. dancer performed a great routine.