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ELECTROSPUN TiO2-BASED NANOMATERIALS FOR
ENERGY STORAGE
XIAOYAN LI
Ph.D
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
2015
-
The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
Department of Mechanical Engineering
Electrospun TiO2-based Nanomaterials for Energy
Storage
Xiaoyan LI
A thesis submitted in partial fulfillment of the requirement for
the
degree of Doctor of Philosophy
May 2015
-
CERTIFICATE OF ORIGINALITY
I hereby declare that this thesis is my own work and that, to
the best of my
knowledge and belief, it reproduces no material previously
published or written,
nor material that has been accepted for the award of any other
degree or
diploma, except where due acknowledgement has been made in the
text.
(Signed)
Xiaoyan LI (Name of Student)
-
I
Abstract
Energy storage is of great importance in supporting the wide
application of two
renewable clean energy sources including solar and intermittent
wind energy.
Batteries, such as Ni-MH, Ni-Cd, lead-acid, and lithium ion
batteries (LIBs), become
the leading candidates for electrical vehicles (EV) and possible
for practical
applications to store electrical energy in the form of chemical
energy. Among of these
batteries, LIBs outperform others due to their high volumetric
and gravimetric energy
densities, low self-discharge, wide temperature working window,
long cycle life and
no memory effect. These benefits make them gain remarkable
success in portable
electronics, such as notebooks, mobile phones, and digital
cameras. However, in order
to satisfy the demand of new markets in EVs and hybrid electric
vehicles (HEV),
LIBs are required with higher energy and power densities, higher
safety, longer
durability and lower cost. Titanium dioxide (TiO2) has emerged
as a promising anode
material for LIBs due to its low cost, environmental
friendliness, and structural
stability during lithium insertion/deinsertion processes.
However, poor electron
transport limits its practical application, especially at high
current densities. This
thesis focuses mainly on developing novel TiO2-based anodes with
excellent
electrochemical performance in terms of high capacity, excellent
rate capability and
long cycle life by using electrospinning technique.
By a simple coaxial electrospinning technique combined with
subsequent
calcination treatment, one-dimensional porous TiO2-carbon
composite nanofibers
(ODPTCNs) with plentiful pores as storage regions and high
conductivity for the
rapid transportation of both electrons and lithium ions was
developed. The novel
-
II
ODPTCNs show a remarkable specific reversible capacity of ~806
mAh g-1 and a
high volumetric capacity of ~1.2 Ah cm-3, and maintain the
capacity of ~680 mAh g-1
after 250 cycles at a current density of 100 mA g-1 and exhibit
an exceptional
discharge rate capability of 5 A g-1 while retaining a capacity
of ~ 260 mAh g-1 after
1600 cycles.
In order to increase the energy density of TiO2 materials, MnO2
with a theoretical
capacity approximately triple higher than that of the graphite
anode was decorated
with TiO2 to form a core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 heterostructures
by combining an
electrospinning technique with a hydrothermal reaction. The
large surface area of the
resulting materials offers sufficient electrode/electrolyte
interface to promote the
charge-transfer reactions, which yields a better rate
capability. The porous structure of
TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 nanofibers not only facilitates Li-ion access,
but also
accommodates large volumetric expansion during the
charging/discharging processes,
resulting in an excellent cycle performance. This material
delivers a high reversible
capacity of 891 mAh g-1 at the first cycle and maintains the
capacity of 888 mAh g-1
after 50 cycles at the current density of 0.1 A g-1; it also
shows a remarkable rate
capability of 2 A g-1 while retaining a capacity of 185 mAh g-1
after 500 cycles.
Nanotube structure is also a promising structure for LIBs due to
its typical
advantages such as one-dimensional (1D) and hollow structures,
which can improve
the electrochemical performance of the electrodes. A novel
nanoarchitecture
constructed by Co3O4 nanoparticles encapsulated in the porous
binary Co3O4-TiO2
nanotubes was exploited by simple electrospinning and hydrolysis
method, followed
by a calcination. The prepared hybrid nanomaterials show
enhanced electrochemical
performance in terms of remarkable specific reversible capacity
of ~1007 mAh g-1 at
-
III
the current density of 0.1 A g-1 after 160 cycles, and an
extraordinarily stable capacity
retention of 673 mAh g-1 after 2000 cycles at a current density
of 3 A g-1.
A novel Sn-nanoparticle in-situ insertion approach by lithiation
was exploited to
address the problem of large expansion of Sn and thus achieve
improved performance.
Sn nanoparticles are inserted into the pores of highly stable
titanium dioxide-carbon
(TiO2-x-C) nanofiber substrates by lithiation, which can
effectively localize the Sn
nanoparticles. During lithiation, Sn reacts with Li to form
Li4.4Sn alloy accompanying
by large volume change, and thus insert into the pores
surrounding the initial Sn
nanoparticles in the TiO2-x-C nanofibers. However, the Li4.4Sn
alloy cannot recover to
the original Sn nanoparticle with diameter about 150 nm after
delithiation due to the
surface absorption force between Sn nanoparticle and TiO2-x-C
substrate, separating
many smaller Sn nanoparticles in the pores of TiO2-x-C
nanofiber. These detached Sn
nanoparticles remained in the pores, which were able to
accommodate their expansion,
thus yielding a very long cycle life. The lithiation-induced
size reduction of the Sn
nanoparticles leads to their uniform distribution in the fibers,
which enhances the
electrochemical activation. Batteries containing these porous
TiO2-x-C-Sn nanofibers
exhibit a high specific capacity of 957 mAh g-1 after 200 cycles
at 0.1 A g-1 and can
cycle more than 10,000 times at 3 A g-1 while retaining more
than 82.3 % of their
capacity (0.177 % decrease per 100 cycles), which represents the
longest cycling life
of Sn-based anodes for LIBs so far.
-
IV
Publications
Journal papers
1. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen, Limin Zhou, Yiu-Wing Mai, Haitao
Huang.
Exceptional electrochemical performance of porous TiO2-carbon
nanofibers
for lithium ion battery anodes. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2014, 2,
3875-3880.
2. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen, Haimin Yao, Xiangyang Zhou, Juan
Yang, Haitao
Huang, Yiu-Wing Mai and Limin Zhou. Core/shell
TiO2-MnO2/MnO2
heterostructure anodes for high-performance lithium-ion
batteries. RSC Adv.,
2014, 4, 39906-39911.
3. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen, Hongtao Wang, Haimin Yao, Haitao
Huang, Yiu-
Wing Mai and Limin Zhou. Inserting tin nanoparticles into the
pores of TiO2-
x-C nanofibers by lithiation. In process.
4. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen, Jing Hu, Haimin Yao, Haitao Huang,
Yiu-Wing
Mai and Limin Zhou. One-dimensional nanoarchitectures
constructed by
Co3O4 nanoparticles encapsulated in the porous binary Co3O4-TiO2
nanotubes
as anode materials with superior lithium-ion storage
performance. In process.
5. Yuming Chen, Xiaoyan Li, Xiangyang Zhou, Haimin Yao, Haitao
Huang,
Yiu-Wing Mai and Limin Zhou. Hollow-tunneled Graphitic
Carbon
Nanofibers Through Ni-diffusion-induced Graphitization as
High-performance
Anode Materials. Energy Environ. Sci., 2014, 7, 2689-2696.
6. Yuming Chen, Xiaoyan Li, Kyu-Sung Park, Jianhe Hong, Jie
Song, Limin
Zhou, Yiu-Wing Mai, Haitao Huang, and John B. Goodenough.
Sulfur
-
V
Encapsulated in Porous Hollow CNTs@CNFs for High-Performance
Lithium-
Sulfur Batteries. J. Mater. Chem. A, 2014, 2, 10126-10130.
7. Yuming Chen, Xiaoyan Li, Kyusung Park, Jie Song, Jianhe Hong,
Limin
Zhou, Yiu-Wing Mai, Haitao Huang, and John B. Goodenough.
Hollow
Carbon-Nanotube/Carbon-Nanofiber Hybrid Anodes for Li-Ion
Batteries. J.
Am. Chem. Soc., 2013,135, 16280-16283.
Book Chapter
Yuming Chen, Xiaoyan Li, Limin Zhou, Yiu-Wing Mai, and Haitao
Huang. High-
Performance Electrospun Nanostructured Composite Fiber Anodes
for Lithium-ion
Batteries, Chapter 21 in MultiFunctionality of Polymer
Composites: Challenges and
New Solutions, Editors by Klaus Friedrich and Ulf Breuer,
Elsevier, 2015, 662-689.
Conference presentation
1. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen, Hongtao Wang, Haimin Yao and Limin
Zhou. Tin
Nanoparticles Encapsulated in the Porous TiO2-C Nanofibers as
Long-term
Anodes for Lithium-ion Batteries. EMRS Spring, 2015, Lille.
2. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen and Limin Zhou. TiO2-C Nanofibers
with Nano-
Sn Particles for Lithium Ion Batteries. ICNN, 2015, Greece.
3. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen and Limin Zhou. Electrospun
Nanostructured
Composite Fiber Anodes for Li-ion Batteries. EMN, 2015,
Turkey.
4. Weiqun Li, Xiaoyan Li, Jingjing Tang, Haimin, Yao and Limin
Zhou. Optimal
Si-nanoparticle-based Nanocomposite Structure with Long-term
Stability for
http://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Chen%2C+Y&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Li%2C+X&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Park%2C+K&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Song%2C+J&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Hong%2C+J&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Zhou%2C+L&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Zhou%2C+L&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Mai%2C+Y&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Huang%2C+H&qsSearchArea=authorhttp://pubs.acs.org/action/doSearch?action=search&author=Goodenough%2C+J+B&qsSearchArea=author
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VI
Li-ion Batteries. AESP7, 2015, Madrid.
5. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen, Haitao Huang, Yiu-Wing Mai and Limin
Zhou.
High-performance Core-shell TiO2-MnO2 Composite Nanofibers
Lithium Ion
Battery Anodes. ICNN, 2014, Hong Kong.
6. Xiaoyan Li, Yuming Chen, Yiu-Wing Mai and Limin Zhou.
Electrospun
Carbon-based Nanofiber/Nanotube Anode Materials for Lithium-ion
Batteries.
PSE, 2014, Beijing.
-
VII
Acknowledgements
I would like to express my deepest appreciation to my
supervisor, Prof. Limin Zhou,
who led me into an interesting research topic and provided
constant guidance,
constructive suggestion, and patient help. Without his
continuous support and
encouragement during the past three years of my PhD study, I
could not complete this
thesis.
I would like to thank Prof. Yiu-Wing Mai in the University of
Sydney, Prof. Haitao
Huang and Prof. Haimin Yao in The Hong Kong Polytechnic
University for their kind
supports, constructive discussions, and comments on my
research.
I would like to thank Prof. Xiaodong Chen in the Nanyang
Technological
University for being my temporary supervisor to guide and
support me during my
visit under the exchange program, which greatly helps me a lot
in my current and
further research.
Besides, my genuine thanks also go to all the past and present
group members
including Dr. Zhouguang Lu, Dr. Keyu Xie, Dr. Min Guo, Dr.
Yuming Chen, Miss
Jing Hu, Miss Jingjing Tang, Mr. Weiqun Li and Mr. Qian Wang for
their advices,
inspirations, encouragements and helps. Their friendships are
one of the treasures that
I have got during the past few years.
I would also like to thank The Hong Kong Polytechnic University
for its financial
support to my study.
Finally, I am heartily thankful to my beloved families for their
unconditional love,
forever understanding, encouragements, and continuous
supports.
-
VIII
This thesis is dedicated to all of them.
-
IX
Table of Contents
Abstract
........................................................................................................................................
I
Publications
...............................................................................................................................
IV
Acknowledgements
..................................................................................................................
VII
Table of Contents
.......................................................................................................................
IX
List of figures
............................................................................................................................
XI
List of tables
.........................................................................................................................XVIII
List of Abbreviations
..............................................................................................................
XIX
Chapter 1 Introduction
.................................................................................................................
1
1.1 Electrospinning
................................................................................................................
1
1.1.1 The principle of electrospinning
...............................................................................
2
1.1.2 Influence parameters of spinning technology on fiber
formation ................................ 2
1.2 Lithium-ion batteries
.......................................................................................................
6
1.2.1 Cathode
...................................................................................................................
10
1.2.1.1 Hybrid cathode based on carbon and olivine compound
................................. 10
1.2.1.2 Hybrid cathode based on carbon and silicate compound
................................. 15
1.2.2 Anode
.....................................................................................................................
18
1.2.2.1 Carbonaceous anode
........................................................................................
18
1.2.2.2 Hybrid metal oxide anode
...............................................................................
29
1.2.2.3 Hybrid alloy anode
..........................................................................................
46
1.3 Objectives and outline
...................................................................................................
53
Chapter 2 Porous TiO2 nanofibers with conductive
carbon.......................................................
57
2.1 Introduction
...................................................................................................................
57
2.2 Coaxial electrospinning technique
................................................................................
58
2.3 Characterization of the ODPTCNs
................................................................................
60
2.4 Li-ion storage in ODPTCNs
..........................................................................................
69
2.5 Summary
.......................................................................................................................
77
Chapter 3 A core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 heterostructure as LIB
anodes ................................ 78
3.1 Introduction
...................................................................................................................
78
3.2 Preparation of core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 heterostructure
........................................ 79
-
X
3.3 Characterisation of core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2
heterostructure ................................. 80
3.4 Advantages of core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 heterostructure
anodes ............................ 89
3.5 Summary
.......................................................................................................................
96
Chapter 4 Porous binary Co3O4-TiO2 nanotubes as anodes for LIBs
........................................ 98
4.1 Introduction
...................................................................................................................
98
4.2 Formation of Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4 nanoarchitectures
................................................... 99
4.3 Characterization of Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4 nanoarchitectures
....................................... 101
4.4 Li-ion storage in Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4 nanoarchitectures
........................................... 107
4.5 Summary
.....................................................................................................................
116
Chapter 5 In-situ insertion of Sn nanoparticles into pores of
TiO2-x-C nanofibers .................. 118
5.1 Introduction
.................................................................................................................
118
5.2 Fabrication and characterizations of TiO2-x-C-Sn nanofibers
...................................... 119
5.3 In-situ TEM observation during charging/discharging
processes ............................... 127
5.4 Merits of size decrease of Sn nanoparticles in the TiO2-x-C
nanofibers ...................... 129
5.5 Virtues of TiO2-x-C-Sn anodes
....................................................................................
131
5.6 Summary
.....................................................................................................................
140
Chapter 6 Conclusion and Further work
.................................................................................
142
6.1 Conclusion
...................................................................................................................
142
6.2 Future work
.................................................................................................................
144
6.2.1 Core/shell C-MOx/C-TiO2 composite nanofibers
................................................. 146
6.2.2 C/TiO2-MOx-CNT core/shell composite nanofibers
............................................. 148
6.2.3 C-TiO2 coaxial nanofibers decorated with MOx nanorod
arrays .......................... 150
Bibliography
............................................................................................................................
152
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XI
List of figures
Figure 1.1 Schematic illustration of a typical electrospinning
setup.
Figure 1.2 Schematic illustration of a typical Li-ion
battery.
Figure 1.3 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of LiFePO4/CNT/C
composite nanofibers,
(b) SEM image of the prepared composite nanofibers, and (c)
cycling performance of
LiFePO4/CNT/C composite nanofibers, LiFePO4/C composite
nanofibers and
LiFePO4 at 0.05C.
Figure 1.4 (a) TEM image of Li2Mn0.94Cr0.06SiO4/C composite
nanofibers. (b)
Cycling performance of Li2MnSiO4 powder, Li2Mn0.94Cr0.06SiO4
powder, and
Li2Mn0.94Cr0.06SiO4/C composite nanofibers at a current density
of C/20.
Figure 1.5 (a) Schematic of material processing. (b-f) TEM
images of the typical step
of Ni diffusion. (g) The charge/discharge profile of the
resulting materials at 0.1 A g-1.
Figure 1.6 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of activated hollow
CNT-CNF hybrid
material. (b) SAED pattern, TEM image, line profile of d-spacing
of the prepared
hybrid carbons. (c) The electrochemical performance of the
resulting hybrid materials.
Figure 1.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process
of the porous
LTO/carbon (PLTO/C) composite nanofibers, (b) cycling
performance of PLTO/C
hybrid, LTO/C composite and LTO, and (c) SEM image of the PLTO/C
composite.
Fig. 1.8 Structure of (a) anatase TiO2, (b) rutile TiO2 and (c)
TiO2(B).
-
XII
Figure 1.9 (a) SEM image of indicate the cross-section of the
carbon nanofibers. (b)
TEM image of 3D-TiO2/C samples after calcination; the insets are
the magnified
images and the SAED patterns. (c) Discharge-charge curves of the
3D-TiO2/C
electrode at various rates (1 C (4th cycle), 2 C (9th cycle), 5
C (14th cycle), 10 C (19th
cycle), 20 C (24th cycle) and 30 C (29th cycle)). (d) Cycling
performance of the 3D-
TiO2/C electrode at various rates (1-30 C). (e) Cycling
performance of the 3D-TiO2/C
electrode at the rate of 30 C.
Figure 1.10 (a) HRTEM image taken from the outer edges of a
TiO2:RuO2 sphere; (b)
corresponding schematic illustration of the self-wired path of
deposited RuO2
nanoparticles. (c-f) Rate performance. Variation of discharge
(■) charge (●) capacities
versus cycle number for different anatase electrodes cycled at
different rates between
voltage limits of 1 and 3 V.
Figure 1.11 (a) Schematic showing the fabrication process of the
composite of Co3O4
nanoparticles in PCNFs, (b) TEM image of Co3O4/PCNF composite,
and (c) cycling
performance of Co3O4/PCNF composite at 0.1 A g-1.
Figure 1.12 (a) SEM image and its corresponding element mapping
(orange for
carbon, green for iron, yellow for oxygen and green for silver)
of the Ag-Fe2O3/CNF
composite. (b) Cycling performance of the Ag-Fe2O3/CNF
composite.
Figure 1.13 (a) Schematic of the preparation process, (b)
cycling performance, (c, d)
TEM images of the nanocavity-engineered Si/carbon composite.
Figure 1.14 The outline of research plan.
-
XIII
Figure 2.1 Schematic illustration of the typical coaxial
electrospinning technique
used to prepare the PS/Ti(OiPr)4/PMMA composite nanofibers.
Figure 2.2 TGA analysis of (A) PS in Ar and (B) ODPTCNs in
flowing air.
Figure 2.3 (A,B,C) FESEM, (D,E) TEM-SEI, (F) TEM, and (G) HRTEM
images of
the ODPTCNs.
Figure 2.4 (A) X-ray diffraction patterns of the ODPTCNs. (B) Ti
2p, (C) C1s, and
(D) O 1s high-resolution XPS spectrum. (E) EELS of C-K, Ti-L2,3,
and O-K edges
taken across the ODPTCNs interfaces. (F) Ramam spectrum of the
ODPTCNs.
Figure 2.5 (A) Pore size distribution and (B) nitrogen
adsorption-desorption
isotherms of the ODPTCNs.
Figure 2.6 Electrochemical properties of the ODPTCNs as anode
electrodes for Li-
ion batteries. (A) Charge-discharge profiles of the ODPTCNs and
TiO2 nanofibers at
a current density of 100 mA g-1 between 3 and 0 V versus Li+/Li.
(B) Cycle
voltammograms of the ODPTCNs in LiPF6 with Li as counter and
reference electrode
at a scan rate of 0.1 mV/s. (C) Cycling performance of the
ODPTCNs at different
current densities between 3 and 0 V versus Li+/Li. (D) Cycling
performance of TiO2
nanofibers at a current density of 100 mA g-1. (E) Rate
capability of the ODPTCNs.
(F) Nyquist plots of the ODPTCNs and TiO2 electrodes with an
amplitude of 5 mV in
the frequency range from 100 kHz to 10 mHz.
Figure 2.7 Charge-discharge curves of the ODPTCNs (A) and TiO2
nanofibers (B)
electrodes obtained at different current densities in the
voltage range of 1-3V.
-
XIV
Figure 2.8 Schematic diagram illustrating the Li+ insertion and
deinsertion processes
inside the ODPTCNs.
Figure 3.1 Schematic illustration of the preparation of the
core/shell TiO2-
MnO2/MnO2 heterostructure.
Figure 3.2 (a, b, c, d) XRD patterns, XPS fully scanned spectra,
EELS spectra, EDS
spectrum of core-shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 heterostructures. (e) XPS
narrow scan
spectra of Mn 2p for TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 heterostructures. (f) EELS
spectra of Mn-L
edge, and (g) N2 adsorption-desorption isotherms of
TiO2-MnO2/MnO2
heterostructures and corresponding pore-size distribution.
Figure 3.3 (a) SEM image of porous TiO2-carbon nanofibers. (b)
SEM and (c, d)
TEM-SEI images of core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2
heterostructures.
Figure 3.4 (a, b) TEM and HRTEM images of TiO2-carbon nanofiber
and (c, d, e)
TEM and HRTEM images of the core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2
heterostructure.
Figure 3.5 (a) Dark-field TEM image and (b-d) corresponding
scanning line of
core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 heterostructures.
Figure 3.6 Electrochemical properties of the core/shell
TiO2-MnO2/MnO2
heterostructure anodes for Li-ion batteries. (a-c) The first
three charge-discharge
curves of (a) TiO2, (b) MnO2, and (c) TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 at 0.1 A
g-1. (d) CV curve of
the core/shell TiO2-MnO2/MnO2 at a scan rate of 0.1 mV/s. (e)
The rate performance
at various current densities and (f) Cycling performance of
core/shell TiO2-
MnO2/MnO2 heterostructure anodes at 0.1 and 2 A g-1. (g) Cycle
performance of TiO2
and MnO2 at 0.1 A g-1.
-
XV
Figure 4.1 Schematic illustration of the formation of the porous
Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4
heterostructure. (a) Co-CNFs, (b) Co/CNFs-TiO2, (c) porous
Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4
heterostructure after annealing in air at 500 °C for 5 h.
Figure 4.2 (a,b) TEM and HRTEM images of Co-CNFs, (c) TEM-BF,
(d) TEM-SEI,
(e) TEM, and (f) HRTEM images of Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4
heterostructure.
Figure 4.3 (a) Dark-field TEM image and (b)-(d) corresponding
scanning line of
Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4 heterostructure.
Figure 4.4 (a) XRD pattern (b) pore size distribution of
Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4
heterostructure.
Figure 4.5 XPS spectra of Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4 architecture: (a)
full spectrum (b) Ti
2p spectrum (c) Co 2p spectrum (d) O 1s spectrum.
Figure 4.6 (a) Cyclic voltammograms at a scan rate of 0.1 mV
s-1. (b)
Charge/discharge curves of Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4 architecture at a
current density of
0.1 A g-1. (c) Charge/discharge curves of Co3O4 nanoparticles at
0.1 A g-1. (d)
Cyclability and Coulombic efficiency of Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4
architecture at 0.1 A g-1.
(e) Cycling performance of Co3O4 nanotubes at 0.1 A g-1. (f) The
effect of Co(Ac)2
loading on the capacity of the resulting materials after 1000
cycles at a current density
of 3 A g-1. (g) Comparison of the rate capabilities of different
Co3O4-based electrodes.
(h) Cycling performance of Co3O4@TiO2-Co3O4 architecture at 3 A
g-1.
Figure 4.7 (a) Dark TEM image (b-d) mapping of Co, O and Ti of
Co3O4@TiO2-
Co3O4 after 1000 cycles.
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XVI
Figure 5.1 (a) The formation of highly stable porous TiO2-x-C-Sn
composite
nanofibers and their participation in the charge-discharge
process, (b) Morphological
changes of the TiO2-x-C-Sn nanofiber and Sn nanoparticle
electrodes during cycling.
Figure 5.2 (a) FESEM (b) TEM-SEI (c) TEM-BF (d) and (e) TEM (f)
HRTEM
images of TiO2-x-C-Sn nanofibers.
Figure 5.3 (a) Typical XRD pattern, (b) the pore size
distribution, (c) Nitrogen
adsorption-desorption isotherm, (d) Raman spectrum, (e) an EDS
spectrum of highly
stable porous TiO2-x-Sn-C composite nanofibers.
Figure 5.4 (a) TEM-BF image and (b) its corresponding EDS
elemental line scanning
of the TiO2-x-C-Sn composite nanofiber.
Figure 5.5 (a) Typical XPS spectrum, (b-e) XPS of spectra of the
porous TiO2-x-C-Sn
composite nanofibers (b) Sn 3d spectrum (c) Ti 2p (d) C 1s
spectrum (e) O 1s
spectrum.
Figure 5.6 Typical morphological evolutions of Sn nanoparticles
in the highly stable
porous TiO2-x-C nanofiber. (a) The first charging process (b)
the first discharging
process (c) the second charging/discharging steps (d) the fifth
charging/discharging
steps.
Figure 5.7 TEM and HRTEM images of the highly stable porous
TiO2-x-C-Sn
composite nanofiber electrode. (a) and (c) after 1 and 1000
charge-discharge cycles,
(b) and (d) corresponding line scanning of (a) and (c).
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XVII
Figure 5.8 Nyquist plots of the highly stable porous TiO2-x-C-Sn
composite nanofiber
electrode after 1 and 1000 cycles in the frequency range from
100 kHz to10 mHz.
Figure 5.9 Electrochemical performance of the highly stable
porous TiO2-x-C-Sn
composite nanofiber electrodes. (a) charge-discharge profile,
(b) CV curves, (c)
cycling performance of TiO2-x-C-Sn, TiO2-C and TiO2 nanofibers
at the rate of 0.1 A
g-1, (d) rate and cycling performance of the porous TiO2-x-C-Sn
composite nanofibers,
(e) cycling performance of TiO2 at the current density of a
current density of 3 A g-1.
Figure 6.1 Ragone plot showing the advantage of hybrid
supercapacitors.
Figure 6.2 Schematic of fabricating shell/core C-TiO2/C-MOx
composite nanofibers
with highly capacitive C-MOx encapsulated inside hollow and
porous C-TiO2
nanofibers by co-electrospinning method. Here C refers to the
residual carbon from
the thermal decomposition of the organic polymer phases and MOx
refers to NiO,
Fe3O4 or their uniform composite NiO-Fe3O4.
Figure 6.3 Schematic showing the protocol for synthesis of
C/TiO2-MOx-CNT
core/shell composite nanofibers.
Figure 6.4 Schematic showing the process for fabricating C-TiO2
coaxial-nanofibers
with MOx nanorod arrays decorated on the surface.
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XVIII
List of tables
Table 1.1 Influence of injection system and geometry of
collector on fiber
morphology.
Table 1.2 The function of some typical polymers on the resulting
materials.
Table 1.3 Electrochemical capacity of carbon-based LIB
cathodes.
Table 1.4 Electrochemical capacity of carbonaceous anodes for
LIBs.
Table 2.1 Comparison of capacities for various TiO2-based anode
electrodes.
Table 3.1 Weight and atomic concentrations of Mn and Ti elements
in TiO2-
MnO2/MnO2 nanofibers.
Table 3.2 Comparison of the capacities for various MnO2-based
electrodes.
Table 5.1 EDS composite profile of TiO2-x-C-Sn nanofiber.
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XIX
List of Abbreviations
1D One dimensional
3D Three dimensional
BET Brunauer Emmett and Teller
C Carbon
CNFs Carbon nanofibers
CNTs Carbon nanotubes
CVD Chemical vapor deposition
CV Cyclic voltametric
DMF N,N-Dimethylmethanamide
DMC Dimethyl carbonate
EC Ethylene carbonate
EV Electronic vehicles
EIS Electrochemical impedance spectroscopy
EDS Electron diffraction spectroscopy
EELS Electron energy loss spectroscopy
HEV Hybrid vehicles
HRTEM High Resolution Transmission electron microscopy
KMnO4 Potassium permanganate
LIBs Lithium ion batteries
javascript:void(0);javascript:void(0);
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XX
LiFePO4 Lithium iron phosphate
LTO Li4Ti5O12
ODPTCNs One dimensional porous TiO2-carbon nanofibers
PS Polystyrene
PVDF Polyvinylidene fluoride
PAN Polyacrylonitrile
PVA Polyvinylalcohol
PVP Polyvinyl pyrrolidone
PEO Poly (ethylene oxide)
PLLA Poly-L-lactic acid
PMMA Poly (methyl methacrylate)
SEI Solid electrolyte interphase
SAED Selected area electron diffraction
SEM Scanning electron microscopy
TEM Transmission electron microscopy
TGA Thermogravimetric analysis
TBT Tributyltin
TBOT Tetrabutylorthotitanate
XPS X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy
XRD X-ray diffraction
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1
Chapter 1 Introduction
1.1 Electrospinning
Electrospinning is an advanced, powerful, and simple technology
to synthesis 1D
nanostructured materials with fiber diameters of tens of
nanometers up to
micrometers.1 Electrospinning technique that was first exploited
in 1934 has been
shown to fabricate a number and variety of uniform 1D
nanomaterials, such as
polymers, organic and inorganic composites and their hybrids.2
Polymer nanofibers
can be produced by electrospinning corresponding polymer
precursors which are
dissolved in suitable solvent.3 Ceramic or metal nanofibers can
be prepared by heating
electrospun composite precursors that contain organometallic
products or metal atoms
in an oxidizing or reducing atmosphere. Carbon nanofibers can be
synthesized from
the conversion of hydrocarbon nanofibers such as
polyacrylonitrile (PAN) and
polyvinylalcohol (PVA) under high temperature in an inert
atmosphere. Their hybrid
such as metal-carbon and ceramic-carbon can also be obtained
from their
corresponding mixed precursors followed by a one-step or
multi-step heat treatment.
To date, a wide variety of electrospun materials have been
prepared by
electrospinning technique including metal oxides/ceramics1b, 1c,
3-4 such as TiO2, NiO,
CuO, Ag, La2O3, Y2O3, and LaOCl, mixed metal oxides5 such as
LiCoO3, NiFe2O4,
Li4Ti5O12 and LiMn2O4, hybrids6 such as carbon-Co3O4,
carbon-SnOx, carbon-TiO2,
MnO2-TiO2, Nylon-6/gelatin, and polymers7 such as PVA, PAN, and
polyvinyl
pyrrolidone (PVP). Electrospinning shows a strong and extreme
advantage in
fabricating many types of hierarchical nanostructures that are
difficult to be produced
through other approaches.
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2
1.1.1 The principle of electrospinning
The electrospinning technique is a unique method based on
electrostatic forces to
synthesize fibers from polymer solutions or melts with larger
surface areas as
compared with conventional spinning process.8 An electrospinning
unit generally
consists of three major parts that include a high voltage power
supply, a spinneret, and
a collector (Figure 1.1).9 The typical process of
electrospinning is as follows. First,
when a high electrical potential is applied between a grounded
collector and a
spinneret, a liquid droplet of a polymer solution or melt held
at the end of a capillary
tube is electrified and the surface of the droplet is covered by
the induced charges. A
conical object that is also called as the Taylor cone will be
obtained under the effect
of electrostatic forces. Second, when the force caused by the
applied voltage potential
overcomes the surface tension of the polymer solution or melt, a
charged jet will be
ejected from the tip of the needle, followed by a complex
stretching and whipping
process due to repulsive forces of the carried charges to
achieve a long thread. Third,
as the jet further elongates to be longer and thinner
accompanied by an evaporation of
the solvent in jet, the solidified fibers can be prepared.10
These prepared nanofibers
show ample advanced characteristics including high
surface-to-volume ratio,
controllable fiber diameter and surface morphology and porous
structure. A wide
variety of fiber morphologies can be developed by adjusting the
parameters of the
polymer solution such as conductivity, viscosity, and surface
tension, and the
electrospinning process parameters such as the electric
potential, flow rate, and
distance between the capillary and collector.11
1.1.2 Influence parameters of spinning technology on fiber
formation
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3
Spinning technology which depends on a spinneret extrusion
process can be
categorized as melt spinning, solution spinning, and emulsion
spinning. The
formation of the resulting product by electrospinning technique
is based on the
specific process and parameters adopted. Melt spinning is
advantageous in high-
throughput rate and high process safety. Solution spinning
provides unique
advantages in lower energy consumption, larger variety of
electrospun fiber materials,
high mechanical integrity as well as superior optical and
electrical property of the
resulting materials. Emulsion spinning is available for these
polymers that show high
melting point and for the fabrication of flame-retardant fibers.
Of three types of
spinning technology, solution spinning is mainly used to prepare
1D nanostructured
fibers due to the advantages above-mentioned as well as very
easy to obtain proper
mixed precursor solution. Major parameters that influence the
structure of electrospun
fibers include: (1) the viscosity of electrospinning solution
which bases on the
concentration of polymer and the molecular weight of the polymer
is very important
to determine whether the long and continuous fibers can be
achieved by
electrospinning. With low viscosity of the solution, the fiber
cannot be formed and
only particles are obtained, which is due to low polymer chain
entanglements.
However, high viscosity solution will lead to the unstable flow
rate of solution; (2) the
electric field is an important process factor for
electrospinning. Generally, when the
electric potential increases, the fiber diameter will decrease.
At low voltage, beads in
the fiber will occur. The flow rate of the solution is another
key issue, which affects
the jet velocity and the rate of solution transfer.12 Decrease
in feeding rate causes the
formation of smaller-diameter fiber, whereas at high feeding
rate fibers with spindle-
like beads are formed; (3) there are several spinneret
collectors including foil, metal
-
4
and rotating drum. Low-cost available aluminium foil that
connects with a grounded
electrode to provide a path for current is most widely used as
the collector. The
modification of geometry of collector that includes flat plat,
parallel plate or stripe,
rotating drum/disc, and conveyor also plays an important role in
the morphology of
the resulting fibers. For example, aligned fibers can be
achieved by adjusting
electrostatic interactions which can be realized by using two
parallel static collecting
stripes or plates which are separated by a well-designed gap.1a
However, the major
disadvantage of this design is low ability to scale-up and poor
capability to produce
high-density and highly-aligned fibers as it over-depends on the
width and property of
the gap. Using a rotating drum or disc collector, highly aligned
flexible fibrous
products with high density are available;13 (4) two types of
solvent removal process
are dry and wet. In the dry spinning, solvent in polymer
solution is evaporated in air
or an inert gas accompanied by the formation of solidified
fibers.14 Factors that
include the solvent system, atmosphere temperature, and blowing
condition can also
affect the morphology of the resulting electrospun fibers. In
the wet spinning, the
solvent in electrospun solution is removed in liquid bath in
which the spinning solvent
can miscible with liquid and polymer that cannot dissolve in
liquid remains and
precipitates.15 The defects and voids can be obtained by
controlling the solidification
process occurred in the polymeric solution-nonsolvent interface;
(5) recent
tremendous work has been made in developing injection system.
For example, to
increase the rate of production or the volume of production
multi needle components
that allow parallel multi-processing are successfully deigned.16
Coaxial
electrospinning has been regarded as a deep development in
electrospinning
technique.17 A spinneret used in coaxial electrospinning
consists of two coaxial
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5
capillaries storing two viscous solutions which can form a
core-shell jet under the
effect of an electric potential and then a solidified core-shell
fiber mat can be
produced. It is a simple, advanced, and attractive method to
prepare core-shell fibers
with very long fiber up to several centimeters as compared with
other approaches.
Polymer, organic, inorganic, or their composite core-shell or
hollow materials can be
obtained using corresponding proper solutions, with or without a
post treatment such
as calcination and solvent extraction. The critical factor for
the formation of core-shell
structure in core-shell technology is how to control the
immiscibility of the core and
sheath liquids during the electrospinning process. Very
recently, a novel triple-coaxial
electrospinning has also been developed in which a spinneret
that consists of three
coaxial capillaries is stored with three viscous fluids.11b
Parameters affecting the core-
Figure 1.1 Schematic illustration of a typical electrospinning
setup.
-
6
shell electrospinning will also influence the triple-coaxial
electrospinning and the
resulting fibers.
In general, electrospun composite nanomaterials with targeted
structure and
morphology can be designed by carefully adjusting and optimizing
various parameters
such as electric potential, injection system and geometry of
collector. Table 1.1 shows
the influence of injection system and geometry of collector on
fiber morphology. It is
clear that nonaligned or aligned composite fibers or tubes with
core-shell structure can
be obtained. In addition, we also briefly describe the function
of some typical
polymers on the resulting materials shown in Table 1.2.
1.2 Lithium-ion batteries
Because of the decrease of fossil fuel and the demand for a
clean and secure energy,
there has been an increasing demand for developing a new
generation of electric
energy storage for powering low or zero emission electric
vehicles and hybrid electric
vehicles.18 Among all types of batteries, LIBs has gained a
continuously growing
scientific interest because their theoretical energy/power
density is the highest for all
solid electrodes.19 It, however, is very difficult to be used in
industrial area due to the
internal short circuiting caused by the formation of dendritic
lithium, resulting in a
catastrophic failure and unsatisfactory cycling life of battery.
When metallic lithium is
replaced by a lithium-insertion or allying compound that serves
as negative electrode
materials, LIBs, a family of rechargeable batteries, is
developed, which not only can
enhance the cycling life and rate capability, but also address
the safety issue.20 Figure
1.2 shows a typical LIB cell consisting of an anode, a cathode,
a liquid electrolyte
-
7
(e.g., lithium hexafluorophosphate in ethylene carbonate and
dimethyl carbonate
mixture), and an electrolyte-filled separator.21
Table 1.1 Influence of injection system and geometry of
collector on fiber
morphology
Single or multi needle Coaxial needle Triple-axial needle
Flat plate Nonaligned fibers Nonaligned core-shell
fibers or nonaligned
tubes
Nonaligned triple core-
shell fibers or
nonaligned core-shell
tubes
Parallel
plate/stripe
Aligned fibers
Aligned fibers
Aligned fibers or tubes Aligned triple core-shell
fibers or aligned core-
shell tubes
Rotating
drum/disc
Aligned fibers
Aligned fibers
Aligned fibers Aligned triple core-shell
fibers or aligned core-
shell tubes
The basic mechanism of LIB bases on the flowing of Li ions
between the anode and
the cathode, which enables the conversion and storage of
chemical energy into
electric energy. The reaction of anode during charge/discharge
process is
Table 1.2 The function of some typical polymers on the resulting
materials
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8
Polymer Carbon resource
(Function)
Sacrificed
component
(Function)
Achievement Ref.
PAN √ √ Carbon matrix
Porous structure
22
PVP √ √ Carbon matrix
Porous structure
23
PS √ √ Carbon matrix
Porous structure
24
PLLA ˟ √ Porous structure 25
PVA √ √ Carbon matrix
Porous structure
26
PMMA √ √ (C2H2) The growth of
CNT
Porous structure
11a
PEO √ √ Carbon matrix
Porous structure
27
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9
LixC6↔6C+xLi++xe-(0
-
10
batteries for a wide range of applications.28 The performances
of LIB (e.g.,
energy/power density, cycling life, cost, and safety) depend
largely on the
characteristics of the electrode materials (e.g., composition,
structure, morphology,
and size). For the high energy density, the optimized properties
of the electrodes
materials should include high cell voltage which means large
difference between the
redox potentials of the cathode and anode, and high specific
capacity. For the long
cycle life, the electrode materials possess long-term stability
and durability of
materials during cycling that only allows for very small change
in crystal structure
and morphology of the components. To achieve high power density,
the prepared
materials should have proper nanostructured architecture and
porous structure to
enhance the charge transfer. Therefore, designing the electrode
materials with desired
structure, morphology and composition is very important for
developing a new
generation of high-performance battery.
1.2.1 Cathode
1.2.1.1 Hybrid cathode based on carbon and olivine compound
1.2.1.1.1 LiFePO4/carbon hybrid
Ordered-olivine-structure lithium iron phosphate (LiFePO4) shows
good thermal
stability and can maintain structure integrity in N2 or O2 up to
350 ºC, which is due to
the strong covalent P-O bonds in the (PO4)3- polyanionic
clusters.29 In addition, there
are not any potentially disadvantaged reactions between LiFePO4
cathode and
electrolyte during the charging/discharging process at the high
temperature up to 85
ºC, avoiding the limitation of working temperature and the loss
of oxygen that makes
the material unsafe.30 The theoretical capacity of LiFePO4 ↔
FePO4 + Li+ + e is 170
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11
mAh g-1 with a flat V of 3.45 V versus x in LixFePO4 according
to the Gibbs phase
rule.29 However, the low conductivity of LiFePO4 (~1 × 10–9 S
cm–1) leads to the poor
rate capability.31 Since its discovery in 1997, tremendous
progresses have been made
in improving the performance of LiFePO4 electrodes through
various approaches such
as metal ions doping, designing nanocrystal, conductive coating,
and conductive
LiFePO4 hybrid.29 Incorporation of carbonaceous materials such
as CNFs and CNTs
is the most efficient way to enhance the electronic
conductivity. Chen et al. prepared
electrospun LiFePO4/carbon (C) fiber composite by a sol-gel
electrospinning method
using LiNO3, NH4H2PO4, Fe(NO3)3·9H2O, citric acid and PVP as
precursor
materials.32 The prepared LiFePO4/C nanofibers with fiber
diameter of 270 nm to 372
nm consisted of polycrystalline nanoparticles with particle
diameter of about 30 nm
and an amorphous carbon layer with a thickness of ~ 2.6 nm. As a
cathode, this
material with high surface area of 167.7 m2/g exhibited the
initial discharge capacity
of 166 mAh g-1 at 0.1 C (17 mAh g-1). After 500 cycles at 5C,
the discharge capacity
retention of the electrode was over 93 %, with a very high
Coulombic efficiency of ~
100 %, showing a good cycling performance. Another typical work
was carried out by
Wang’s group who showed LiFePO4 nanoparticles decorated with
CNTs and CNFs
synthesized by sol-gel-based electrospinning and heating
treatment.33 As shown in
Figure 1.3a, a mixture of PAN, functionalized CNTs, and LiFePO4
precursor (lithium
acetate, phosphoric acid, and iron(II) acetate) in DMF solvent
was used as spinning
solution. The electrospun LiFePO4 precursor/PAN/CNTs composites
were further
calcined to prepare the CNT/C/LiFePO4 composite nanofibers
(Figure 1.3b). CNF
matrix not only provides a conductive network throughout the
whole electrode, but
has high specific surface area and porous structure, which
shorten Li-ion diffusion
-
12
pathway and then increase the electrode reaction kinetics.
Small-size LiFePO4
particles encapsulated in CNF matrix enable higher reversible
capacity. Furthermore,
the introduction of CNTs into the composite creates a conducting
bridge between
LiFePO4 particles to enhance the electrochemical efficiency. As
a result, the
CNT/C/LiFePO4 composite cathode delivered a high capacity of 169
mAh g–1 after 50
cycles at 0.05 C, with 99 % of the theoretical capacity of
LiFePO4 (Figure 1.3c). At
rates of 0.05, 0.1, 0.2, 0.5, 1, and 2 C, the composite cathode
also had 169, 165, 158,
148,134, and 121 mA h g–1, respectively, showing a good rate
capability.33
1.2.1.1.2 LiMnPO4/carbon hybrid
Fe in LiFePO4 can be replaced by other transition metal ions
(e.g., Mn, Co and Ni)
to form other olivine structures such as LiMnPO4, LiCoPO4 and
LiNiPO4 with a high
working potential of 4.1, 4.8, and 5.1 V, respectively. Among
three olivine samples,
LiMnPO4 attracts intensive interesting as the working potential
of current electrolyte
is compatible with that of LiFePO4, while the working potentials
of the other two
samples are high, raising the serious safety issues. In
addition, LiMnPO4 shows
enhanced capacity that is about 20 % higher than that of
LiFePO4. However, several
key disadvantages including poor cycle stability caused by the
large volumetric
change and low electronic conductivity are reported for LiMnPO4
cathodes. Therefore,
achieving high-energy and high-power LiMnPO4 cathodes still
remains a great
challenge. Decreasing size of LiMnPO4 into nanostructure,
coating with carbon, and
decorating with other elements are major approaches to address
these drawbacks. Lu
et al. synthesized electrospun C/LiMnPO4 composite nanofibers
from the mixture of
poly(ethylene oxide) (PEO), Mn(NO3)2·4H2O, and LiH2PO4 in
de-ionized water.27 In
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13
Figure 1.3 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of LiFePO4/CNT/C
composite nanofibers,
(b) SEM image of the prepared composite nanofibers, and (c)
cycling performance of
LiFePO4/CNT/C composite nanofibers, LiFePO4/C composite
nanofibers and
LiFePO4 at 0.05C.33
(b)
(a)
(c)
(b)
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14
addition, C/LiMg0.05Mn0.95PO4 hybrid nanofibers also can be
obtained by adding
Mg(NO3)2·6H2O into the mixed solution. The resulting
C/LiMg0.05Mn0.95PO4
nanofiber cathodes showed a capacity of ~141 mAh g-1 at the
first cycle between 2.5
and 4.5 V, which is higher than that of C/LiMnPO4 at 0.1 C. In
addition, the capacity
of the C/LiMg0.05Mn0.95PO4 nanofiber cathode was ~ 107 mAh g-1
at a high current
density of 5 C. Furthermore, no capacity fading for 200 cycles
can be observed with a
~ 100 % of Coulombic efficiency. The high performance would be
due to the
introduction of a small amount of Mg substitution which can
reduce the volume and
structural mismatch during the extraction/insertion process and
carbon coating which
enhances electrochemical kinetics, electron/ion transport rate
and mechanical integrity.
1.2.1.1.3 LiFe1-yMnyPO4/carbon hybrid
An important breakthrough in olivine structure is self-doped
LiFe1-yMnyPO4 solid
solution materials in which the replacement of Fe with Mn
increases the cell voltage
and the energy density as compared with LiFePO4.34 In addition,
the ion transfer
kinetics of LiMnPO4 can be enhanced by replacing some of Mn with
Fe. More
importantly, the doping can accommodate the mechanical stress
caused by pulse
charging and discharging, thereby yielding a long cycle life. A
typical LiFe1-
yMnyPO4/carbon hybrid nanofiber synthesized through
electrospinning of a mixture of
LiOH·H2O, FeSO4·7H2O, H3PO4 MnSO4·1H2O and PVP was demonstrated
by Hagen
et al in 2014.35 LiFe1-yMnyPO4 crystallites synthesized by
reaction of their
corresponding precursors at high temperature are surrounded by
carbon matrix. The
size of crystallites is found as a function of the ratio of Fe
and Mn. When used as
cathodes these hybrid nanofibers with high surface area of ~
111.3 m2/g delivered the
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15
discharge capacity of 125 mAh g-1. At higher current densities,
the composite sample
exhibited only slight fading of capacity.
1.2.1.2 Hybrid cathode based on carbon and silicate compound
Silicate materials (Li2MSiO4; M = Mn, Fe, and Co) are of
particular interest for LIB
cathode because of their low cost, environmentally benign
nature, and high theoretical
capacity. Among these, Li2MnSiO4 has been proven to be an
attractive cathode
material when compared with Fe that has only two oxidation
states, the Mn allows for
reduction from MnIV to MnII, leading to a complete lithiation to
form Li2MnSiO4
which enables the insertion/extraction of two Li ions per
transition metal and then
show a theoretical capacity of 333 mAh g-1. The main challenges
for the commercial
application of the Li2MnSiO4 bulk cathode are the fast capacity
fading, large
irreversible capacity, and poor rate capability due to low
electronic conductivity
(~10−16 S cm−1 at room temperature) and structural instability
caused by the Jahn-
Teller effect resulting from the Mn3+ at the octahedral sites.
Several strategies, such as
developing nanostructured Li2MnSiO4, decorating with conductive
additives, and
doping techniques, have been investigated to solve the capacity
degradation. It is well
known that the nanostructured materials can shorten Li-ions
diffusion pathways and
enhance the interaction between the electrode and electrolyte,
resulting in enhanced
electrochemical performance. Li2MnSiO4/C composite nanofibers
prepared by
electrospinning from a mixture of lithium acetate, manganese
acetate, tetraethyl
orthosilicate, and PEO were reported by Park et al.36 The
resulting Li2MnSiO4/C
composite nanofiber cathode delivered an initial discharge
capacity of ~209 mAh g-1
at a rate of 0.05 C with the retention of 77 % over 20 cycles.
Zhang et al. also
-
16
developed a Li2MnSiO4/C composite nanofiber showing a discharge
capacity of 185
mAh g-1 with low capacity retention of 54 % after 20 cycles.37
Although several
approaches such as designing 1D nanostructure and carbon
decorating have been
devoted to improve the performance of Li2MnSiO4, they are still
not very effective
Figure 1.4 (a) TEM image of Li2Mn0.94Cr0.06SiO4/C composite
nanofibers. (b)
Cycling performance of Li2MnSiO4 powder, Li2Mn0.94Cr0.06SiO4
powder, and
Li2Mn0.94Cr0.06SiO4/C composite nanofibers at a current density
of C/20.38
(a)
(b)
-
17
in addressing unaccepted issues such as low capacity and poor
cycle performance,
which are mainly attributed to the collapse of crystal structure
during the lithium
extraction process. Therefore, developing a way to stabilize the
crystal structure of
Li2MnSiO4 is urgently required. Recently, a
Li2Mn(1−x)CrxSiO4/carbon composite
nanofibers were reported with enhanced cycling performance.38
The electrospinning
solution was first prepared by mixing PAN, lithium acetate
dehydrate, chromium
nitrate nonhydrate, manganese acetate, tetraethyl orthosilicate,
and citric acid in
water/ethanol/ethylene glycol solvent. Next,
Li2Mn(1−x)CrxSiO4/carbon composite
nanofibers were prepared by calcination of their corresponding
precursor composite
Table 1.3 Electrochemical capacity of carbon-based LIB
cathodes
Electrode type Current
density
Capacity (mAh g-1) Ref.
LiFePO4/carbon 0.1 C 166 32
LiFePO4/carbon 0.05 C 169 33
LiMg0.05Mn0.95PO4/carbon 0.1 C 141 27
LiFe1-yMnyPO4/carbon C/2 125 35
Li2MnSiO4/carbon 0.05C 209 36
Li2MnSiO4/carbon C/20 185 37
Li2Mn(1−x)CrxSiO4/carbon C/20 314 38
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18
nanofibers (Figure 1.4a). This designed structure showed a high
discharge capacity of
314 mAh g-1 at the 5th cycle. After 20 cycles, a capacity of 273
mAh g-1 still remains
(Figure 1.4b), which is much better than that of Li2MnSiO4. The
authors attribute the
improvement of capacity to two reasons: (1) a formed high
conductive carbon fiber
matrix which enables fast ion transport and good mechanical
behavior, and (2) Cr
doping which increases the cell volume and induce defects in the
lattice, thereby
enhancing the structure stability. We summarized the
electrochemical capacity of
carbon-based LIB cathodes in Table 1.3.
1.2.2 Anode
1.2.2.1 Carbonaceous anode
Carbon is one of most abundant elements on the earth with a
number of structural
forms such as graphite, graphene, diamond, fullerene, carbon
nanotube (CNT), carbon
nanofiber (CNF), and other carbons (soft carbon, hard carbon, or
diamond-like carbon
and graphitic carbon). Carbon has two types of bond which are
sp2 and sp3
hybridization. Since the discovery in 1989 by SONY Corporation,
graphite is current
commercial anode materials for LIBs because of its low cost,
long cycle life and
environmental friendliness. However, graphite suffers from a low
theoretical capacity
of 372 mAh g-1 (LiC6 composition),21 limited rate performance,
and internal short
circuiting resulting from the growth of dendritic lithium caused
by its low working
potential of around 0 V versus Li+/Li, which limit the use in
electric energy storage.
In order to overcome these problems, great efforts have been
made to develop 1D
electrospun nanocarbons, such as CNFs, CNTs, and hybrid carbon,
to increase the
power and energy densities of LIBs. The following sub-sections
focus on some
-
19
typical novel high-performance carbon nanomaterials by
electrospinning, which were
summarized in Table 1.4.
1.2.2.1.1 CNFs
CNFs, which are mainly prepared by CVD approach, hydrothermal
method, and
electrospinning technique, have been widely studied as very
effective anodes for
Table 1.4 Electrochemical capacity of carbonaceous anodes for
LIBs
Electrode type Current density
(mA g-1)
Capacity (mAh g-1) Ref.
CNF 30 450 39
Freestanding CNF 100 555 40
porous CNFs 50 556 25
Activated CNFs 50 533 41
Hybrid CNFs 50 750 22
Hybrid CNFs 50 983 42
Activated hollow
graphitic CNFs
100 1560 43
Hybrid CNTs 50 969 11b
CNF/CNT Hybrid 100 1150 11a
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20
LIBs.44 A unique merit of electrospun CNFs is very long and
continuous fiber
network that can provide mechanical and electrical interconnect
and also a way of
free-standing anodes. In addition, all of defects such as
lattice and surface defects in
CNFs are chemically active for intercalation of Li ions.
Electrochemical test results
showed that electrospun CNF anode delivered a reversible
intercalation capacity of
~450 mAh g-1 at 30 mA g-1.39 The electrochemical performance can
be greatly
enhanced by directly using the electrospun CNF films as
free-standing anodes,
without carbon black and binder. The free-standing film anode
has an improved
capacity up to 555 mAh g-1 at 100 mA g-1 after 105 cycles.40
Extensive research has been done to evaluate the effect of pore
structure and degree
of graphitization on the performance of carbonaceous anodes. A
higher BET surface
area, larger pore volume, higher degree of graphitization
increase the Li ion diffusion,
provide additional sites for Li ion storage, giving rise to the
improvement of battery
performance. A traditional method is to use scarified polymer
that can be decomposed
during calcination, such as poly-L-lactic acid (PLLA) and
poly(methyl methacrylate)
(PMMA),25, 45 or activating agent that can activate the carbon,
such as ZnCl2 and
KOH,41 to produce pores in the resulting CNFs. The prepared
porous CNFs showed
enhanced capacities ranging from 533 to 556 mAh g-1 as compared
with nonporous
counterparts (410 mAh g-1). To address the issue of difficult
control of pore number
and diameter in traditional approach, an interesting method
based on a combination of
transition metal-based temple such as Ni and Fe and
electrospinning have been
developed.22, 42 In-situ formed transition metal nanoparticle
formed by the
decomposition of transition metal precursor can turn the
amorphous carbon on their
surface into graphitic carbon, producing the transition metal
nanoparticles
-
21
encapsulated in graphitic carbon nanospheres in electrospun
CNFs. After acid
treatment, transition metal nanoparticles were dissolved and
thus amorphous CNFs
with hollow graphitic carbon nanospheres were obtained. The
prepared hybrid carbon
showed high specific gravimetric capacities of ~750-983 mAh g-1
and good cycling
stability up to several hundred cycles. However, there are still
some amorphous
carbons in these prepared carbon materials, which affect the
degree of graphitization
and thus influence the rate performance of the resulting
materials. A novel Ni-induced
graphitization approach through the Ni diffusion was exploited
to obtain hollow-
tunnelled graphitic CNFs (Figure 1.5a).43 The diffusion of Ni
particle in the
electrospun amorphous carbon can be controlled by a combination
of heating
treatment and pumping. The graphitic nanosphere formed by the
effect of Ni
nanoparticle can be cracked by a large stress induced by
suddenly pumping at high
temperature, which allows Ni particles to diffuse out of the
graphitic nanosphere via
the crack and then undergo an elongation-contract process,
yielding a hollow tunnel
structure and turning the amorphous carbon into graphitic carbon
(Figure 1.5b-f).
Activated hollow graphitic CNFs can be prepared by chemical
activation and acid
treatment (Figure 1.5a). In addition, the addition of PMMA also
would induce more
pores in the resulting materials. This interesting and rational
approach leads to high
specific capacity of 1560 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 (Figure 1.5g),
outstanding rate
capability, and long cycling life up to 2000 cycles, which are
promising
characteristics for high-performance carbon anodes.
1.2.2.1.2 CNTs
-
22
Since the discovery of 1D CNTs, considerable attention has been
paid to CNTs
because of their wide applications, such as thermal conductor,
catalyst support,
biological application, energy storage, which is due to their
high surface-to-volume
ratios, exceptional mechanical properties, high chemical
stability, and surface
activities.46 Tremendous research efforts have been made in
understanding their
electrochemical properties such as the mechanism of the
deintercalation/intercalation
of Li with CNTs and electrochemical capacity.47 It was accepted
that space between
pseudo-graphitic layers of CNTs can store Li ions and both
outside and inside tubes
that are chemically active are also available for intercalations
of Li ion. Several key
factors, such as structure, length and diameter, defect, the
degree of graphitization of
(a)
-
23
(b)
(c)
-
24
(d)
(e)
(f)
-
25
Figure 1.5 (a) Schematic of material processing. (b-f) TEM
images of the typical step
of Ni diffusion. (g) The charge/discharge profile of the
resulting materials at 0.1 A g-
1.43
CNTs, and surface functional group, play important roles in
specific capacity and
cycling life of CNTs. For example, defects, pores, and
functional groups in CNTs can
enhance the intercalation of Li in the voltage range above 1 V,
which increase the
capacity performance.48 Short and small-diameter CNTs have a
better performance as
compared with that of long and large-diameter CNTs due to their
faster
insertion/extraction of Li ions and enhanced electronegative
property.49 In addition,
higher degree of graphite crystallinity yields a better rate
performance.50 As a result,
CNTs possess high reversible capacities of 450-1116 mAh g-1
(Li1.2C6-LiC2), which is
much higher than that of graphite (372 mAh g-1, LiC6).
Electrospinning is an unusual
method to prepare polymer-based CNTs. However, there is only one
work on
electrospun CNTs anode reported by Chen et al. in 2012 who
synthesized a novel
architecture consisting of amorphous CNTs and hollow graphitic
carbon nanospheres
(HGCNs) by a novel triple-coaxial electrospinning.11b Three
different viscous liquids
(g)
-
26
that are mineral oil (inner), PAN solution (middle), and
PVP/Ni(Ac)2 composite
(outer) were stored in three metallic capillaries. By
controlling the mixture of outer
two liquids coaxial PAN/PVP/Ni(Ac)2@oil composite precursors
were prepared,
followed by calcination and acid treatment to achieve amorphous
CNTs with HGCNs.
When used as carbon anodes the synthesized electrospun carbon
possesses unique
advantages that include many hollow structure (sphere and tube)
and defects, high
conductivity, and good mechanical integrity. As a result, this
structure delivered a
high capacity ~969 mAh g-1 at 50 mA g-1 and good cycling
stability up to 650 cycles
and outstanding rate capability. However, the disadvantage that
is the existence of
amorphous carbon need to be tacked.
1.2.2.1.3 CNF/CNT hybrid
Despite the improvements in capacity and cycling life, there is
one severe
drawback of low volumetric capacity for the use of electrospun
CNTs or CNFs as
electrode for LIBs because their volumetric density is low,
which is ascribed to low
nanofiber or nanotube packing density. To be used in the
industry-level LIBs, this
issue needs to be addressed. One notable development in this
area is the work by
Chen et al., where CNTs were formed on the surface of
electrospun CNFs by a novel
in situ CVD method, as shown in Figure 1.6a.11a PMMA was added
into the mixture
of PAN and Ni(Ac)2 to obtain the PAN/Ni(Ac)2/PMMA composite
nanofibers. During
the heating in the H2/N2 atmosphere, PAN and Ni(Ac)2 were
changed to carbon and
Ni, whereas the PMMA was completely decomposed to produce pores
in carbon/Ni
composite nanofibers, accompanied by a formation of C2H2 that
was used as a carbon
source for the growth of CNTs under the effect of Ni
nanoparticles. The well-
-
27
designed process creates a CNT/CNF/Ni hybrid material. After a
combination of
chemical activation and acid treatment, an activated hollow
CNT/CNF hybrid with a
very high surface area of 1840 m2 g-1 and a total pore volume of
1.21 m3 g-1 can be
achieved (Figure 1.6b). The hybrid carbon electrode was shown to
exhibit a high
discharge capacity of ~ 1150 mAh g-1 at 0.1 A g-1 after 70
cycles and exceptional
cycling stability of over 3500 cycles while having more than 80
% capacity at a
current density of 8 A g-1 (Figure 1.6c). The remarkable
improvement on the
electrochemical performance is due to the novel structure of the
activated hollow
CNT/CNF hybrid materials: 1) many defects, pores and hollow
spheres, and the large
d-spacing of graphene sheets offer more extra spaces for storing
Li ions, significantly
enhancing the capacity performance; 2) high surface area and
CNTs on the surface of
CNFs enable a better contact between active material and
electrolyte. Furthermore,
growing CNTs between CNFs can enhance the volumetric capacity;
3) the porous and
hollow structure and high conductivity promote Li ion access and
transportation,
(a)
-
28
Figure 1.6 (a) Schematic of the synthesis of activated hollow
CNT-CNF hybrid
material. (b) SAED pattern, TEM image, line profile of d-spacing
of the prepared
hybrid carbons. (c) The electrochemical performance of the
resulting hybrid
materials.11a
thereby a better rate performance; 4) the N-doping in the
composite electrode further
enhance the electrochemical performance.
(b)
(c)
-
29
1.2.2.2 Hybrid metal oxide anode
1.2.2.2.1 Electrospun Ti-based hybrid anode
Ti-based oxides by the insertion reaction mechanism have been
widely studies as
attractive anode materials for LIBs because of their low cost,
exceptional stability,
high working potential and environmental benign.51 In
particular, Li4Ti5O12 (LTO)
has attracted much attention due to its advantages including
excellent cycle
performance arising from zero-strain and no volume change
during
insertion/extraction process, high voltage potential to improve
safety by minimizing
the decomposition of liquid electrolyte and the formation of
solid electrolyte interface
(SEI) film, and low cost.52 However, LTO suffers from low Li ion
diffusion
coefficient and poor electronic conductivity.53 Many studies
have demonstrated that
these disadvantages can be addressed by a combination of
reducing the LTO bulk into
nanoscale and a carbon coating.54 Electrospinning technique is a
unique and simple
way to prepare 1D carbon/LTO hybrid materials. Zhang’s group
used a mixture of
tetrabutyltitanate, lithium acetate, and PVP in isopropyl
alcohol as electrospinning
solution to prepare the carbon/LTO composite nanofibers.55 The
synthesized hybrid
showed good rate capability: 150 mAh g-1 at C/5, 140 mAh g-1 at
C/2, 130 mAh g-1 at
1C, and 120 mAh g-1 at 2 C. Huang’s group also developed
conformal electrospun
carbon-coated LTO composite fibers which displayed a high
capacity of 152 mAh g−1
at 0.5 C and 118 mAh g−1 at 10 C.56 Porous hybrid nanofibers
based on the LTO and
carbon have been also explored to improve the performance of LTO
anode. Though
porous structure is effective for increasing the
electrode/electrolyte interfacial area, a
more efficient ion transport can be achieved, yielding a better
rate capability. For
-
30
example, a small amount of amphiphilic triblock copolymer F127
was added into
LTO precursor solution. After electrospinning, solvent was
removed. This leads to
greatly improve the concentration of F127 in LTO precursor
nanofibers, which is
higher than its critical micelle concentration. High
concentration of F127 will induce
the formation of mesopores in hydroxyl LTO precursor through
self-assembly process.
Mesoporous LTO/carbon hybrid nanofibers were obtained after
calcination of the
composite precursor. As anodes, this porous hybrid with high
surface area of 212
m2/g exhibited a high capacity of 127.4 mAh g-1 and remained
122.7 mAh g-1 after
200 cycles at 5C.57 Very recently, Huang’s group also developed
a highly porous
LTO/carbon (PLTO/C) composite nanofiber by a combination of
electrospinning and
a controlled two-step annealing treatment.23 As shown in Figure
1.7a, LTO/C
composite nanofibers were first prepared by calcination of
PVP/titanium
isopropoxide/lithium acetylacetonate composite precursors at 800
°C in a 5 % H2/Ar
atmosphere. Next, the synthesized LTO/C composite products were
further heated at
350 °C in air to partially burn off the carbon matrix, which
creates a large number of
nanopores in LTO/C hybrid. The obtained PLTO/C hybrid with
diameter of ~200 nm
shows very rough surface (Figure 1.7c). A hierarchically porous
structure can be
clearly observed in the PLTO/C hybrid with individual LTO
crystal encapsulated in
amorphous carbon layer. Such a novel 1D nanostructured porous
hybrid yields
outstanding rate performance and long cycling life. For example,
at 0.5, 2, 10, and 30
C, the capacities of 161, 154, 150, and 143 mAh g−1 can be
achieved. When the
current rate backs to 0.5C, the structure also delivered a high
capacity of 159 mAh g−1.
The cycling performance in Figure 1.7b shows that no obvious
capacity fading can be
-
31
Figure 1.7 (a) Schematic illustration of the synthesis process
of the porous
LTO/carbon (PLTO/C) composite nanofibers, (b) cycling
performance of PLTO/C
hybrid, LTO/C composite and LTO, and (c) SEM image of the PLTO/C
composite.21
(a)
(b)
-
32
observed after 300 cycles with a high Coulombic efficiency close
to 100 % after a
first few cycles, demonstrating the excellent cycling life.
TiO2 is also an important and interesting anode material with
higher theoretical
capacity of 335 mAh g-1 when compared to LTO.58 TiO2 has eight
polymorphs,
including anatase, rutile, brookite, TiO2-B (bronze), TiO2-R
(ramsdellite), TiO2-H
(hollandite), TiO2-Ⅱ(columbite) and TiO2-Ⅲ (baddeleyite). Among
them, anatase,
rutile and TiO2-B are considered as suitable and promising
anodes for LIBs. The
structure of anatase TiO2 in Fig. 1.8a shows the stacking of 1D
zigzag chains, which
are composed of adjacent edge-sharing TiO6 octahedrals. Along
[100] and [010]
directions, a stacking with empty zigzag channels allows
Li-insertion in the interstices
of TiO6 octahedrals to form LixTiO2.59 The possible positions of
lithium ions are
displayed by the purple spheres. When X is larger than 0.05, the
tetragonal anatase
phase is subjected to a phase transition with an orthorhombic
distortion as a result of
the strong interaction of Li-Li. As the whole distortion of the
atom positions is very
small, the volume change of the unit cell is negligible. For the
rutile crystal, TiO6
octahedral shares the edges in the c-direction and corners in
the ab planes. It is well
accepted that the preferential sites for lithium ion insertion
are the oxygen octahedral
(Fig. 1.8b). In order to reach the potential positions, lithium
ions need to migrate
through the tetrahedral site, which is near to the octahedral
site in the ab-plane.
Therefore, lithium ion diffusion in rutile is anisotropic. The
diffusion along the c-
direction is much faster than that in the ab planes, which
results in the 1D lithium
diffusion in rutile. Further lithium insertion along c-direction
would be prevented by
the repulsive Li–Li interactions in c-direction and trapped
Li-ion pairs in the ab
planes.60,61,62 The structure of TiO2 (B) is composed of the
corner-sharing and edge-
-
33
sharing TiO6 octahedral, which is the same as a derivative of
the ReO3-type structure.
(Fig. 1.8c) TiO2 (B) shows a 1D infinite channel following the
[001] direction,
providing many paths for lithium ion and accommodating volume
change with
ignorable distortion of the structure.63,64
Early work on electrospun TiO2 nanofibers showed that the
capacities ranged
from 175 mAh g-1 to ~192 mAh g-1.65 In order to improve the
battery performance,
several methods have been developed, such as incorporating with
other high-capacity
Fig. 1.8 Structure of (a) anatase TiO2, (b) rutile TiO2 and (c)
TiO2(B).66
a
b
c
-
34
materials, decorating with carbonaceous materials, N-doping, and
introducing porous
structure.67 Among these, carbon decoration is one of effective
strategy to improve the
TiO2 performance.68 For example, composite nanofibers consisting
of TiO2
nanoparticles and CNT prepared from a solution of TIP and CNTs
were investigated
as anode materials for LIBs. The prepared composite nanofibers
give rise to a
remarkably stable cycle ability with a very low capacity loss of
about 8 % from 10 to
800 cycles.6d Incorporation of graphene as an additive to active
TiO2 anodes is a
promising approach to form conductive networks in the composite
electrode.
TiO2/graphene hybrid nanofibers were synthesized using an
electrospinning method
followed by calcination.69 Nanostructured TiO2/graphene hybrid
anodes exhibited a
high Li storage capacity of 185 mAh g-1 at 33 mA g-1 with a high
capacity of 153
mAh g-1 after 100 cycles and high Coulombic efficiency of 99 %,
showing good cycle
stability. Another work on electrospun TiO2-carbon hybrid showed
a stable high
reversible capacity of 206 mAh g-1 after 100 cycles at a current
of 30 mA g-1 and a
Coulombic efficiency closed to 100 %, displaying long cycling
life.70 Recent work
has been proven that the introduction of porous structure into
TiO2/carbon composite
nanofibers can further greatly improve their capacity
performance. This enables
various advantages, including (a) good rate capability arising
from improved the
kinetics associated with lithium and shorter lithium diffusion
length, (b) stable cyclic
ability due to better accommodation of mechanical strains from
the Li
charging/discharging process, and (c) high energy density
resulting from porous
structure which provides additional space to store more Li
ions.
1.2.2.2.2 Non-electrospun Ti-based hybrid anode
-
35
Cao et al. have developed CNTs/TiO2 core-shell nanocables by
controlled
hydrolysis. CNTs/TiO2 showed the excellent rate capability
compared with pure
CNTs and TiO2. The capacity of CNTs/TiO2 only decreased from 265
mAh g-1 to 238
mAh g-1 (90 % maintained) when the current density increased
from 800 mA g-1 to
5000 mA g-1, while the value of CNTs fell from 201 mAh g-1 to 62
mAh g-1 (30 %
maintained) and nearly less than 5 mAh g-1 maintained for TiO2
under the same
current densities. The high specific capacity of CNTs/TiO2
nanocomposite resulted
from the synergism of the two materials. On one hand, CNTs
facilitates the
transportation of electrons. On the other hand, the storage of
Li for CNTs can be
improved by the assist of nanoporous TiO2 due to the thin layer
on TiO2, making the
rapid access of Li ions from electrolyte.71 A 3D porous
architecture composed of TiO2
nanotubes connected with a carbon nanofiber matrix was developed
by Zhao group.72
TiO2 nanoparticles embedded in the carbon matrix was synthesized
by electrospinning
and heat treatment. During hydrothermal treatment, TiO2
nanoparticles react with
NaOH solution and go out around the carbon nanofiber matrix to
form a 3D porous
nanotube/nanofiber architecture as shown in Figure 1.9a and b.
By using the prepared
materials as anodes for lithium-ion batteries without the
addition of any conductive
agent or binder, high initial capacity and excellent rate
performance were obtained.
Furthermore, the electrode showed stable cycling performance
without any decay
after 1000 cycles at a high rate of 30 C (Figure 1.9c-e).
TiO2/SnO2 composites have been prepared for the anode materials
in LIBs owing to
high capacity of SnO2 (781 mAh g-1). SnO2 nanocrystals on
self-organized TiO2
nanotube arrays by solvothermal method have been prepared. The
capacity of
SnO2/TiO2 anode is more than twice than that of TiO2. What is
more, SnO2/TiO2
-
36
composite showed outstanding cycling performance with 70.8 %
capacity maintained
after 100 cycles. That is because TiO2 nanotubes alleviate the
volume changes of
SnO2 during charging/discharging processes.73 Roginskaya et al
fabricate thin film of
TiO2/SnO2 through thermohydrolytic decomposition. They
demonstrated that the
more stable capacity of the composites was obtained when the
content of TiO2 in the
composites is higher, which can be varied from 0 to 20 %. The
reason is that the
growth of β Sn was hindered by the interface of TiO2/SnO2,
preventing the decay of
SnO2 during charge and discharge processes.74 Maier and
co-workers developed
nanostructured mesoporous anatase TiO2 through efficient
hierarchical mixed
conducting 3D networks to achieve superior electrochemical
performance.75 As
shown in Figure 1.10 a and b, RuO2, providing extremely
conducting paths for
electrons in a 3D network, distributes within the porous TiO2
spheres. This kind of
nanoscopic network leads to negligible insertion kinetics,
increased local conductivity,
faster diffusion of Li+ and e-, and thus appeared to be the
pivotal factor to achieve
high power density demanding for anode materials. Whereas the
commercial
application of valuable metal or its oxides is hindered by
expensive cost and toxicity,
combination of conductive additives at the nanoscale seems
viable for remarkable
performance enhancement. The specific capacity at a rate of C/5
is as high as 214
mAh g-1, which is lowered to 190, 147, and 125 mAh g-1 at 1, 5,
and 10 C,
respectively. The specific charge capacity of around 91 mAh g-1
is obtained even at
the greatly high rate of 30 C, which is two times higher than
that of 5 nm anatase (48
mAh g-1) and nine times higher than that of mesoporous anatase
spheres (10 mAh g-1).
-
37
a
b
c
-
38
Figure 1.9 (a) SEM image of indicate the cross-section of the
carbon nanofibers. (b)
TEM image of 3D-TiO2/C samples after calcination; the insets are
the magnified
images and the SAED patterns. (c) Discharge-charge curves of the
3D-TiO2/C
electrode at various rates (1 C (4th cycle), 2 C (9th cycle), 5
C (14th cycle), 10 C (19th
cycle), 20 C (24th cycle) and 30 C (29th cycle)). (d) Cycling
performance of the 3D-
TiO2/C electrode at various rates (1-30 C). (e) Cycling
performance of the3D-TiO2/C
electrode at the rate of 30 C.65
In addition, when the rate is lowered to C/5, the capacity of
210 mAh g-1 is regained
(Figure 1.10 c-f), demonstrating excellent reversibility.
d
e
-
39
a b
cc
d
-
40
Figure 1.10 (a) HRTEM image taken from the outer edges of a
TiO2:RuO2 sphere; (b)
corresponding schematic illustration of the self-wired path of
deposited RuO2
nanoparticles. (c-f) Rate performance. Variation of discharge
(■) charge (●) capacities
versus cycle number for different anatase electrodes cycled at
different rates between
voltage limits of 1 and 3 V.68
1.2.2.2.3 Transitional metal oxides/carbon hybrid
Several metal oxides (MOx, M= Co, Fe, Mn, etc.) following the
conversion reaction
mechanism are converted to a metallic state accompanied by the
formation of Li2O
during the electrode reactions, and then reversibly turned back
to their initial products
after the delithiation.76 Since the electron that uses in the
conversion reaction is more
than one due to the accommodation of Li in the vacant sites of
these metal oxides,77
these metal oxides as anodes possess high specific reversible Li
storage capacities
ranging from 400 to more than 1000 mAh g-1 with an average
working voltage of 1.8-
2.0 V vs. Li/Li+.78 However, a number of disadvantages still
remain in these metal
oxides, such as unstable SEI films caused by large volume
expansion, large potential
e f
-
41
hysteresis between charge and discharge, and low Coulombic
efficiency at the initial
cycle, giving rise to a great decrease of power efficiency of
the electrodes.79 To solve
these issues, 1D electrospun nanostructured metal oxides/carbon
fibrous hybrids have
been studied.80 Below we present several typical metal
oxide/carbon hybrids by
electrospinning, such as iron oxide/carbon composite, cobalt
oxide/carbon composite,
and manganese oxide/carbon composite.
Cobalt oxide. Cobalt oxide, such as Co3O4 and CoO, is one of the
typical
conversion reaction-based anode materials for LIBs with the
theoretical capacities
varying from 715 to 890 mAh g-1.81 Bulk cobalt oxides-based
anodes suffer from poor
cycling stability because of the large volumetric expansion and
unstable SEI film,
causing the poor capacity retention.82 1D cobalt oxide
nanofibers have been shown to
alleviate these problems with improved Li storage capacity of
816-1336 mAh g-1 at
the initial cycle.83 However, severe aggregation of cob