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Chapter 4 I Arranging the Physical Environment 63

Becker ( 1981) studied the impact of the environment on behavior. He indicates that the proportion of behavioral variance attributable to the environment will vary according to the level of competence, health, intelligence, and ego strength of those using the space. The physical environment will less affect individuals with high feelings of competence and success than those with low feelings of success and competence. This emphasizes the importance of the physical environment when dealing with students who demonstrate persistent behavior problems. It is probable that the physical environment will be a more important consideration when trying to solve their problems.

The organization of the environment influences student perceptions of their place in the classroom, the sorts of activities considered appropriate, and how they are expected to behave. Although the impact of these perceptions may change over time, first impressions will have a lasting impact. These initial impressions can facilitate the establishment of a positive learning environment and help move students toward selfcontrol, or they can interfere and make learning more difficult. It is therefore important for you to consider the impact of the environment you create on the behavior of your students. You need to consciously plan and create environments that facilitate your educational goals and desirable student behavior.

GOALS TO BE CONSIDERED WHEN PLANNING THE ENVIRONMENT

The systematic development of an environment conducive to learning begins with your goals and purposes. These goals and purposes should then be used as a framework for planning various dimensions of the environment. Weinstein and David (1987) identify a number of goals that are useful for this purpose: helping students develop a personal identity, encouraging feelings of competence, promoting intellectual growth and stimulation, providing a sense of security, and allowing for both privacy and social interaction.

Developing Personal Identity

The development of a personal identity is enhanced when classrooms are created where students feel they belong and where they have a sense of ownership. Students spend considerable time in a classroom during an academic year. It must be a place where they feel comfortable in order for it to be an environment that is conducive to learning. If it is also a place where they have a feeling of personal identity, the comfort level will be enhanced.

Feelings of ownership and personal identity are enhanced by allowing students to participate in decision making about the use of the space- the grouping of desks, room decorations, and organization and placement of learning centers. Allowing them the freedom to personalize their classroom helps students to develop a sense of belonging and pride.

64 Part One I Effective Classroom Management

Elementary classrooms, where the same group of students inhabits the same

space all day, are usually easier to personalize than secondary classrooms that are

shared by several groups of students. Some ways of helping students personalize the

classroom is to allow them space on bulletin boards to display items of their choos

ing. Adding pets to the elementary classroom can also be very effective in helping to

personalize the environment. Weinstein and Mignano (1993) suggest that you add

things about yourself, your interests, and your hobbies to the classroom. This not only

helps personalize the room but also communicates that the teacher is also a "real" per

son. What needs to be avoided is an environment that is cold, sterile, and devoid of

interesting and personal objects.

Enhancing Competence and Security

One of the most fundamental functions of a space is to provide security. While many

teachers see the need to provide for the physical comfort and security of students, they

may forget the importance of psychological security (Weinstein and Mignano, 1993 ).

Individuals thrust into an unfamiliar environment often feel threatened and insecure.

Your goal should be to remove the threat and insecurity by helping students feel that

they have some control over the environment.

The psychological security and comfort of the students can be addressed by mak

ing sure that the furnishings are appropriate for the size and the development levels

of the students. Individuals of any size or stage of development cannot be expected

to demonstrate much task persistence if they are sitting in an uncomfortable chair or

writing on an unstable work surface. It is not uncommon to visit classrooms where

some students are sitting in chairs that are an improper size and where work surfaces

are inadequate for the tasks they are assigned. Reflect on your own experience. If you

are assigned a task and you have inadequate workspace or inadequate tools to do the

job, is your sense of competence enhanced? For example, as I attempt do-it-yourself

projects, I often feel incompetent and frustrated because I lack the proper tools to do

the job. Although overcoming barriers can be rewarding at times, most of us become

extremely frustrated and even angry if there are too many of them.

Fortunately, recent attempts in school design are considering the fact that not all

students are physically the same and that there is a need for flexible furnishings . How

ever, there are other considerations. Do students have adequate surfaces to do writ

ing when they are required to do so? Is there enough space for them to keep essential

materials without them always falling on the floor? If you are asking students to per

form experiments, do they have the necessary space and material to do it? If they are

working in cooperative groups, can they easily communicate with each other?

For students to develop a sense of competence and security, the environment

must be free of threat. The potential for physical harm should be a consideration in

classes, that involve unfamiliar or potentially dangerous equipment. Younger children

might be fearful of unfamiliar equipment or animals that might be present. For exam

ple, I remember a high school science class where the teacher mentioned the potential


danger of one of the acids being used in an experiment. As a result, one student became so nervous about handJing the acid so that he was unable to conduct the experiment. As you look around your classroom, are there items that might generate fear? How might you discuss those items with the class so that their fears are minimized? You might want to establish some rules or routines so students clearly understand how to use the items safely.

Developing feelings of competence also requires that the classroom be a place where students have success and where success is celebrated. Teachers can structure the environment to celebrate success by making sure that bulletin boards and display areas include examples of successful work. This is relatively easy to accomplish in elementary schools, where students ' work is often a prominent part of the classroom environment, but it can be more difficult in secondary schools. One high school teacher accomplished this task by displaying articles cut out of newspapers, recital programs, or other publications in which students in her class were named. She made a concerted effort to find something to display for every student in her homeroom. The effort paid off with student respect and affection and an almost total absence of discipline problems.

Promoting Intellectual Growth and Stimulation

Promoting the intellectual growth of students requires a rich and varied environment. This implies that the environment needs to be dynamic and changing rather than static. A classroom that is the same for the entire year or from year to year communicates stagnation and boredom, a symbolic statement inviting discipline problems. Bulletin boards and display areas should be changed and updated on a regular basis in order to promote intellectual stimulation and communicate that the classroom is a dynamic, changing, and exciting place. Although this is an aspect of the physical environment often overlooked by teachers, the long-term effects of an ever-changing environment are positive.

One caution is in order when discussing changing the environment. Changing the environment in order to promote cognitive growth and stimulation must be balanced with the need for a sense of security. Continuity and predictability in the environment enhance security. For example, most of us feel insecure if our workspace is changed dramatically. It takes a while to make the space our own and to feel comfortable in it. The same principle applies to the classroom. Massive changes in the organization of the space and seating assignments should be done infrequently. And, when making changes, it is best to involve students.

Another method for providing for stimulation in the classroom is that of periodically changing the classroom seating and grouping patterns. Studies indicate that teachers develop patterns of behavior so that they tend to spend a great deal of time in certain areas of the classroom and spend little time in other areas. As a result, the work of students in those areas where they spend little time does not get monitored as well and those students receive less attention. Changing the arrangement of seats

I ~


from time to time so that different students sit in the area with high teacher contact does promote more at-task behavior and student satisfaction.

When planning your classroom environment, you should also consider arranging the room so that it is easy to quickly get to each student. This will allow you to move quickly to a student when assistance is needed or when you need to deal with a problem. This arrangement will make it easier for you to develop the habit of getting to all areas of the classroom during a lesson.

Accommodating Privacy Needs

Classrooms are generally organized to facilitate group activities and social interactions. They seldom consider individual needs for privacy. Although the typical classroom design makes it difficult to accommodate this need for privacy, privacy is a dimension that can have an important impact on learner behavior. Probansky and Fabian (1987) contend that a convincing case could be made that students use the strategies of withdrawal, fantasy, and acting-out for attaining privacy and isolation not normally permitted in classroom environments.

Weinstein and David (1987) also emphasize the importance of considering the privacy needs of students when designing a classroom environment. There are times when individuals like to be alone, away from the scrutiny of others. However, class

rooms are characterized by a lack of privacy (Weinstein and Mignano, 1993). Students are constantly being observed by the teacher and by other students.

One way of accommodating the privacy need is to designate one comer of the classroom as a private work area. This area can be separated from the rest of the room by bookcases, file cabinets, or study carrels. Students move to that area to study or simply to be alone. Providing this type of retreat for students communicates that you are sensitive to their personal needs.

DIMENSIONS OF THE PHYSICAL ENVIRONMENT

There are several aspects of the physical environment that need to be considered. One important aspect is the spatial dimension-the size, shape, and organization of objects within the space. Another is the classroom ambiance, or the feeling that one has when

entering the space. A third is the spatial density of students in the classroom.

The Spatial Dimension

The size and shape of the room, the location of doors and windows, and the circulation and traffic patterns combine to form the spatial dimension of a classroom. Although, windows and doors cannot be moved and the size of the classroom cannot be changed, there are aspects of the spatial dimension that can be altered or controlled by the teacher. There are studies that indicate that many teachers are not very good at


using classroom space effectively or in developing alternative spatial arrangements.

For example, Smith (1987) found that more than 45 percent of all classroom activity

took place in just one-twelfth of the classroom space. Teachers seem to get locked

into a routine and do not consider optimal use of the spact;: available to them. Teach

ing stations could be rotated to different areas of the room or different areas desig

nated for different types of activities. Seating arrangement deserves special attention. Weinstein (1979) found evi

dence of the impact of seating arrangements on student behavior. In a second-grade

classroom, a teacher and a researcher worked together and identified a number of be

havioral problems. In an attempt to solve the problems, the seating arrangements were

then systematically changed. The result was a statistically significant decrease in the

number of behavioral problems. Furthermore, other studies found that the participation of high school and college

students in classroom discussions was influenced by seating arrangement (Becker,

1981). Weinstein (1979) also discovered that seating position influenced student at

titudes toward the class and toward the teacher. In summary, it appears that attending

to seating arrangements can have an important payoff by influencing student behav

ior, classroom participation, and student attitudes.

Action Zone A concept that pulls together the important dimensions of the seating arrangement

is one that some researchers have labeled the action zane (Adams and Biddle, 1970).

The action zone consists of the seats across the front of the classroom and down the

center. Those students sitting in this action zone participate in the class more, attend

to a task a greater length of time, have higher achievement, and have more positive

attitudes toward the class. One explanation for these findings might be that the bet

ter students tend to choose these spots. There is some validity to this contention.

Dykman and Reis (1979) found that the students who choose to sit on the periphery

of the classroom generally feel more threatened and exhibit lower self-esteem than

those who sit in the action zone. They suggest that students who choose to sit on the

periphery want to distance themselves from the threat posed by the teacher.

However, there is some evidence that positive outcomes occur when students are

assigned seats in the action zone. Dykman and Reis (1979) offer a partial explanation

for this finding . Those learners with lower self-esteem, who feel less secure and more

threatened by the teacher, tend to choose seats most distant from the teacher. As a

consequence they get called on less frequently , are monitored less often, and are gen

erally less involved in the class than those in the action zone. This neglect leads to in

creased failure, which in turn confirms their original feelings of self-doubt and fear.

Moving such individuals into the action zone gets them involved, provides them with

more opportunities for interaction with the teacher, and therefore begins to remove

feelings of self-doubt and fear. This information about the action zone can be used in several ways to arrange the

physical environment. One application is to arrange the seating so those students with

68 Part One I Effective Classroom Management l

academic and behavioral difficulties are placed in the action zone. Moving students into this area will increase the amount of time they spend on-task, allow them to receive more constructive feedback, and result in higher feelings of competence and intellectual growth.

Because the action zone is defined in reference to the location of the teacher, the location of the action zone will depend on your location when instructing the class. You can change the location of the action zone by changing the teaching station. Teaching from different spots in the classroom will allow you to utilize the findings of the action zone without assigning or changing seats.

Some teachers prefer to allow students the opportunity, at least at the beginning of the year, to choose their own seats. This practice does have merit. Smith (1987) found in a study of achievement that gain.s were greater in classes where students were allowed to choose their own seats. The security and comfort of choosing one ' s location in the classroom may well create a positive climate in which students are more open to instruction. A variation of this is to allow students to initially choose their own seats. Those few students who experience difficulty might then be gradually and unobtrusively moved into the action zone.

Teacher Proximity

The concept of an action zone emphasizes the importance of teacher proximity to students. Other studies also indicate the importance of the teacher remaining as close to students as possible. For example, Weinstein (1979) found that grades decrease as a student is seated farther away from the teacher. In addition, student participation and positive student attitudes decline as the distance between the teacher and students increases (Smith, 1987). What could explain these findings? It may be that teachers have more difficulty monitoring the work of students who are seated farther away from them. This lack of monitoring does not provide students with the immediate feedback they might need to increase their understanding and therefore improve their grades. The distance factor may also contribute to a lack of teacher- student contact that could contribute to positive interpersonal interactions and feelings. Students do tend to stay on-task when the teacher is physically closer and this increased learning time could also translate into higher achievement and grades and therefore more positive feelings .

These findings emphasize that it is important for you to be as close as possible to the largest number of students for the greatest amount of time. How can this be accomplished? One techniq1:1e would be to increase the number of students who are seated in the front of the class. Look at the physical dimensions of the classroom. If the space is rectangular, choose a primary teaching station on one of the long sides so that you will have more rows with fewer students. This will allow you closer con

tact with those students across the front and will reduce the space between you and those seated in the back row. Another technique would be to place your desk in a location that is near the largest number of students. Do not isolate the desk in some far


corner of the classroom. One suggestion is to have a primary teaching station on one side of the classroom and the t~,acher's desk on the other. This increases your presence in two different areas of the classroom.

Another suggestion is to look at the traffic patterns of the ease of movement around the classroom. Arranging the traffic pattern so that you have easy movement around the classroom will facilitate your movement and increase the contact you have with all students.

Arranging Student Desks

Student desks are the most dominant features in the classroom. The discussion of the action zone and teacher proximity highlights the importance of giving desk arrangement considerable thought. The arrangement of the desks provides the major setting or "frame" that shapes teacher- student interaction and the behavior of students (Rosenfield, Lambert, and Black, 1985). Because different arrangements influence behavior in different ways, there is no best way to arrange desks. When arranging desks you should consider the teaching approach you use, the type of interaction you desire, student characteristics, and your ability to maintain classroom control.

The three basic seating arrangements most commonly used in classrooms are rows, clusters, and circular or semicircular patterns. There are advantages and disadvantages to each. When desks are arranged in rows all facing in one direction student interaction with each other is limited, listening is enhanced, and independent work is facilitated. Many teachers find that the row arrangement is easier for them to monitor and helps establish and maintain classroom control. Weinstein (1979) cites studies indicating that organizing desks that limited student-to-student interaction leads to higher on-task behavior, less off-task movement, and less disruptive talk. However, when participation in a discussion was used as a criterion, those seated in rows had higher incidents of withdrawal and more off-task verbal comments. If your teaching approach will be primarily direct instruction, you want students to work independently and you are concerned about your ability to promote on-task behavior, arrangement of desks in rows would be the best choice. This arrangement would require more movement and monitoring in order to keep students alert and focused.

Rosenfield, Lambert, and Black (1985) cite the advantages of the circular arrangement. In fifth- and sixth-grade classrooms, they found that a circular pattern increased student comments related to the content and that students had increased attending behavior. They also found higher incidents of out-of-tum responses by students seated in a circle. This may indicate more student spontaneity when they are arranged in this format. If your primary mode of teaching will be class discussion, you are not concerned about students speaking out-of-tum, you want to increase student attending and verbal participation, a circular pattern would be the best choice.

Students seated in cluster arrangements demonstrated more ordered turns while still maintaining a high percentage of on-task verbal behaviors. Clustered arrangements are most commonly used in cooperative learning. If your mode of instruction


were to be cooperative learning, then clustering students into small groups would be

the most appropriate choice. Some authorities recommend that you begin the school year with desks in rows

facing the major instructional areas and then move to other desk arrangements after

you have established control of the classroom (Emmer et al. , 1989). This prevents dis

cipline problems during the critical beginning phases of the school year. This sug

gestion has a great deal of merit if you are insecure and are concerned about your

ability to control the classroom. Once your confidence grows, you may use less tra

ditional arrangements. Student self-control is another factor to consider when arranging seating. Those

students who have a high degree of self-control might be grouped into clusters for a

large portion of the day. Such students are able to overcome the distractions of others

seated near them and can resist the temptation to socialize at inappropriate times.

However, those students who lack self-control should be arranged in rows so that the

possibilities of social interaction are limited. As they develop self-control and learn to

participate in discussions and cooperative learning groups, then the arrangement might

be gradually changed to more of a circular or cluster arrangement.

Traffic Patterns

Traffic patterns in the classroom are very important. Students need to enter and exit

the classroom quickly, they need to have easy access to materials, and they need to be

able to move about without disturbing others. High traffic areas need to have plenty of

space and be kept free of obstructions. Teacher movement is important in order to

monitor student work and behavior. Therefore, the room arrangement should allow the

teacher easy access to all learners. The best design would make it easy for the teacher

to be at any student's desk within seconds. This arrangement facilitates movement

around the room and helps keep the teacher in close proximity to the students.

The Teacher's Desk

The placement of the teacher's desk is important when considering the room arrange

ment. It not only has an impact on the traffic pattern; the placement affects a number

of other dimensions of the classroom. It is a place you will use and is often a place to

which the students will move on a frequent basis. The traditional place for the

teacher' s desk has been in front of the classroom. However, this location is often not

the best. A better spot for the teacher' s desk is in a less dominant and obtrusive spot,

preferably in a comer or riear the rear of the room (Weinstein, 1979).

The desk becomes the focal point of most of the activity in the classroom. Any

activity at the desk is easily observable to everyone in the classroom. Placing the desk

at the front of the room also makes it convenient as a teaching station. This prompts

the bad habit of directing all activities from the desk and cuts down on the amount of

movement of the teacher around the room. Teaching from behind the desk results in


higher student off-task behavior and lower positive student attitudes toward the

teacher (Smith, 1987). Placing the teacher's desk in an unobtrusive spot also allows the teacher the op

portunity to conduct conferences with students with some degree of privacy. The con

ference does not become a central focus of the class, and accommodates privacy

needs of students. Students will feel more comfortable sharing feelings with the

teacher, as the embarrassment that might accompany a conference is reduced. If the

conference is related to discipline matters, the need to save face and demonstrate

power in front of peers is eliminated. Finally, placement near the rear of the room tends to promote higher student at

task behavior. Students tend to stay on-task if they are unaware of where the teacher

is. In order to check on the location of the teacher, students must tum around. This

behavior often indicates difficulty and allows the teacher the opportunity to move to

the area and prevent problems from occurring.

Identifying Activity Boundaries

Another important aspect of the arrangement of physical space is the identification of

space and boundaries for different types of activities. Identifying activity boundaries

is more important in an elementary classroom where students inhabit the same space

for many different types of activities. However, secondary teachers should also con

sider arranging space to allow for different activities such as independent study, group

work, small-group discussion, use of technology, and so on.

Identifying boundaries for different activities helps to provide students with a

sense of security and assists them in maintaining self-control. Clearly delineated

boundaries serve as reminders of the types of behavior appropriate in different areas

of the room and for different activities. Bookcases and file cabinets are especially use

ful for this purpose and can be used to change the shape of the physical environment,

for example, to separate small-group work areas, learning centers, and independent

work areas from large-group instruction. As indicated earlier, they can be used to sep

arate an area to meet the privacy needs of students.

In addition, changing the shape of the classroom serves to promote sensory

stimulation by making the room different from others. Students tend to get bored

when every classroom is the same size, the same shape, and organized in rows fac

ing in the same direction. Care should be taken, however, that boundaries do not in

terfere with the ability of the teacher to monitor quickly all areas of the classroom.

The placement of visual barriers so that student behavior cannot be quickly and

quietly observed creates a condition that invites misbehavior.

THE CLASSROOM AMBIANCE

Ambiance refers to the feelings that an individual gets when entering a place. An en

vironment might communicate a feeling of excitement or a sense of quiet and peace.


Some environments are attractive and inviting, others ugly and forbidding. The ambiance of a place is created through orderliness, light, sound, texture, color, temperature, and odor. These elements can be combined in ways that are pleasant to create feelings of comfort, security, and warmth, or they may create a sense of insecurity, threat, and coldness.

ACTIVITY 4-2 I WAS HIRED TO TEACH, NOT DECORATE.

Some teachers complain about tasks such as putting up bulletin boards. Secondary teachers often consider the activity as suitable to the elementary level or frivolous. They contend that time is better spent preparing for teaching than trying to beautify the classroom. In addition, they point out that attractiveness and beauty exists in the mind of the beholder. They may create an environment they think is attractive that may be unattractive to students.

What do you think?

• Can teachers expend too much effort decorating a classroom? How much effort do you think is appropriate?

• How would you react to the contention that developing an attractive classroom is less appropriate for a secondary level teacher?

• What would you suggest for secondary teachers?

• What do students you teach or intend to teach regard as attractive and stimulating?

• At what point do you think that c lassroom decorations become a distraction rather than an enhancement to learning?

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