Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author.
Copyright is owned by the Author of the thesis. Permission is given for a copy to be downloaded by an individual for the purpose of research and private study only. The thesis may not be reproduced elsewhere without the permission of the Author.
Preharvest Practices Affecting Postharvest Quality of
'Hayward' Kiwifruit
A thesis presented in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of
DOCTOR OF PHILOSOPHY
In
Plant Physiology and Horticultural Science
Massey University, New Zealand
Katrina Norah Buxton
November 2005
Abstract
Repeat purchase of kiwifruit is primaril y driven by consumer judgement of internal fruit quality
attributes, including those affected by dry matter concentration (DMC) and mineral composition i n
fruit . Thi s research investigated mechanisms affecting carbohydrate, mineral and water
accumulation in 'Hayward' kiwifruit (A ctinidia deliciosa), and related these to specific
management practices. Canopy manipulation through pruning and treatments such as artificial
pollination, defoliation, girdling, thinning and application of the auxin transport inhibitor TIBA,
may affect fruit DMC and mineral composition.
Leaf photosynthesis and fruit dry matter concentrations (DMC) started to decline as leaf area i ndex
values increased above 3-4. In addition to reducing competition for carbohydrates between
vegetative and reproductive growth, leader pruning probably increased DMCs of fruit in the leader
zone by improving l ight interception. Photosynthesis was not affected by crop loads between 20-
60 fruit m-2, but was consistently h igher on non-terminating (long) shoots than on terminating
( short) shoots, as were fruit DMCs . Differences in photosynthetic rate of leaves on these two
shoot types were attributed to differences in shoot exposure to the sun, and also to the greater
demand for carbohydrate within long shoots.
Leaves subtending fruit may increase Ca, and to a lesser extent Mg, flow into fruit, however their
accumulation was not affected by leaves outside the fruiting shoot. Xylem sap Ca and Mg
concentrations were higher in shoots with a high rather than a low leaf: fruit (L:F) ratio and this
may, at least partially, relate to the increase in shoot transpiration that occurs as shoot L:F ratios
increase. Within vine variation i n fruit Ca concentrations may reflect variations in xylem sap flow
rates and Ca concentrations of xylem sap reaching fruit.
Calcium translocation may occur i ndependently of ion movement in the transpiration stream.
Timing and extent of vascular differentiation in flower and fruitlet pedicels, possibly regulated by
auxin, may influence fruit Ca accumulation. It i s l ikely that early differentiation of vascular tissue
in flower and fruitlet pedicels influenced cell division and subsequent (carbohydrate) sink strength
of frui t by determining availabil i ty of carbohydrate for partitioning into cel l wal ls .
While growers have the potential to induce minor changes in fruit DMC, further increases wi l l
depend on the separation of carbohydrate and water accumulation . Further research is required to
elucidate the mechanisms regulating phloem transport and unloading of sucrose in kiwifruit.
1Jl
Acknowledgements
I can't believe my thesis i s finished! It makes me very proud to think back four years, to when I
first started, and consider al l the things that I have accompl ished and my own personal
development during the course of my studies. This has definitely been one of the biggest and
hardest challenges I have ever taken on, and it never would have been accomplished without the
advice and support of the following people and organisations . It is my pleasure to acknowledge
these people.
Firstly, there are my supervisors Professor Errol Hewett and Dr Ian Ferguson for their patient
guidance and support throughout the course of my PhD. I recogni se and greatly appreciate all the
hours of time they have invested in me over the last four years, despite having hectic schedules of
their own.
I would also l ike to say a special thanks to Drs Sandy Lang and E lspeth MacRae, who 'got the ball
rol l ing' for me, and to Or Mike Clearwater for the considerable quantity of information, expertise
and feedback that he has provided me with over the l ast four years. Or Nihal Oe Si lva also
deserves a special mention for the statistical advice he has shared with me. In addition the
following people have all provided help and/or advice: Annette R ichardson, Or Jeremy Burdon,
Linda Boyd, Or Cristos Xiloyannis, Dr Mike Currie, Dr Bartelo Dichio, Or Ian Hal let, Or Nagin
Lal lu, Dr Kate Maguire, Dr Ken Marsh, Dr Oenny Meyer, Al istair Mowat, Steven Owen, Or
Kevin Patterson, Paul Sutherland, Dr Grant Thorp, Or Jens Wtinsche and the orchard management
team at Te Puke HortResearch .
Also I would l ike to thank the people I worked with a t Apata Centrepac Ltd and Satara Co
operative Group Ltd, for assisting with the grading, packing and storage of fruit from my
experiments; Oave Jury and staff at Mul ler and Associates who worked with me on the experiment
reported in Chapter three; Growers B ruce Vanstone, Tom Newman, Howard Strahan and Oave
Burnside who provided experimental vines.
HortResearch has provided the required facil i ties to complete my research and staff there, many of
whom are mentioned above, have been particularly great to me over the last four years, not just
providing technical assistance and advice, but often friendship as wel l . Generous financial
assistance from the Tertiary Education Commission (formerly from the Foundation for Research,
Science and Technology) and ZESPRJTM International Ltd has not only ensured that this research
even 'got off the ground' , but has enabled me to present papers at several international conferences
(Appendix 1 ) . ZESPRJTM International Ltd also provided me with opportunities to interact with
growers and other industry personnel .
Lastly, I would l ike to thank my boyfriend Neil , friends and family for getting me through the
tough t imes and for their support and understanding when I could not always be as social as I
would have l iked. Plenty of t ime to make up for that now!
v
CONTENTS
ABSTRACT
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
CHAPTER 1 . General Introduction
1 . 1 . Internal quality in kiwifruit : importance of high Ca and OM concentrations
1 .2 .
1 .3 .
l A.
1 .5 .
1 .6 .
1 . 1 . 1 . Fruit DMC and taste
1 . 1 .2. Postharvest quality and fruit mineral and DM concentrations
1 . 1 .3 . Factors affecting fruit variabil i ty
Carbohydrate, mineral nutrient and water accumulation in kiwifruit
1 .2. 1 . Fruit growth
1 .2.2. Phloem transport and carbohydrate accumulation
1 .2.3. Xylem transport, water and mineral accumulation
1 .2.4. Fruit DMC and its relationship to Ca
Canopy management and fruit quality
1 .3. 1 . Vine description
1 .3.2. Canopy management
Fruit water loss and kiwifruit internal quality
1 .4. 1 . Fruit skin structure and water loss
1 .4.2. Fruit surface area and water loss
Vascular tissues and their development in the fruit stalk
1 .5 . 1 . Effects of vascular capacity on carbohydrate and mineral accumulation
1 .5 .2. Xylem morphology
1 .5 .3. Hydraulic conductance
1 .5 .4. Phloem morphology
1 .5 .5 . Vascular development in the frui t stalk
1 .5 .6. Factors affect ing vascular development
Auxins and fruit quality
1 .6. 1 . Auxins and vascular differentiation
1 .6.2. Auxins and cell division and elongation
1 .6.3. Auxins and carbohydrate accumulation within the fruit
1 .6.4. Auxin application and the effect of seeds
1 .6 .5 . Effect of auxin transport inhibitors on mineral and carbohydrate accumulation
iii
V
vii
xiii
xix
xxii i
1
5
7
1 0
1 0
1 1
1 3
1 9
2 1
2 1
23
30
32
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36
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39
39
42
43
44
45
45
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48
V1l
1 .7 . Problem Statement and Objectives
1 . 7 . 1 . Statement of the problem
1 . 7 .2 . Objectives
CHAPTER 2. General Methods
2. l .
2 .2 .
2.3 .
2.4.
2 .5 .
2.6.
2.7.
Chemicals
Fruit selection
Field preparation of fruit and fruit stalks for assessment
Secondary vascular measurements
Mineral analysis
Dry matter concentration
Xylem functionality
2 .7 . 1 .
2 .7.2 .
Dye infiltration
Determining xylem functional ity
2 .8 . Harvest dates
2.9. Fruit storage assessment
2. 1 0. Data handl ing and statistics
2 . 1 0. 1 . Data handling
2 . 1 0.2 . Experimental design and statistical analysis
CHAPTER 3. Kiwifruit Pruning Systems and Fruit Quality
3 . l .
3 .2 .
3 .3 .
3.4.
3 .5 .
vii i
Introduction
Materials and methods
3.2 . 1 Experimental design
3.2 .2 Pruning strategies
3.2 .3 . Seasonal analyses
3 .2 .4. Experimental problems
3 .2 .5 . S tatistical analysis
Results
3 .3 . 1 . Canopy attributes
3.3 .2 . Yield components
3 .3 .3 . Fruit data
3 .3.4. Storage and sensory data
Discussion
3.4. 1 .
3 .4.2.
Fruit quality: physical attributes
Fruit quality as perceived by the consumer
Conclusions
49
49
50
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53
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53
54
56
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59
60
60
60
63
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67
7 1
72
72
72
73
74
80
83
83
87
89
CHAPTER 4. Crop Load Effects on Photosynthesis and Transpiration and
Subsequent Effects on Fruit Quality
4. 1 . Introduction
4.2. Materials and methods
4.2. 1 . 2002/2003 Season
4.2 .2 . 200312004 Season
4.2 .3 . Statistical analysi s
4.3 . Results
4.3 .1. Canopy density
4.3 .2 . Fruit and fruit stalk data
4.3 .3 . Photosynthesis and stomatal conductance
4.3.4. Storage trial results
4.4. Discussion
4.4. 1 . Crop load effects on photosynthesis and stomatal conductance
4.4.2. Crop load effects on fruit properties
4.4.3. Crop load effects on postharvest fruit quality
4.5 . Conclusions
CHAPTER 5: Carbohydrate and Mineral Accumulation in Long, Non
Terminating and Short, Terminating Shoots: Effects of Girdling
and Defoliation
5 . 1 . Introduction
5 .2 . Materials and methods
5 .2 . 1 . Experimental design and treatments
5 .2 .2 . Harvest procedure
5 .2 .3 . Xylem functionality
5 .2 .4 . Statistical analysis
5 .3 . Results
5 .3. 1 . December harvest results
5 .3 .2 . January harvest results
5 .3 .3 . April harvest results
5 .4 . Discussion
5.4. 1 . M inerals
5.4.2. Fruit weight and dry matter concentration
5 .5 . Conclusions
91 9 1
93
93
95
96
96
96
98
lIO
1 1 4
1 1 7
1 1 7
1 2 1
1 24
1 25
127
1 27
1 29
1 29
1 30
1 30
1 3 1
1 3 1
1 3 1
1 33
1 35
1 37
1 37
1 42
1 44
IX
CHAPTER 6: Fruit Transpiration, Skin Permeance, Minerals and Carbohydrate
Accumulation
6. l .
6 .2 .
6.3.
6.4.
6.5.
Introduction
Materials and methods
6.2. 1 . The effect of fruit transpiration on mineral and carbohydrate accumulation in
frui t from long , non-terminating and short, termi nating shoots
6.2.2. Effect of shoot type on fruit permeance
Results
6.3. 1 . The effect of fruit transpiration on mineral and carbohydrate accumulation in
fru it from long, non-terminating and short, terminating shoots
6.3.2. Effect of shoot type on fruit permeance
Discussion
6.4. 1 .
6.4.2.
Mineral accumulation and fru i t transpiration
Shoot type effects
6.4.3 . Mineral accumulation and fruit permeance
Conclusions
CHAPTER 7: Seasonal Trends in Vascular Development of Fruit Stalks From
Long, Non-Terminating and Short, Terminating Shoots
7. 1 .
7.2.
7 .3 .
7.4.
Introduction
Materials and methods
7.2. 1 . Experimental design
7.2 .2 . Statistical analysis
Results and discussion
7.3. 1 . Flower and fruit stalk growth
7 .3 .2 . Vascular development in the fruit stal k
7 .3 .3 . Spatial distrihution of phloem and xylem tissues within the fruit stalk
Conclusions
CHAPTER 8: TIBA and Fruit Seed Number Influences Mineral and
Carbohydrate Accumulation in Kiwifruit: A Potential Role for
Auxins
8. l .
8 .2 .
8 .3 .
x
Introduction
Materials and methods
8.2. 1 . TIBA and frui t qual ity
8.2.2. TIBA plus girdling or defoliation and fruit quality
8.2 .3 . Seeds and frui t qual ity
Results
147
1 47
1 49
1 49
1 5 1
1 56
1 56
1 60
1 63
1 63
1 65
1 68
1 68
171
1 71
1 72
1 72
1 72
1 73
1 73
1 74
1 79
1 8 1
185
1 85
1 89
1 89
1 9 1
1 93
1 96
8.4.
8 .5 .
8.3. 1 .
8 .3 .2 .
8 .3 .3.
TIBA and frui t qual i ty
Effects of TIBA plus girdl ing or defoliation on fruit quality
Seeds and fruit qual ity
Discussion
8 .4. 1 .
8 .4.2.
8 .4.3.
8.4.4.
Mineral ion accumulation
Fresh and dry weight accumulation
Girdling and defol iation in relation to TIBA effects on fruit quality
TIBA and fruit qual i ty in storage
Conclusions
CHAPTER 9: Non-destructive Measurement of Mineral Concentrations in Xylem
Sap of Different Kiwifruit Shoot Types Using Spittlebugs
9. 1 .
9 .2 .
9.3 .
9.4.
9.5.
Introduction
Materials and methods
9.2 . 1 .
9 .2 .2 .
9.2.3 .
9.2.4.
9 .2 .5 .
9 .2 .6.
9 .2 .7 .
9 .2 .8 .
Results
9.3 . 1 .
9 .3 .2 .
9 .3 .3 .
9 .3 .4.
9.3.5.
Plant material
Bug collection and xylem sap feeding
Collection of excreta sap
Excreta sap analysis
Spittlebug excreta sap and xylem sap composition
Vacuum-extraction of xylem sap
Axi llary shoot attributes
Statistical analysis
Bug feeding patterns
Excreta sap ion composition
The effect of axi l lary shoot-type on xylem sap composition
Ion concentrations gradients down a cane
Calibration solution results
Discussion
9.4. 1 .
9.4.2.
Xylem sap mineral composition
Insect feeding patterns
9.4 .3 . Spatial variation in xylem sap mineral ion concentrations: evidence that
minerals are partit ioned on a demand basi s
Conclusions
CHAPTER 10: General Discussion
1 0. 1 . Thesis objective
1 0.2 . Factors affecting Ca and carbohydrate accumulation in kiwi fruit
1 0.3 . Factors affecting fruit DM, Mg, K and P concentrations
1 96
208
2 1 7
22 1
2 21
224
227
227
228
231
23 1
232
232
233
234
234
235
235
236
236
237
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239
240
24 1
242
242
242
243
244
246
249
249
250
257
XI
1 0.4. Potential to manipulate fruit DM and Ca concentrations to benefit fruit quality 258
1 0.5 . Directions for future research 26 ]
1 0.6. Conclusions 263
REFERENCES
APPENDIX I. International Conference and Industry Presentations
APPENDIX 11. Chemicals Utilised in Fruit Assessment
XII
265
287
288
List of Figures
Chapter 1 :
1 . 1 . Average DMC of fruit from 24 different orchards within New Zealand, as
measured in 2004 and 2005.
1 .2 . Fresh and dry weight accumulation i n 'Hayward' kiwifruit .
1 .3 . Starch and soluble sugar accumulation in ' Hayward' kiwifruit .
l A. Soluble sugar accumulation in 'Hayward' fruit .
1 .5 . Mineral accumulation in different organs within kiwifruit vines.
1 .6 . Fruit Ca contents and concentrations in 'Hayward' kiwifrui t
1 .7 . Fruit P, Mg and K contents and concentrations i n 'Hayward' kiwifrui t .
1 .8 . Seasonal changes in DMC in ' Hayward' kiwifruit .
1 .9 . Kiwifruit vine trained on pergola trel l i s .
1 . 1 0. A kiwifruit stalk and cross-section of the stalk of a mature fruit.
Chapter 2:
2. 1 .
2 .2 .
Wind tunnel design for measuring xylem functional ity.
A transverse kiwifruit section i l lustrating the stained and unstained ventromedian
carpel lary (VMC) bundles .
Chapter 3:
3 . 1 .
3 .2 .
Design of the pruning systems experiment .
A digi tal hemispherical photo taken from underneath the canopy of a k iwifruit
vme .
3 . 3 . Flowering and yield in monitored leader and conventionally pruned (LP and CP)
3 04.
3 .5 .
3 .6.
3 .7 .
vines, as measured over three seasons.
Yield per area in LP and CP vines.
DMC of fruit from LP and CP vines, as measured over three seasons.
Relationship between crop load and fruit DMC with canopy openness and LAI
values i l lustrated.
Relationship between crop load and frui t DW per m2•
3 .8 . Fruit Ca, Mg, K and P concentrations i n LP and CP vines, as measured over three
seasons.
7
J O
1 2
1 2
1 6
1 7
1 8
20
2 1
40
57
58
65
70
74
75
76
77
78
79
X\lI
Chapter 4:
4. 1 .
4 .2 .
Canopy l ight transmission in high and low crop load, pruned and unpruned vines.
Canopy openness and LAI, as measured at three different crop loads .
4 .3 . Canopy openness and LAI in high and low crop load, pruned and unpruned
VInes.
4.4. Fresh weight and DMC of fruit harvested from pruned and unpruned long, non
termjnating ( long) and short, terminating ( short) shoots.
4 .5 .
4 .6 .
Fresh weight and DMC of fruit from long and short shoots, as measured at three
different crop loads.
Relationship between crop load and fruit dry weight.
4 .7 . Potassium, P, Ca and Mg concentrations in fruit from high and low crop load,
pruned and unpruned vines.
4 .8 . Potassium, P, Ca and Mg concentrations in fruit harvested from pruned and
unpruned long and short shoots from high and low crop load vines .
4 .9 . Xylem and phloem area and estimated secondary xylem conductance i n the stalks
of fruit from high and low crop load pruned and unpruned vines.
4. 1 0. Phloem and xylem area in stalks of fruit from pruned and unpruned long and
short shoots .
4 . 1 1 . Estimated secondary xylem conductance in talks of fruit from pruned and
97
97
98
99
1 00
1 0 1
1 02
1 03
1 05
1 06
unpruned long and short shoots. 1 07
4. 1 2 . Relationship between fruit fresh weight, dry weight, DMC and fruit stalk phloem
and xylem area. 1 08
4 . 1 3 . Relationship between fruit Ca, Mg, K and P and fruit stalk xylem area. 1 09
4 . 1 4. Relationship between estimated fruit stalk secondary xylem conductance and
fruit Ca concentration. 1 09
4 . 1 5 . Relationship between leaf stomatal conductance and net assimi lation rate. 1 1 0
4 . 1 6. Photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in leaves from high crop load, pruned
and unpruned vines and low crop load, pruned and unpruned vines.
4. 1 7 . Photosynthesis and stomatal conductance in leaves from long, pruned and
unpruned shoots and short pruned and unpruned shoots.
4 . 1 8 . Relationship between leaf photosynthetic rates, canopy openness and LAI.
4 . 1 9. Relationship between leaf stomatal conductance and fruit Ca, Mg, K and P
concentrations.
4 .20. Relationship between leaf photosynthetic rates and fruit DMC in short and long
shoots.
xiv
1 1 1
1 1 2
1 1 3
1 1 4
1 1 5
4.2 1 . Fruit firmness and ripe soluble sol ids concentration in high and low crop load,
pruned and unpruned vines after 24 weeks at I -3°C. 1 1 6
4 .22 . Relationship between LTB incidence and blemish incidence . 1 1 6
Chapter 5:
5 . 1 . Xylem functional ity of VMC bundles in kiwifruit fol lowing spring defol iation of
long and short shoots, as measured on 2 1 December 200 I .
5 .2 . Xylem functional ity of VMC bundles in kiwifruit fol lowing spring and summer
defol iation of long and short shoots, as measured on 20 January 2002.
5 .3 . Xylem functional ity of VMC bundles in kiwifruit fol lowing spring and ummer
defoliation of long and short shoots, as measured on 27 Apri l 2002.
Chapter 6 :
6. 1 .
6 .2 .
6 .3 .
6.4.
6 .5 .
Fan treatment design .
Relationship between fruit weight and surface area.
Seasonal changes in permeance and surface area of fruit from long and short
shoots.
Relationship between permeance and surface area of fruit from long and short
shoots .
Trichome density in "Hayward' kiwifruit .
Chapter 7:
7. 1 . Flower and fruit stalk length and diameter development in sta lks from long and
short shoots.
7 .2 .
7 .3 .
7 .4.
Cross-sections of kiwifruit pedicels two and twenty-one weeks after anthesis .
Secondary phloem, xylem and pith development in flower and fruit stalks from
long and short shoots.
Seasonal changes in secondary xylem vessel number and estimated conductance
in stalks from flowers and fruit on long and short shoots.
7 .5 . Relationship between flower and fruit stalk diameter, phloem and xylem areas
7.6.
7 .7 .
and estimated secondary xylem conductance.
Spatial distribution in pith, xylem and phloem areas down a fruit stalk .
Spatial distribution in xylem vessel number and estimated conductance down a
fruit stalk.
1 33
1 34
1 36
1 50
1 54
1 6 1
1 62
1 62
1 73
1 74
1 75
1 76
1 78
1 79
1 80
xv
Chapter 8:
8. 1 .
8.2.
8.3.
8 .4.
Diagrammatic representation of one vine repl icate.
Relationship between actual and estimated fruit seed numbers and, between the
pol len solution concentration and estimated fruit seed numbers.
Vascular discolouration in TIDA-treated fruit.
Fruit fresh weight, DM and Ca concentrations, as mea ured on 7 January 2003
and 5 May 2003, fol lowing TIDA appl ication.
8 .5 . Xylem and phloem area, xylem vessel number and estimated conductance, as
measured on 10 January 2003, fol lowing TIDA application.
8.6. Fruit Ca, Mg, K and P concentrations, as measured on 1 0 January 2003,
following TIDA application.
8.7. Xylem and phloem area, xylem vessel number and estimated conductance, as
measured on 2 1 Apri l 2003, fol lowing TIDA application.
8 .8 . Fresh weight and DMC, as measured on 21 April 2003, following TIDA
8.9.
application .
Fruit Ca, Mg, K and P concentrations, as measured on 2 1 April 2003, following
TIDA application.
8. 1 0. Functional ity of the xylem vessels in the VMC bundles, as measured on 1 0- 1 1
January 2003, fol lowing TIDA appl ication.
8 . I I . Rel ationship between xylem and phloem area and fruit FW.
8. I 2 . Relationship between estimated secondary xylem conductance and fruit Ca, Mg,
1 92
1 95
1 96
200
20 1
202
203
204
205
206
206
K and P concentrations. 207
8. 1 3 . Calcium concentrations in TIDA-treated fruit from short control, defoliated and
gird led shoots. 2 I 1
8 . 1 4. DMC in TIDA-treated fruit from long control, defoliated and girdled shoots. 2 1 4
8. 1 5 . Relationship between estimated fruit seed number, FW, DW and fruit DMC. 2 1 7
8 . I 6. Relationship between estimated fruit seed number and fruit Ca, Mg, K and P
concentrations.
8 . I 7. Relationship between estimated fruit seed number, phloem and xylem areas, and
the phloem: xylem ratio.
8 . I 8. Relationship between the estimated fruit seed number and secondary xylem
vessel number and estimated conductance.
8 . I 9. Percentage of sma l l , medium and l arge diameter vessels contributing to the
estimated secondary xylem conductance in fruit with different seed numbers.
8.20. Concentrations of Ca, Mg, K and P in relation to estimated secondary xylem
conductance in fruit stalks.
XVI
2 1 8
2 1 9
2 1 9
220
220
8.21. Diagrammatic representation of the proposed effects of TmA on Ca and DM
concentrations in kiwifruit.
8 .22. Proposed rate of DW increase in fruit with low and h igh cel l numbers.
Chapter 9:
9 . 1 . Cages used to contain the spittlebugs whilst feeding on kiwifruit fruit stalks and
leaves .
9 .2 .
9.3.
9.4.
9.5 .
9 .6 .
Rate of excreta sap production throughout the day.
Seasonal changes in the volume of excreta sap produced per insect per day.
Relationship between Ca, Mg and K concentrations in the xylem sap.
Seasonal changes in excreta sap mineral ion concentrations .
Mean ratio of excreta sap ion concentrations verses that in the corresponding
cal ibration solution.
Chapter 10:
10.1. Diagrammatic representation of the factors that may affect carbohydrate, mineral
and water accumulation in 'Hayward ' kiwifruit.
222
225
233
237
238
239
240
242
251
XV I I
List of Tables
Chapter 1:
1 . 1 . Concentration of soluble and insoluble carbohydrates in kiwifruit .
1 .2 . Incidence of storage disorders in 'Hayward' kiwifrui t from s ix different growi ng
regions after 24 weeks storage at O°C.
1 .3 . Average fruit mineral and DM concentrations in 'Hayward' kiwifruit from s ix
different growing regions after 24 weeks storage at O°c.
1 .4.
1 .5 .
1 .6.
Vine characteristics affected by different orchard management strategies.
Cell types of the secondary xylem of kiwifrui t .
Cel l types of the secondary phloem of kiwifruit .
Chapter 3:
3 . 1 .
3 .2 .
3 .3 .
3 .4.
3 .5 .
Canopy l ight transmi ssion in the leader and fruiting zones of leader and
conventionally pruned (LP and CP) vines.
Canopy openness and leaf area index in LP and CP vines.
Fresh weight of fruit from the leader and fruit ing zones of LP and CP vines.
DMC in fruit from the leader and fruiting zones of LP and CP vines.
Ripe soluble solids content of fruit from the leader and fruiting zones of LP and
CP vines.
3 .6. Firmness of fruit from three different count sizes, from LP and CP vines after 26
3 .7 .
3 .8 .
weeks in storage at O°c.
Storage disorder incidence in fruit from three different count sizes from LP and
CP vines.
Attributes of LP and CP vines.
Chapter 4:
4 . 1 . Attributes of leaves, fruit stalks and fruit on long, non-terminating (long) and
short terminating (short) shoots.
3
5
8
9
37
39
7 3
7 3
7 5
76
8 1
82
83
85
1 0 1
XIX
Chapter 5:
5 . 1 . Several quality attributes of fruit from long and short axi l lary kiwifruit shoots, as
measured on 1 9 December 200 I , fol lowing shoot defol iation or girdl ing on 24
November 200 1 .
5 .2 . Several quality attributes of fruit from long and short axi l l ary kiwifruit shoots, as
measured on 25 January 2002, fol lowing shoot defol iation on 24 November 200 I
and 5 January 2002, or shoot girdl ing on 24 November 2002.
5 .3 . Several qual ity attributes of fruit from long and short axi l lary kiwifruit shoots, as
measured on 25 Apri l 2002, fol lowing shoot defol iation on 24 November 200 1
and 5 January 2002, or shoot girdl ing on 24 November 2002 and 1 February
2002.
Chapter 6:
6. 1 . Attributes of kiwifruit from long and short axi l lary shoots harvested 46 days after
ful l bloom (DAFB) fol lowing the appl ication of control, fan and bag treatments
at petal fal l .
6.2. Attributes of fruit stalks from fruit on long and short axi l lary shoots harvested 46
6.3.
DAFB fol lowing the application of control , fan and bag treatments at petal fal l .
Attributes of kiwifruit from long and short axi l lary shoots harvested 1 44 DAFB
fol lowing the appl ication of control , fan and bag treatments at petal fal l .
6.4. Attributes of fruit stalks from fruit on long and short axi l l ary shoots harvested
1 44 DAFB fol lowing the application of control, fan and bag treatments at petal
1 32
1 34
1 35
1 57
1 58
1 59
fal l . 1 60
Chapter 7:
7. 1 . Percentage of small , medium and l arge secondary xylem vessel s and their
contribution to the total estimated secondary xylem conductance in fruit stalks
from long and short shoots.
Chapter 8:
8 . 1 .
xx
Several fruit qual ity attributes, measured on 7 January 2003, fol lowing
appl ication of TIBA, at 50 and 1 00 mg L- 1 on 5 December 2002, 8 DAFB .
1 77
1 98
8.2 . Several fruit quality attributes, measured on 5 May 2003, fol lowing application
of TmA, at 50 and lOO mg L-1 on 5 December 2002, 8 DAFB .
8 .3 . Several fruit quality attributes, measured on 14 January 2003, following TmA
application to fruit on girdled, defoliated or control (untreated) long and short
axi l lary shoots.
8 .4. Several fruit quality attributes, measured on 30 April 2003, fol lowing TmA
application to fruit on girdled, defoliated or control long and short axil l ary
shoots.
8 .5 . Xylem functionality and corresponding frui t fresh weights in untreated and
TmA-treated fruit from long and short control , defoliated or girdled shoots.
8 .6. Postharvest attributes of untreated and TmA-treated fruit from long and short
control , defoliated and girdled axil lary shoots, as measured after 24 weeks in
storage at O°e.
Chapter 9:
9. 1 .
9 .2 .
Attributes of long and short axi l l ary shoots .
Mineral concentration gradient in sap down a cane.
Chapter 10:
1 0. 1 . Evidence that auxin may indirectly affect carbohydrate and Ca accumulation in
kiwi fruit by regulating vascular differentiation in f1ower/ fruit stalks and/or fruit
cell division.
1 99
209
2 1 2
2 1 5
2 1 6
24 1
242
254
XXI
List of Abbreviations
ABA
ANOVA
AuG
BER
CME
CP
CPPU
CSA
DAFB
DM
DMC
DPFB
DW
FB
FW FZ
GLA
GLM
Gs
HP
HUP
IAA
Kh LAI
L:F
LP
LSD
LTB
LUP
LwP
LZ
NAA
NPA
NPQ
absci sic acid
analysis of variance
autumn girdling
water activity
blossom end rot
chloroflurenolmethylester
conventional ly-pruned
N 1 -(2-chloro-4-pyridyl )-N3-phenylurea
cross-sectional area
days after ful l bloom
dry matter
dry matter concentration
days prior to ful l bloom
dry weight
fu l l bloom
fresh weight
fruiting zone
gap l ight analyser
general l inear model
stomatal conductance
high crop load, pruned (vines)
high crop load, unpruned (vines)
indole-3-acetic acid
hydraul ic conductivity
leaf area index
leaf: fruit (ratio)
leader-pruned
least significant difference
low temperature breakdown
low crop load, unpruned (vines)
low crop load, pruned (vines)
leader zone
napthalene acetic acid
I -N-napthylphthalamic acid
non-photochemical quenching
XXIII
PAR
PC
PGR
PIX
Pn
RH
rSSC
SA
SB
SE
SLW
SmD
SpD
SpG
SSC
TlBA
VMC
VPD
WAFB
XXIV
photosynthetically active radiat ion
personal computer
plant growth regulator
1 , I -dimethyl-piperidinium
Net photosynthesis
relative humidity
ripe soluble solids concentration
surface area
short-base (proximal cane end)
short-end (distal cane end)
specific leaf weight
summer defoliation
spring defol iation
spring gird l ing
soluble solids content
2,3,S-tri iodobenzoic acid
ventromedian carpellary (vascular bundle)
vapour pressure deficit
weeks after full bloom