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Learning

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Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006

Learning• A relatively permanent change in an

organism

– The result of experience

– Exhibited in behavior


LearningI. Classical Conditioning

II. Operant Conditioning

III. Cognitive Learning

IV. Biological Basis for Learning


Classical Conditioning

– Conditioning

• A systematic procedure through which associations and responses to specific stimuli are learned

• One of the simplest forms of learning

– Reflexes

• automatic behavior

• occur without prior learning


Basics of Classical Conditioning

• Conditioning versus reflexes– Conditioning does require learning

• Learned association between a neutral stimulus and a stimulus that evokes a reflex


Classical ConditioningIvan Pavlov (1849 – 1936)

– Studied digestion in dogs

– Discovered Classical (or Pavlovian) Conditioning

– An originally neutral stimulus,

through repeated pairings with a stimulus that naturally produces a response,

comes to elicit a similar or identical response


Classical ConditioningTerms and Procedures

1. Unconditioned Stimulus

• The stimulus that automatically produces a response

• Unlearned

• E.g., Food

2. Unconditioned Response

• Automatic, involuntary response to the unconditioned stimulus

• E.g., Salivation


Terms and Procedures• Procedure

– Present a neutral stimulus immediately before an unconditioned stimulus

Neutral Stimulus:

BELL

Unconditioned Stimulus:

FOOD

Unconditioned Response:

SALIVATION


Terms and Procedures• Procedure

– Repeat many, many times– Remove the unconditioned stimulus:

Stimulus: BELL

Response: SALIVATION

– Original stimulus no longer neutral!


Terms and ProceduresConditioned Stimulus

– A previously neutral stimulus that,

through repeated association with an unconditioned stimulus,

becomes capable of eliciting a response– E.g., Bell

Conditioned Response– The response to the Conditioned Stimulus– E.g., Salivating


Classical Conditioning• Conditioning does not occur immediately

– Occurs gradually over many repeated pairings

– This process through which the conditioned stimulus becomes associated with a learned response is called an acquisition process


Classical Conditioning in Humans

• Many types of responses can be conditioned in humans

• Conditioning can occur – Without our awareness– For pleasant and unpleasant reactions



• Little Albert– John Watson and Rosalie Raynor (1920)

Frightening, loud noise

White Rat

– After many pairings:

White Rat

Fear

Fear



• Little Albert– This type of learning is probably the source for

most fear and anxiety in children


Higher-Order Conditioning• The process by which a neutral stimulus

takes on conditioned properties through pairing with a conditioned stimulus

• Permits increasingly remote associations


Key Variables in Classical Conditioning

Strength, timing and frequency

a. Strength of the unconditioned stimulus

b. Timing of the unconditioned stimulus

c. Frequency of Pairings



Extinction and Spontaneous Recoverya. Extinction

• Process by which the conditioned stimulus no longer elicits the unconditioned response

b. Spontaneous Recovery• When an extinguished conditioned

response reappears



Stimulus Generalization and Discriminationa. Stimulus Generalization

• When a conditioned response occurs in response to a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus

• Probably explains how some phobias develop

b. Stimulus Discrimination• An organism learns to respond only to the

specific conditioned stimulus


Classical Conditioning in Daily Life

The Garcia Effect– John Garcia (Garcia & Koelling, 1971)

• Conditioned taste aversion– Two startling findings

• Could occur even if nausea was induced several hours after food or drink was consumed

• Not all stimuli were equally easily associated


The Garcia Effect

• Conditioned taste aversion can occur after only one pairing– Survival value of quickly learning to avoid

foods that make us sick


The Garcia Effect• Practical applications

– Preventing appetite loss with chemotherapy patients


Classical Conditioning in Daily Life

Learning and chemotherapy– Nausea can be conditioned to occur

Unconditioned Stimulus:

CHEMO-THERAPY

Unconditioned

Response:NAUSEA

Conditioned Response:NAUSEA

Conditioned stimulus:

FOOD

Conditioned stimulus:

FOOD


Pavlov’s Understanding Reinterpreted

• Pavlov thought in terms of simple associations between paired stimuli

• Today’s researchers are considering how imagined stimuli (such as thoughts) can evoke a response


Operant Conditioning• Differences from classical conditioning

– Conditioned behavior is voluntary, not reflexive

– Consequence follows, rather than coexists with or precedes a behavior


Operant ConditioningThe Pioneers

1. E. L. Thorndike (1874 – 1949)

• Instrumental conditioning

2. B. F. Skinner (1904 – 1990)– Three types of consequences

• Behavior is ignored• Behavior is rewarded (reinforced)• Behavior is punished


Operant ConditioningReinforcement

Reinforcers

• A reinforcer is any event that increases the likelihood of a behavior

Reinforcement Strategies

a. Positive Reinforcement– The presentation of a stimulus after a

behavior that increases the likelihood that response will recur

– Example: Receiving a dollar for cleaning your room


Reinforcement StrategiesNegative Reinforcement

– The removal of a stimulus after a particular response to increase the likelihood the response will recur

– The stimulus removed is usually unpleasant– Example: Taking an aspirin to get rid of

a headache


Negative Reinforcement• Another example:

– Apologizing after being sent to time-out• Apologizing removes being confined to

your room• This is also an example of escape

conditioning• May lead to avoidance conditioning


ReinforcementThe Nature of Reinforcers

– Two types of reinforcers

a. Primary Reinforcer – Examples: Food, water, pain avoidance

b. Secondary Reinforcer– Examples: Money, good grades


Operant ConditioningThe Skinner Box and Shaping

– Skinner box

• Animal randomly emits behaviors

• Target behaviors are reinforced

– Shaping• The selective reinforcement of behaviors

that gradually approach (approximate) a desired response

• Sometimes called the method of successive approximations


Operant ConditioningPunishment

– Types of Punishment

a. Positive punishment– A stimulus is presented in order to

decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

– Example: Getting yelled at for hitting your sister


Types of PunishmentNegative Punishment

– A stimulus is removed in order to decrease the likelihood that the behavior will be repeated

– Example: Losing your car after getting into a wreck


Punishment

The Nature of Punishers– Two types of punishers:

a. Primary punisher– Example: Pain

b. Secondary punisher– Example: Losing your driver’s license


PunishmentLimitations of Punishment

– Only suppresses behavior

– Has social consequences– May not control behavior in the long run

– Physical punishments can lead to aggression

– Inconsistent punishment can lead to learned helplessness


Key variables in Operant Conditioning

Stimulus Generalization

Stimulus Discrimination

Extinction

Spontaneous Recovery


Operant Conditioning in Daily Life

1. Superstitious Behaviors

2. Intrinsically Motivated Behavior

– May actually decrease if they are externally reinforced


Cognitive LearningObservational Learning

The Power of Modeling

• Albert Bandura – Social learning theory

– Showed that children played more aggressively after observing films with aggressive content

• Observational learning can occur without being reinforced


Observational Learning

a. Gender role development

b. Cultural values

Observational Learning in Daily Life


Cognitive LearningOther Types of Cognitive Learning

Insight – the “aha” experience

Latent Learning– Shows us a distinction between

learning and performance


Biological Basis for LearningElectrical Brain Stimulation and Reinforcement

– James Olds (1955, 1960)• Found that rats find electrical stimulation

of specific brain areas in the hypothalamus to be rewarding

– This brain region involves the neurotransmitter dopamine

Copyright © Allyn & Bacon 2006 by Pearson Education. Reproduced by permission of the publisher. Further reproduction is prohibited without written permission.

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