Copyright 2015, Michael Christensen

A HISTORICAL APPROACH TO INTERPRETING SELECT SAXOPHONE WORKS BY RYO

NODA

by

Michael Christensen, B.M.A., M.M.

A Research Paper

In

MUSIC PERFORMANCE

Submitted to the Graduate Faculty

of Texas Tech University in

Partial Fulfillment of

the Requirements for

the Degree of

DOCTOR OF MUSICAL ARTS

Approved

David Dees

Dr. Michael Stoune

Dr. Ben Haugland

Dr. Mark Sheridan

Dean of the Graduate School

December, 2015

Copyright 2015, Michael Christensen

Texas Tech University, Michael Christensen, December 2015

ii

Acknowledgments

I would like to thank everyone who has supported me during the last five years

while I have worked to achieve my goals. This document is the result of years of

planning, preparation, and diligent work toward scholarly research. Special thanks

Professor David Dees for you continued mentorship, encouragement, and instruction

since joining the saxophone family at Texas Tech University. I also would like to thank

Dr. Michael Stoune and Dr. Ben Haugland for serving on my committee, for your

guidance and support while serving as Lecturer at the University of Texas at Brownsville,

and for your continued support after. Also, to my entire family who have been there

along the way, this would not have been possible without all of you and your continued

support.

I would like to also give special recognition to my mother, Sharon Christensen,

for donating your time to proofread and edit this document, give advice, and re-edit

through numerous revisions for the highest quality finished product possible.

I would also like to thank my teachers and mentors. Special thanks goes to Dr.

Gail Hall for giving me a chance to get my start at the University of Oklahoma, and to

Dr. Tom Nevill for giving me the chance to teach the great students at the University of

Texas at Brownsville and your encouragement to continue completing this degree while

serving as one of your instructors.

Finally, to everyone I have shared the stage with over the last five years. To

Quartet 35: Bill Funke, Michael Culbertson, Marcos Duran, Eric Daniels; to Quartet

Exordium: Benjamin Robinette, Sesha Wallace, Adam Camey; to Mirasol Quartet: James

Barger, Andrew Reinhart, and Ben Still. I shared some of my most treasured moments as

a musician with each of you. My professional and musical development would not have

been possible without all of your support.


iii

Table of Contents

Acknowledgments............................................................................................................................ ii

Abstract ............................................................................................................................................ v

List of Figures .................................................................................................................................. vi

Part I ................................................................................................................................................. 1

A Brief History of Ancient Japanese Music and the Shakuhachi ...................................................... 1

Introduction ................................................................................................................................. 1

Origins .......................................................................................................................................... 2

Overview ...................................................................................................................................... 3

Research into Historiography .......................................................................................................... 5

Introduction ............................................................................................................................. 5

The Periodization of History .................................................................................................... 5

The Nara and Heian Periods .................................................................................................... 6

The Tokugawa Period ............................................................................................................... 9

The Meiji Restoration ............................................................................................................. 13

Part II .............................................................................................................................................. 21

The Life and Works of Ryo Noda .................................................................................................... 21

The Japanese Influence .............................................................................................................. 21

The American Influence ............................................................................................................. 23

The French Influence ................................................................................................................. 24

Disclaimer ...................................................................................................................................... 27

Part III ............................................................................................................................................. 28

Ancient Japan and the Shakuhachi in Modern Composition and Performance Practices............. 28

Introduction ............................................................................................................................... 28

Bridging the Gap between Ancient and Modern Music ............................................................ 29

The Theatrical Improvisations ................................................................................................ 33

The Zen of Mai, Phoenix and Requiem ...................................................................................... 47

Understanding the Zen .......................................................................................................... 47

Postscript ....................................................................................................................................... 74

Annotated Bibliography ................................................................................................................. 77

Appendices ....................................................................................................................................... 1


iv

Appendix A ................................................................................................................................... 1

Appendix B ................................................................................................................................... 2

Appendix C ................................................................................................................................... 3

Appendix D ................................................................................................................................... 4

Appendix E ................................................................................................................................... 5

Appendix F ................................................................................................................................... 6


v

Abstract

The music of Ryo Noda has been performed and studied across the globe for over

half a century, both used as excellent concert works and teaching tools for contemporary

style and an approach to extended techniques. However, in even the most skilled

performances, various complementary components of approach can be included. Mai,

Improvisation I, II, III, and Phoenix, are hybrid works inspired by the ancient bamboo

flute, shakuhachi. Not only do these pieces have dual identities as saxophone/shakuhachi

works, but as music that exists within both ancient and modern performance and cultural

contexts. Therefore, an element that can be added to performances of Ryo Noda’s music

is the emulation of the ancient style, and the interpretive aspects that follow.

The purpose of this document is not to uncover a previously unknown truth about

approaching or performing Ryo Noda’s catalog. Instead, it proposes to serve as a

resource of potential ideas and possibilities that previously may not have been attempted

from an abstract approach. Using these four components: historical analysis,

philosophical elements, modern performance practices on the saxophone, and the sounds

of Japanese instruments, a practical approach to performing and interpreting Ryo Noda’s

catalog will be presented.


vi

List of Figures

1. 1 – The Hall of the Great Buddha Nara .......................................................................... 7

1.2 – Summaries of the Kyotaku Denki and the Charter of 1614 ..................................... 12

1.3 – Example of Honkyoku Notation .............................................................................. 16

1.4 – Example of honkyoku notation ................................................................................ 17

3.1 – Mai Excerpt .............................................................................................................. 30

3.2 – Improvisation I Excerpt ........................................................................................... 35

3.3 – Fragment of Improvisation I Excerpt ....................................................................... 36

3.4 – Improvisation I Excerpt ........................................................................................... 37

3.5 – Fragment of Introduction Improvisation I ............................................................... 37

3.6 – Saxophone French Nomenclature ............................................................................ 39

3.7 – Opening theme of Improvisation II .......................................................................... 41

3.8 – Closing themes of Improvisation II ......................................................................... 42

3.9 – Multiphonics in Ryo Noda’s Improvisation II ......................................................... 42

3.10 – Improvisation III Excerpt ....................................................................................... 44

3.11 – Improvisation III Excerpt ....................................................................................... 45

3.12 – Mai Excerpt 1 ......................................................................................................... 51

3.13 – Mai Excerpt 2 ......................................................................................................... 51

3.14 – Mai Excerpt 3 ......................................................................................................... 52

3.15 – Mai Excerpt 4 ......................................................................................................... 52

3.16 – Mai Excerpt 5 ......................................................................................................... 53

3.17 – Diagram of Shakuhachi Holes and Symbolic Names ............................................ 54

3.18 – Phoenix Excerpt of the Opening Section ............................................................... 59

3.19 – Phoenix Excerpt of the Closing Excerpt ................................................................ 59

3.20 – Phoenix Excerpt 1 .................................................................................................. 60

3.21 – Phoenix Excerpt 2 .................................................................................................. 61

3.22 – Phoenix Excerpt 3 .................................................................................................. 62

3.23 – The shō ................................................................................................................... 67

3.24 – Shō Player Performing Court Banquet Music in the T’ang Style .......................... 68

3.25 – Requiem Excerpt 1 ................................................................................................. 68

3.26 – Requiem Excerpt 2 ................................................................................................. 69


vii

3.27 – Requiem Excerpt 2 ................................................................................................. 70

3.28 – Requiem Excerpt 3 ................................................................................................. 71

3.29 – Requiem Excerpt 4 ................................................................................................. 71

3.30 – Requiem Ending..................................................................................................... 72


1

Part I

A Brief History of Ancient Japanese Music and the Shakuhachi

Introduction

The scope and difficulty presented within contemporary saxophone literature, its

extended techniques, and unorthodox notation allows the performer to move from

conventional practices to apply new modes of interpretation. For example, my first

experience with William Albright’s Sonata for Alto Saxophone and Piano (1984)

presented many challenges for interpretive approach, which also caused various

difficulties for technical applications. However, after taking time to research the

composer as well as his musical and compositional influences, I began to see the piece in

a new perspective.

First, I found new meaning to the various movements through an understanding of

each title: Two-part Invention is Albright’s modern take on the J.S. Bach Inventions. La

Follia Nuova translates as “The Madness”, which also contains the Baroque influence of

the chaconne-variation forms. The second movement, La Follia Nuova is also subtitled

“A lament for George Cacioppo,” giving more significance to its compositional structure.

The Sonata for Alto Saxophone and Piano also contains the fast scherzo third movement

titled Will-o-the Wisp, a supernatural spirit, with the final movement Recitative and Mad

Dance as an homage to American popular music styles of bebop and ragtime. This

information helped clear a path toward an understanding of the work and its various

movements, and through this understanding, I developed a growing appreciation for it as

a compositional work of art.


2

The music of Ryo Noda is another example of this type of contemporary

repertoire. His music, particularly Improvisation I, II, III, and Mai have made their way

into almost every university-level saxophone repertoire list. These works are also often

used as an introduction to contemporary literature. While Noda’s compositions function

well as pedagogical studies, addressing multiphonics, quarter-tones, and modern notation,

they are also excellent and viable works for the concert hall.

This document explores three main areas. Part I is an historical overview of the

shakuhachi, the Japanese end-blown flute Ryo Noda uses for emulations in his early

works. This section will include historiography of the instrument as it evolved over time.

Part II is a discussion of Noda’s musical influences, including his teachers as well as

some of the works that may have inspired his method of composing, and Part III will

present applications of both historical overviews for select works in Ryo Noda’s catalog.

Secondary areas of concentration include: the nomad rōnin who traveled playing

the shakuhachi; a brief look into ancient Japanese notation systems beginning in the early

17th century; the westernization of Japan in the Meiji Restoration of the late 1800s; and

the westernization of Japanese music and art.

Origins

The goal in researching ancient performance practices is not to achieve perfection

in authenticity; rather, it is to inspire musical performances for today’s audiences with the

added element of ancient styles. My first experience in approaching ancient music in

contemporary contexts was with an ensemble named Quartet Exordium. Our first efforts

were to perform a series of Ars Subtilior motets. Through performing these works, we

found innovative methods of balance and blending, applying Pythagorean tuning systems,


3

we found an opportunity to play music encompassing lines that balance and complement

each other, with no particular voice being unique. Despite the 1,000s of years of

existence, we discovered these applications to the saxophone ensemble proved invaluable

and could be applied to modern works as well. Despite these experiences, achieving a

purely authentic performance was not possible, but it was a chance to cross the plane of

1,000s of years of musical existence, fusing contemporary and ancient concepts together.

A similar experience can be achieved with the music of Ryo Noda.

Overview

The first part of this document is an exploration of the shakuhachi history and

evolution. This area is explored because the overall consensus is that Ryo Noda’s

compositions are inspired by the sounds of this musical instrument.1 This section will act

as a brief informational background on how the shakuhachi was used from ancient times

to the present. Part II will be a sketch of Ryo Noda’s life and works, and Part III will

incorporate both of the previous areas as an interpreter’s guide of his catalog of solo

works.

Note: Because this research is heavily based on a culture of secrecy (the solo

repertoire was taught aurally with no teaching between schools), there is a limited amount

of reliably documented information before the Edo period (1600-1860). In addition, the

documents recovered from the Edo period have largely been found to be falsified.2

Therefore, this research will rely heavily on iconography and examples of written

notation.

1 I come to this conclusion based on scholarly writings by other saxophonists who explored Ryo Noda’s

music including James Bunte and Andy Wen. 2 Sanford, James H. "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and komusō." Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4 (1977).


4

Before there were notation systems and schools of thought, there were sects.

Before the sects, there are legends tracing the shakuhachi as far back as ancient China.

Before ancient China, there are further legends placing its origins into ancient Egypt,

spreading across the Iranian plateau and India. Because there is not much historical

evidence from these parts of history, it is best to begin the historical account of the

shakuhachi in the first of four periods of Japanese history, the Nara period.


5

Research into Historiography

Introduction

It is helpful to have an historical knowledge of the shakuhachi as an added tool

for an interpretive approach to Ryo Noda’s catalog. When beginning a new piece of

music, the performer may ask him or herself some questions about the piece, including

basic questions about the title or composer, and perhaps philosophical questions

addressing what the performer may think about or envision while playing. Saxophone

students could be asked similar questions about Ryo Noda, including general questions

about the Japanese bamboo flute, and what they think of concerning this instrument.

There are many levels of subjectivity to this kind of historical interpretation. The

approach can be non-specific, particularly when the question is asked, “What do you

think about when playing the piece?” Within this section, the aim is to give some insight

to possible answers to those questions.

The Periodization of History

To establish a blueprint for Japanese musical history, this analysis will divide the

1,000 year history into four periods. As there are differences among scholars concerning

the beginning and ending of each period, rather than aligning with a single view, a

generalization to the nearest century is used. These are the significant eras spanning over

a millennium as they will be discussed:

Nara period (600 – 800 c.e.)

Heian period (800 – 1200 c.e.)

Muromachi period (1300 – 1600 c.e.)

Edo period (1600 – 1870 c.e.)

Meiji Restoration (1870 – 1910 c.e.)


6

The Nara and Heian Periods

The end-blown flute shakuhachi has existed in Japan since the eighth century. Its

origins are traceable as far back as ancient Egypt, moving across Asia, before finally

settling as the Japanese instrument we are familiar with today.3 Though little has been

written about its evolution and use before the 16th century, there are some accounts on

record, including a connection to Zen Buddhism.4 Also, there have been a number of

reedless, end-blown bamboo flutes throughout Japan, including the haisho, ryuteki, and

shakuhachi. These instruments were used as parts of court ensembles fashioned after the

Tang dynasty.5 The music during this period was known as the gagaku, adapting

elements of Chinese culture and heritage to the Japanese courts.6

This part of the shakuhachi history is believed to be accurate, though few

accounts exist to verify these claims. Scholars are aware of its existence in Japan through

iconography and writings of the time, though those writings might be fashioned from

legend rather than fact. One such legend was that the instrument was used by Shotoku

Taishi and, who lived from 574-622, was the first princely patron of Buddha in Japan.7

Again, there is little evidence for these legends, and no documents for the gagaku

shakuhachi exist, either in the form of treatises or musical notation.8

3 Lee, Riley Kelly. "Chapter 3: Historical Background of Shakuhachi and Honkyoku." In Yearning for the

Bell: A Study of Transmission in the Shakuhachi Honkyoku Tradition. Sydney: University of Sydney,

1993. 4 Sanford, James H. "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and Komusō." Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4 (1977). 5 Lee, Riley Kelly. "Chapter 3: Historical Background of Shakuhachi and Honkyoku." In Yearning for the


1993. 6 Ibid. 7 Ibid. 8 Ibid.


7

The most common representation of the shakuhachi during the Nara is in the form

of pictorial evidence (iconography). The Hall of the Great Buddha Nara as seen in figure

is an example of where this iconography can be found.

Figure 1. 1 The Hall of the Great Buddha Nara

9

There is additional iconography of the Nara shakuhachi including the scrolls of

the Shinzei Nyudo kogaku.10 These scrolls contain the oldest and most complete

drawings of popular drama and court entertainment of the late Nara and early Heian

periods. Additional references to this instrument include government reports of the

shakuhachi’s use within courts, the number of musicians used, and of those musicians,

9 "Great Buddha Hall | Hall, Nara, Japan." Encyclopedia Britannica Online. 10 Lee, Riley Kelly. "Chapter 3: Historical Background of Shakuhachi and Honkyoku." In Yearning for the


1993.


8

who would play the shakuhachi.11 As the Nara continued, there were brief mentions of

the shakuhachi in court contexts, though its use as an instrument in the gagaku ensembles

had begun to decline by the start of the Heian period.12

The reason for the decline of the shakuhachi is unknown.13 There are some

accounts including those written by Tanabe and Sanford who have suggested it might

have fallen out of use completely, at least within the government and court palaces of the

time. It was around the 12th century that the shakuhachi had all but disappeared. It

would not be revived until the early 16th century when the writings would show “the

shakuhachi was played long ago, but not recently.” This revival would occur with a royal

request from the Emperor of the time. 14

Though it is unknown why the shakuhachi fell into disuse by the late 9th century,

what is known is that the entire court gagaku instrumentation began to change. The

reduction of the number of instruments used in courts may have also contributed to its

being left to history and paintings on scrolls. In the end, this may have simply been a

practical or economic decision.15

After its resurrection in the Muromachi period (beginning 1300 c.e.), the writings

and history became much more substantial. Although more written accounts came into

existence, and the beginnings of notation were more abundant in the early Edo period, the



1993. 12 Ibid. 13 Ibid. 14 Ibid. 15 Ibid.


9

written accounts have been mostly found to be falsified, if not out-right forgeries, leaving

the outlining of the history of the shakuhachi to further complications.16

The Tokugawa Period

One of the most extended Western-language accounts of the shakuhachi is by Sir

Charles Elliot Carter.17 Carter writes that there were many Japanese sects, and one sub-

section known as the Fukeshu started as early as 1254 by the priest Kakushin.18 This

would eventually be known as the komusō, a group of wandering samurai and the

outlaws joining them who would travel Japan preaching and playing the flute.19 Carter

also writes that the komusō derived from a group originally from China, as were all other

Zen sects, and that their social features were of extreme belligerency while playing the

flute as monks on Zen pilgrimages. However, and despite this common acceptance, these

claims are said to be almost wholly false.20

Shakuhachi scholar James Sanford has noted that, “While the origins of the

Fukeshu komusō can be traced as far back as the 13th century, the Fukeshu are a product

of Japan.” Additionally, the acceptance of its origins being Zen are also false.21 This

does not necessarily refute the lineage or evidence of the instrument’s associations with

Buddhism, however. On the contrary, the direct correlation with Zen Buddhism can be

traced back to well before the Edo period.

16 Sanford, James H. "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and Komusō." Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4

(1977). 17 Ibid. 18 Carter, Elliot. Japanese Buddhism. Routledge and Kegon Paul Press. London, 1935. 19 Ibid. 20 Sanford, James H. "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and Komusō." Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4

(1977). 21 Ibid.


10

The historiography of the early wandering musicians includes a precursor to the

komusō monks called komosō who, rather than being spiritual Zen musicians, were low-

class nomads.22 The name komosō comes from the word komo, a woven straw mat used

by beggars as protection from the elements. However, there are areas of history giving

redefinition to the words ko (emptiness) and mo (illusion) rather than komo (straw mat) to

convey a greater sense of other-worldliness and spirituality.23 This gives the shakuhachi

a sacred history in these contexts, as opposed to the secular contexts of its earlier

inception in the Nara.

The komosō and komusō were both rōnin. The rōnin were samurai who, through

various circumstances, found themselves without a master, living lives of very little

purpose. Though little is known about the monks of this time, it is cited that their

connection is likely the result of the similarity of the name. Komosō were known as “mat

monks,” wandering to gain donations and – according to some scholars of shakuhachi

such as James Sanford, but refuted by others such as Riley Kelly Lee – likely never

played the flute. The komusō were known as “nothingness” or “emptiness” monks, who

did play the flute with a sense of spirituality, though it is likely this was only to legitimize

their true aim to gain alms.24 However, the historical accounts of the Edo period can

draw a direct line connecting the komosō and komusō.

The traditional history of the Fuke sect by komusō leaders was that of a process of

self-legitimization. There were three developments of the shakuhachi during the Edo


(1977). 23 Lee, Riley Kelly. "Chapter 3: Historical Background of Shakuhachi and Honkyoku." In Yearning for the


1993. 24 Sanford, James H. "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and Komusō." Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4

(1977).


11

period that led to the evolution of the komosō to the komusō: the first was the embracing

of the lifestyle of the “mat monks.” The second was the gradual changing of the name.

This second development was the beggar name komosō transforming to the Zen-inspired

komusō (this might have been a method of disassociation of the newer ranks of komusō

from their predecessors). Finally, the instrument itself underwent numerous changes,

most notably the length along with the blunt heavy bell. It has been suggested this

change was because the komusō wanted their instruments double as weapons, as well as

being further symbolic of their disassociation from the earlier beggar priest komosō.25

The aspect of begging within the shakuhachi performances of this time was not

without some degree of precedent. Historically, begging was indeed a custom with traces

dating back to Buddha himself. It was in the early Tokugawa period that the temples of

the Fuke sects were further legitimizing their organizations through a process of

eliminating the ruffians from their ranks, establishing codes of conduct, and having

prospective members go through initiation processes.26 Rather than being a disorganized

people begging while playing the flute, they began organizing into sects.

It is possible these new methods of gaining rank within the Fukeshu temples

might have been an attempt to gain governmental support, and that the emergence of

centralized temples in the Tokugawa period was the result of increased support.

However, these claims are little more than evidence mostly based on legends or outright

forgeries.27



1993. 26 Ibid. 27 Tanabe, Hisao. Japanese Music. Chapter 6: The History of the Shakuhachi. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai:

Tokyo, 1959. 224-228.


12

The most direct evidence of the komusō processes of legitimization was the

emergence of the lyrical work Kyotaku Denki, and the Charter of 1614. Again, it is

necessary to identify the writings of the time as what they were, fact vs. legend.28 To

simplify the differences between the two documents, figure 1.2 will serve as a summary

of each.

Kyotaku Denki

A lyrical story-telling, legendary

history. Seeks to legitimize

komusō as a Zen tradition.

Provided the fraternity with a long

and plausible history as a sub-

school of Zen

Showed that the military habit of

the half-beggar, half-samurai

costume of the Tokugawa komusō

were a coherent part of that history

Traced each of these features to

men of respectable station (Zen

through Hatto Kokushi and rōnin

through the imperial loyalist

Kusunoki Masakatsu

Charter of 1614

A deliberate forgery. Attempts to

rationalize the state of the komusō

movement, enumerate practices,

and gain recognition from officials

The komusō fraternity is singled

out as a religious group

specifically designed to serve the

needs of rōnin

Grants the komusō unlimited

freedom of travel throughout the

country exempt from tolls and

fares.

Establishes the komusō as

Buddhist monks, worthy of

admiration and respect.

Monopoly given over playing the

shakuhachi.17

Figure 1. 2 - Summaries of the Kyotaku Denki and the Charter of 1614

Both of these documents serve not similar, but rather complementary functions.

While the Kyotaku Denki sought to legitimize the komusō as a Zen tradition existing

significantly prior to the Tokugawa period, the Charter of 1614 aimed at establishing

them as a way of legitimizing the practice with government officials. These officials

likely understood that the claims made within these documents lacked a significant

amount of verifiable credibility. In fact, they might have been well aware of the


(1977).


13

deliberate attempts to create a history. But, because the government’s earlier attempts to

suppress the komusō movement had been a failed campaign, it was easier to establish a

well-regulated sect instead.29 This would last for centuries until the government officials

started seeing the komusō abusing their privileges. By this time, the government would

conveniently discover the komusō documented history was false and withdrew their

support.30

The Meiji Restoration

The 19th century saw the decline of the Fuke sect, the abolition of the samurai,

and the beginnings of the westernization of Japan. The decline of the shogunite began

with the gradual withdrawal of government support. As already discussed, there were

documents leading to the partial legitimization of the komusō rōnin, such as the Kyotaku

Denki and the Charter of 1614.31 Though the government at the time was likely aware

these documents were forgeries, they viewed their regulation as a necessary move to keep

the wandering flute-playing rōnin under close observation. The regulations also gave the

government access to recruiting rōnin as spies throughout the land. By working

undercover, listening to conversations while quietly playing the flute, reporting any

dissention against the establishment, the rōnin became an asset to the government.

However, these issuances eventually led to larger problems.

By the mid-19th century, the komusō rōnin had become a larger liability than they

had been before their government sanctioned regulations. Several reasons for this

include their special privileges, freedom of travel, and their dress style, designed to keep


(1977). 30 Ibid. 31 Ibid.


14

themselves hidden. Additionally, it is possible the need for a network of spies may have

declined.32 Without the government’s need for their network of spies and the Fuke’s loss

of control within the sect, the government began to see them as a liability not worth

maintaining. What might also be likely is the decline of the Fuke temples to control their

own membership. This is likely due to the anonymous dress, which allowed any person

to claim the status of Fuke rōnin.33 The sect did attempt to regain its status and reputation

though major documents in order to maintain its privileged status and improve its public

image. But, despite all of their efforts they were unable to maintain their official

recognition and status.34 The Fuke would cease to exist by 1871 and all komusō temples

would be shut down. Priests would become lay persons, and begging as well as playing

the shakuhachi in the streets would become illegal.35

It was during this time that the Meiji Restoration began, and the westernization of

Japan started reshaping their cultural landscape. The shakuhachi, though outlawed as a

sacred instrument, continued its popularity in performance circles. The main reason was

that the strict control of the shakuhachi playing by komusō rōnin was never enforced.

There were schools (ryū) throughout Japan, including the Kinko ryū, who also taught

shakuhachi. The other reason is its history as a secular instrument.36



1993. 33 Sanford, James H. "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and Komusō." Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4

(1977). 34 Lee, Riley Kelly. "Chapter 3: Historical Background of Shakuhachi and Honkyoku." In Yearning for the


1993. 35 Ibid. 36 Sanford, James H. "Shakuhachi Zen. The Fukeshu and Komusō." Monumenta Nipponica 32, no. 4

(1977).


15

As mentioned before, the earliest use of shakuhachi was in courts. Long before

the use of the bamboo flute as a spiritual tool, it had its place within ensemble playing

(gagaku) and centuries later, its use as a secular instrument in theatrical performances

would be revived. This music would be known as the gaikyoku – or outside

performance.37

During this time, the westernization of Japan included changes within its military,

the clothes worn, and modes of travel and production, including the use of train systems.

The westernization of Japan also included music and notation systems. Before western

notated music, the shakuhachi was taught either aurally or through combinations of

tablatures, verbal instruction, and idiosyncratic symbols which differed from school to

school, making standardization of notation impractical.38 Figure 1.3 and 1.4 show

examples of shakuhachi notation from the honkyoko of the Kinko ryū:


(1977). 38 Lependorf, Jeffrey. Contemporary Notation for the Shakuhachi: A Primer for Composers. 232.


16

39

Figure 1.3 – Example of Honkyoku Notation

39 Image extracted from Berger, Donald Paul. "The Shakuhachi and the Kinko Ryū Notation." Asian Music

1, no. 2 (1969). 69.


17

40

Figure 1.4 – Example of honkyoku notation

40 Image extracted from Berger, Donald Paul. "The Shakuhachi and the Kinko Ryū Notation." Asian Music

1, no. 2 (1969). 70.


18

The honkyoku notation from Figures 1.3 and 1.4 contain symbols and tablature as

described in the Kinko ryū.41 During the Meiji Restoration, there was an influx of

interest for instruction of western music and the development of western notation

systems. In 1898, the newest ryū, the Tozan ryū, was founded by Nakao Tozan. This

school, along with the Kinko ryū, became the primary schools of today’s shakuhachi.42

The Meiji Restoration (1868 to 1912), under the rule of Emperor Meiji was the

period of opening Japan to foreign interaction and ideas after nearly three hundred years

of total seclusion under the shogunite.43 The musical notation systems started changing

after the fall of the Fuke rōnin, and evolved into traditionally notated music of the

western canon. It was a westerner named Luther Wittig Mason who came to Japan and

introduced the teaching systems of the western canon.44

Luther Wittig Mason was an American-educated musician who, though not

classically trained, made his career in Boston early music programs directing children’s

choirs. Eventually he became the supervisor for teaching music to all elementary pupils

through general music courses.45 His career, though largely unknown today, is a

distinguished path that traces through educating primary grade levels and compiling a

series of music books for classroom use. After his retirement in 1879 at the age of sixty-

41 All explanations of these notation systems are in the Asian Music Vol 1 issue published in the fall of

1969 under the article The Shakuhachi and the Kinko Ryo Notation. 42 Berger, Donald Paul. "The Shakuhachi and the Kinko Ryū Notation." Asian Music 1, no. 2 (1969). 32. 43 May, Elizabeth. "The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music." Journal of Research

in Music Education 16 (1964). 116. 44 Ibid. 45 Hall, Bonlyn G. "The American Education of Luther Whiting Mason." American Music 6, no. 1 (1988).

65.


19

one, and upon the invitation of the Meiji government, he left Boston for Japan to direct

the newly created Tokyo Music School.46

During his two-year residency in Japan, Mason set out to expand Japanese

children’s musical education to western notation, the western canon, and western

orchestra instruments. He imported pianos as well as stringed orchestra instruments,

trained Japanese teachers in western-style harmonization, and contributed to

incorporating east-west “hybrid” pieces of music for children’s schoolbooks, such as

western folk songs in Japanese translations.47

These folk tunes were eventually referred to as “Mason songs,” and Mason’s

curriculum, the National Music Course, was based off of his standardized methods and

served as the prototype for the new methodology in Japan. The Tokyo Music School

would eventually be renamed to the Tokyo University of Fine Arts, where Mason also

taught music based on the gagaku (ensembles). To assist Mason and his colleagues in

this new methodology, they assembled Western pieces with Japanese words, and new

songs with Japanese texts were given Western harmonization. These works were then

published into three volumes of children’s music called the Shogaku Shokashu.48 It is

unclear if the shakuhachi was a part of the Shogaku Shokashu, but what is known is the

shakuhachi remained in circulation among musicians throughout the end of the Meiji

period and today continues to be a staple of Japanese musical and cultural heritage.

46 Hall, Bonlyn G. "The American Education of Luther Whiting Mason." American Music 6, no. 1 (1988).

65. 47 Ibid. 48 May, Elizabeth. "The Influence of the Meiji Period on Japanese Children's Music." Journal of Research

in Music Education 16 (1964). 116.


20

Considering the aspect of modern performances on saxophone, we can use

historical evidence of the shakuhachi and ancient Japanese music to add some dimension

to performances of Ryo Noda’s catalog. We can use this musical evolution to determine

interpretive guidelines for each piece. For example, the duet Murasaki no Fuchi is a

chamber work, which categorizes it as gaikyoku – ensemble pieces – similar to court

music (gagaku) and the music of the post-Fuke disbandment. The improvisational

character of Ryo Noda’s three Improvisations may align with komosō playing (a beggar

in the street). When applied, these historical contexts could be used as a method of

transferring musical interpretation to a performance hall. This information could be used

as an influence for the performance. Before a discussion of Noda’s catalog begins, it is

necessary to gain knowledge of the composer himself. The next section will examine

Ryo Noda’s life and works from a chronological standpoint, using his teachers and

upbringing as a blueprint for his career and works.


21

Part II

The Life and Works of Ryo Noda

Through this research, I found there is little written about the life of Ryo Noda.

Most accounts are brief biographical sketches taken from the covers of his works,

published by Alphonse Leduc:

Ryo Noda was born in Amagasaki Japan in 1948 and began his studies in

saxophone with teachers O. Kita and A. Sakaguchi. He eventually moved to the

United States to study at Northwestern University in Evanston Illinois with

Frederick Hemke on saxophone and composition with W.L. Karlins. He would

eventually continue his studies on saxophone and composition at the Bordeaux

Conservatory with Jean Marie Londiex and M.F. Lambezat respectively. He

would win the Prix d’Honneur of the City of Bordeaux as well as the S.A.C.E.M.

Prize for Composition in 1973 and the Grand Prix of the Yamaha Electone

Festival in 1989.49

This short biography provides only general information. Even scholarly

documents written on Ryo Noda’s life have limited biographical information. Despite

this, to gain a more complete picture of Ryo Noda, it is possible to expand this

information by studying his influences as a performer and composer. In doing so, a

richer portrait of Ryo Noda’s life is painted through information about his home,

teachers, and the chronology of his works.

The Japanese Influence

Ryo Noda was born in Amagasaki, Japan on the island of Honshu.50 He began his

saxophone studies here with Arata Sakaguchi, who had considerable influence within the

saxophone community.51 Arata Sakaguchi (1910-1997) originally trained as a cellist, and

49 Taken from the biographical information on Ryo Noda published on musical scores by Editions

Musicales Alphonse Leduc. 175, rue Saint-Honore. Paris, France. 50 Ibid. 51 Hanafusa, Chiaki. The Influence of Japanese Composers on the Development of the Repertoire for the

Saxophone and the Significance of the Fuzzy Bird Sonata by Takashi Yoshimatsu. Denton, Texas. UNT

Digital Library. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc28426/. Accessed May 22, 2015.


22

began studying saxophone in 1935 after being inspired by jazz saxophonists, such as

Adam Kobachi and Yellow Marino.52 Sakaguchi was, by many accounts, a pioneer of

the saxophone in Japan. Today, Japan has developed a thriving international tradition in

saxophone performance and pedagogy.

As a young student, Sakaguchi was inspired by recordings of Marcel Mule, but

lacked the resources needed to travel to Paris to study with him. As a result, he was

mostly self-taught with sporadic correspondence with Mule via written letters.53

Sakaguchi would spend years developing his musicianship and performance abilities. By

1951, he was named the first Professor of Saxophone at the Tokyo University of the

Arts.54 He gave performances of saxophone concerti with the Tokyo Philharmonic

Orchestra, began writing and publishing his own methods and guide books, and set up

composition competitions for students to write music for saxophone. Sakaguchi would

be named one of the five most influential pioneers of the saxophone at the sixth World

Saxophone Congress in Chicago, 1979.55 It was at this same conference that Sakaguchi

was honored alongside his distant mentor, Marcel Mule, and two other pioneers of

saxophone, Cecil Leeson and Larry Teal.56

52 Hanafusa, Chiaki. The Influence of Japanese Composers on the Development of the Repertoire for the


Digital Library. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc28426/. Accessed May 22, 2015. 7-8. 53 Ibid 54 Gee, Harry. Saxophone Solos and their Music. 1844-1985. An annotated bibliography Bloomington IN

University Press, 1986. 251. 55 Hanafusa, Chiaki. The Influence of Japanese Composers on the Development of the Repertoire for the


Digital Library. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc28426/. Accessed May 22, 2015. 7-8. 56 Ingham, Richard. "A Brief History of the World Saxophone Congress." In The Cambridge Companion

to the Saxophone. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1998. 18. Chapter within the Cambridge

Companion to the Saxophone written by the late Thomas Liley.


23

Arata Sakaguchi died in 1997, having spent a lifetime as an influence for Japanese

saxophonists.57 Ryo Noda’s studies with Sakaguchi could have been a springboard to his

later pursuit of composition. By the time Sakaguchi was honored at the 1979 World

Saxophone Congress, Noda had completed studies with Fred Hemke and Jean-Marie

Londiex, and written arguably his most widely performed compositions for the

saxophone literature, Improvisation I-III.58

The American Influence

The biographical sketch of Ryo Noda also accounts for his studies with American

saxophonist Fred Hemke. Frederick Hemke (b. 1935) began his musical career from an

early age, being born into a family already filled with artistic talent. He was raised in an

environment that fostered the development of his talents: his grandparents were both

professional actors, and his great-grandmother was a painter. Hemke is also an

accomplished painter, his own artwork being on display in the Faculty Club at

Northwestern University and other off-campus venues in Evanston Illinois.59

Hemke began his musical studies at the University of Wisconsin-Milwaukee,

earning a Bachelor of Science degree, a Master of Music at the Eastman School of Music

in Rochester New York and, eventually, a Doctorate of Musical Arts from the University

of Wisconsin.60 While completing the Master of Music, he went abroad to study at the

Conservatoire National de Musique in Paris France as a student of Marcel Mule. During

57 Hanafusa, Chiaki. The Influence of Japanese Composers on the Development of the Repertoire for the


Digital Library. http://digital.library.unt.edu/ark:/67531/metadc28426/. Accessed May 22, 2015. 7-8. 58 This conclusion is based off information taken from numerous saxophone studio repertoire lists,

including Indiana University, Northwestern University, Ithaca University, and others including

Improvisations I-III as part of their core repertoire for teaching. 59 Frederick Hemke’s paintings were on the Northwestern School of Music walls as well as on his CD’s and

LP’s. 60 The Frederick Hemke Papers. Northwestern University Library.


24

this time, he would become the first American saxophonist to earn the Premier Prix du

Saxophone.61

In 1956, Hemke was appointed as Professor of Music at Northwestern University.

His predecessor was saxophone pioneer Cecil Leeson. Leeson, with works dedicated to

him such as both the Concerto and Sonata op. 19 by Paul Creston, was among the first

American saxophone pedagogues. Filling this vacancy was only the beginning of one of

the most distinguished careers in saxophone history.

Ryo Noda’s studies with Frederick Hemke placed him among an extensive list of

accomplished saxophonists, composers, educators, and recording artists. The number of

graduates from his studio include some of today’s most celebrated saxophonists.62 In

addition to Hemke’s contributions to saxophone pedagogy, he has helped to lay the

ground work for contemporary saxophone technique.63 The development of this new

repertoire, along with the development of extended techniques, likely paved the way for

Ryo Noda’s early success.

The French Influence

The Sonate (1967) by Edison Denisov was written for the French saxophonist

Jean-Marie Londeix, and opened new doors for saxophone composition and performance

practices. Londeix classified this work as one of the most significant in the saxophone

repertoire. It can be viewed as “the front door which many 20th century composers

stepped through becoming interested in Adolphe Sax’s instrument.”64 Sonate contains

61 The Frederick Hemke Papers. Northwestern University Library. 62 www.fredericklhemke.com. Online resource used as a method to further enhance the influence and

importance of Frederick Hemke as a living historical figure within the saxophone community. 63 The Saxophone Today. Clauge Delangle, Jean-Denis Michat. The Cambridge Companion to Saxophone.

184. 64 Umble, James, and Miche Gingras. "Biography." In Jean-Marie Londeix: Master of the Modern

Saxophone Maitre Du Saxophone Moderne. Cherry Hill, New Jersey: Roncorp Publications, 2000.


25

elements that can be seen in Noda’s own compositions, and contains compositional

structures and elements of writing that, during his time in France, became more widely

used. Many of Ryo Noda’s works were dedicated to his mentor, Jean-Marie Londeix.

Londeix was born to Jems and Georgette Londeix on September 20, 1932 in Port-

du-Noyer near Bordeaux in the southwest of France.65 He began taking piano lessons

regularly at the behest of his father who was an amateur violinist making money playing

film music.66 After several years of piano lessons, his father believed that his son needed

to play a different instrument. Observing his son’s hands, he felt that the saxophone

would be the best fit, and bought him an alto and tenor saxophone. He began taking

lessons with Marcel Mule in 1946.67 From Jean-Marie’s own diary, he writes:

From the 1940s on, Mule was someone I was always looking up to as a student.

Even through 1965, I was very much seeking his opinion and input. I had a real

need to know his opinion, and I sought to satisfy him in what I did.

As the years progressed, there was a distance between Marcel Mule and Jean-

Marie Londeix in their own personal tastes in music. Mule would frequently recommend

Londeix play works such as the Paul Bonneau Caprice en forme de Valse and other

difficult yet traditionally French classical works. Londeix however, became increasingly

interested in the works of the avant-garde.

Londeix began developing close relationships with American saxophone

pedagogue Larry Teal while on trips to the International Society of Music Education at

Interlochen Michigan.68 This would include his working closely in masterclasses with a

65 Umble, James, and Miche Gingras. "Biography." In Jean-Marie Londeix: Master of the Modern

Saxophone Maitre Du Saxophone Moderne. Cherry Hill, New Jersey: Roncorp Publications, 2000. 66 Ibid. 67 Ibid. 68 Ibid.


26

young saxophonist named Donald Sinta, and eventually lead to his becoming a sabbatical

replacement for Larry Teal at the University of Michigan in 1968.69

Jean-Marie Londeix eventually accepted the position at the National Conservatory

of Bordeaux in 1971. During this time, his reputation had spread throughout the world

including tours of Russia, and new compositions being written for him that would change

the landscape of the saxophone community, including the Edison Denisov Sonate. While

at Bordeaux, one of his students was Ryo Noda.

Jean-Marie Londeix had a clear influence on Noda’s compositions. Many

composers were writing pieces for Londeix in this new contemporary style including Ryo

Noda. Noda’s first compositions, Improvisation I, II, and III written from 1972 to 1974

were written for him, and show this avant-garde compositional style that Londeix had

championed.70

69 Umble, James, and Miche Gingras. "Biography." In Jean-Marie Londeix: Master of the Modern

Saxophone Maitre Du Saxophone Moderne. Cherry Hill, New Jersey: Roncorp Publications, 2000. 70 The dedications can be found in each work written by Ryo Noda, published by Alphonse Leduc

Publishing.


27

Disclaimer

Permission to use copyrighted material from

Editions Musicales Alphonse Leduc

175, rue Saint-Honore

75040 Paris cedex 01

has been requested.


28

Part III

Ancient Japan and the Shakuhachi in Modern Composition and Performance Practices

Introduction

The explorations, though brief, of ancient Japanese musical performance

practices, and the influences Ryo Noda had throughout his life as a musician and

composer give the saxophonist a wealth of information for an interpretive approach. This

final section looks at combining these areas with modern performance practices to

provide some potential resources for interpretive use. To paint a portrait of Ryo Noda’s

works, I have selected those which appear most often on university repertoire lists and

complemented them with some that are moderately obscure in the saxophone community.

Though attempting a fully authentic representation of the shakuhachi on

saxophone is not practical, it helps to become familiar with how it sounds and is played

through modern recordings. This will help the saxophonist gain an aural representation

that will assist him or her in coming closer to a recreation of its sound, and will aid the

performer in synthesizing the modern sounds of the saxophone with the ancient sounds of

Japanese instruments.

As stated before, the aim of this section is not to reveal a previously unknown

truth about approaching or performing Ryo Noda’s catalog. This section provides a

resource of ideas and possibilities for an influence on an interpretive approach. The

following will be used to facilitate these potential resources: the sounds of the Japanese

instruments; Japanese theater and the simplicity of its forms; Zen Buddhism; and modern

performance practice suggestions aimed to achieve the sounds of the ancient instruments

cited.


29

Bridging the Gap between Ancient and Modern Music

A vocal ensemble might be able to produce an authentic performance of a

medieval mass, and a vocalist might be able to sing a chanson with a faithful dedication

to historical practices. This refers to transcriptions of musical works of history. The

voice is a viable outlet for producing an authentic representation of historical musical

compositions, as it is the oldest musical instrument. Ryo Noda’s compositions, though

not historical, contain aspects of historical influence. The saxophone, being a modern

instrument, presents varying difficulties in producing an authentic emulation of ancient

instruments. As already stated, however, the aim is not to be purely authentic, it is to use

the elements of history as an influence for the musical delivery.

This focus will be on how to use influences of ancient Japan while applying

modern performance techniques. These influences include the bamboo flute and its use

throughout history, as well as the culture of ancient Japan. The works to be included are:

Improvisation I-III

Mai

Phoenix

Requiem

Since this is a discussion of several compositions, a complete performance

analysis will not be attempted. Instead, the portrait of history previously discussed will

be used to offer an interpretive argument for each work. In order to bridge the gap

between ancient Japan and the modern performance hall, I return to the aspect of the

shakuhachi as it developed over the centuries, beginning with its use as an instrument of

the theater.


30

The shakuhachi of ancient Japan had Buddhist overtones using folk melodies

within theatrical settings.71 It is with the one word, “theatrical,” where the bridge

between the modern and ancient can be found. This bridge is not intended to inform the

performance from an entirely aural aspect. It is not a “theatrical sound.” Instead, it is

used as a method of transference of the written music from the performer to the audience.

The saxophonist can use the areas of melody and the Buddhist overtones, and combine

them to possibly give his or her own personal element of musical interpretation. If the

saxophonist feels his or her performance might be enhanced with a theatrical aspect of

using more space, or an exaggeration of dynamics, this is where the theatrical element

complements the technical.

Looking at select examples in Noda’s writing, we can begin to use both a

performance and interpretive analysis. This includes the philosophical approach, what

goes through one’s mind when playing, as well as the technical approach to the musical

lines. For example, Ryo Noda’s notation involving dynamics generally ranges from

delicately subtle to intensely aggressive. This is found in areas of his music where it is to

be played at pppp mysterieux to a marking of ffff with aggressive melodic notation. An

example of the delicate writing can be found in his work Mai.

Figure 3.1 – Mai Excerpt

71 Tanabe, Hisao. Japanese Music. Chapter 6: The History of the Shakuhachi. Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai:

Tokyo, 1959. 151.


31

This excerpt shows long tones accompanied by tremolo figures throughout with

subtle dynamics.72 One preliminary approach might be to look at this section from a

technical point of view. First, to avoid arbitrary rhythms it is often helpful to practice

with a metronome. Second, some fingerings will make the tremolos sound uneven and

erratic. Therefore, using alternate fingerings could produce tremolos that will sound even

and clean. Finally, the saxophonist can establish a dynamic range that is comfortable for

him or her, and that can allow for subtle changes to be applied within the passage. This

gives the saxophonist precision within the musical lines.

A second opening approach is to apply interpretive elements. Rather than

beginning by dissecting the written lines for accuracy in dynamics and technique, the

saxophonist can first play the section as written, and then ask him or herself questions

about the music from an aural point of view: What does this section sound like? How

much can I bring out the dynamics? What do I think of when playing this? Assuming

prior knowledge of ancient Japan from Part I, he or she can also ask: What about the

aspect of the theatrical? Can I use honkyoku Zen as an influence? What do I think of

when playing this?

Whether the saxophonist chooses to begin with a technical or aural point of view,

he or she can keep in mind that each complements the other. This means that performers

are not eliminating or replacing precision and accuracy; rather, by adding the

complementary interpretive (theatrical) elements, they may influence and enhance those

72 I have chosen to use this section as the first example for the following reasons: The first is the simple

writing. The second are the tremolos which require alternate fingerings to play even and cleanly. The

aspect of simplicity is important since this analysis will point out simplicity is a key component to Noda’s

virtuosic compositional method. The alternate fingerings also play an important technical role in the

interpretive aspect. I will make many references to the use of subtlety and secrecy and how alternate

fingerings can assist the performer in accomplishing both.


32

technical components. For example, when listening to the sounds of the shakuhachi, I

found it to be very soft and airy at times. This led to an interpretation on saxophone with

palm and side fingerings, as this technique gave identical texture and timbre of the

shakuhachi. The sonority of the saxophone sound was never abandoned; rather, it was

complemented using fingerings that gave a dimension of an ancient instrument. The next

section explains this approach further with a discussion of Improvisation I.


33

The Theatrical Improvisations

The Improvisations give the first of two possible areas of interpretation: the

theatrical and the Zen. The first are the compositions Improvisation I-III, which can be

perceived as theatrical (the komosō “mat monk” beggar priests), or perhaps pre-

honkyoku. The second set of compositions, Mai, Phoenix, and Requiem, can be

interpreted as Zen (komusō “emptiness monks” pilgrims), or likely of the honkyoku

literature of Edo Japan. These two areas are distinct: one was the beginning of solo flute

playing that was played by commoners, possibly improvisatory, with some religious

contexts; the other was the repertoire which was notated, cataloged, and compiled over

centuries of teaching, also with spiritual or religious contexts.73 The purpose of the

saxophonist placing his or herself within either of these ancient shakuchachi contexts is

to fully explore the sounds of the instrument for added dimension of their performance.

Along with these two possibilities of thought, each carries with it various

secondary and tertiary elements. Based on historical insight from Part I, we can use this

information to influence how we approach these compositions. I will begin with the area

of the aural interpretation and how it can be used to give additional depth to

performances. This is intended as suggestions for possibilities to aid the performer in

how they can approach his or her interpretation through aural or visual means. The visual

may be gained by viewing some shakuhachi players via videos from the world wide web,

including one such performance and interview by shakuhachi grandmaster Yamaguchi



1993.


34

Goro performing the honkyoku Nesting Cranes.7475 Additionally, several recordings for

shakuhachi exist adding further aural examples of shakuhachi playing, including those by

shakuhachi scholar Riley Kelly Lee which further add excellent examples for the

saxophone performance which will be discussed further.76

The first three works in this analysis – Ryo Noda’s three Improvisations – appear

to be free-form musical works.77 The first suggestion proposed is to align the

Improvisations with the theatrical music and drama of ancient Japan.78 Beginning with

Improvisation I, I will use this piece as an explanation of Noda’s compositional style and

how his compositional symbols illustrate an emulation of shakuhachi. This is not

intended to suggest there is no interpretive or musical strategy that can be given to

Improvisation I. Rather, I have chosen this work as an explanation of Noda’s

compositional method as a way to fuse ancient and modern styles.

74 "Yamaguchi Goro: Sokaku Reibo." YouTube. March 4, 2010. Accessed October 28, 2015. 75 This video was contributed by John Singer through his YouTube uploads, which also contain several

examples of his own shakuhachi performances and demonstrations. 76 “Riley Lee | Sound of Bamboo.” Riley Lee. rileylee.net. 2014. 77 In this analysis, I define “free-form” as compositions which do not have individual or stand-alone

thematic areas, such as a Sonata or Rondo form. 78 Japanese drama was not discussed in Part I for the following reasons: It was important for this topic to

focus attention within Part I to the history of the shakuhachi as this instrument is a musical representation

in Ryo Noda’s works. Additionally, Japanese theater is a tertiary area of concentration (primary being Ryo

Noda’s works, and secondary being the history of the music of Japan). Therefore, I found that only a brief

account of Japanese drama was needed to emphasize the approach for the improvisations, and supplied it

within the areas outlining The Theatrical Improvisations.


35

Improvisation I

The first Improvisation plays like a compositional exercise, and while this might

not have been Noda’s intention, it can be interpreted this way. This is advantageous,

since viewing Improvisation I in this way makes it a viable resource to explain and

practice the extended techniques Noda uses. For the purposes of learning those extended

techniques, we can approach Improvisation I (1972) as an exercise to put Japanese

performance practices into modern context.

While the Improvisations do not have to be the first within Noda’s catalog to be

approached, they can be an effective first step toward performing his catalog of works as

well as other abstract compositions. As with working on any piece of music with

extended techniques and avant-garde notation, the saxophonist should become familiar

with the compositional devices Noda uses. Beginning with Improvisation I, a student of

saxophone will see notation which might be unfamiliar.

Figure 3.2 – Improvisation I Excerpt

Noda explained these devices by using accompanying instructions, and additional

guidance is found within Hello! Mr. Sax by Jean-Marie Londeix.79 Improvisation I will

likely be the first time Japanese notation devices are seen. To approach this composition,

I will use modern contexts along with the ancient concepts of performance. The

following terminology is provided to explain how modern compositional devices

translate to the ancient:

79 Londiex, Jean-Marie. Hello! Mr. Sax. Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1989.


36

Musical terminology – Yuri

Figure 3.3 – Fragment of Improvisation I Excerpt

The yuri is a wildly fast and erratic vibrato common in shakuhachi

performances.80 Performing the yuri on shakuhachi was accomplished with head

motions, typically up and down or side-to-side. Saxophone players have a more flexible

instrument, making this unnecessary, accomplishing this effect instead with an

exaggeration of vibrato.

When performing the yuri, use the jaw as normal for vibrato, but expand on the

sound it creates. Do not be hesitant about creating a sound that might be overwhelming,

and keep in mind that the yuri is notated to give inflections on specific pitches.81

Because Ryo Noda specifies this, saxophone players are highly encouraged to avoid

using any vibrato on any other pitch, opting instead for straight tones.

80 Lependorf, Jeffery. “Notation for the Shakuhachi: A Primer for Composers.” Perspectives of New Music.

27, no. 2 (1989). 81 This is based off reviewing each composition referenced by Ryo Noda for the yuri notation.

Additionally, based off the recordings cited, vibrato is not commonly used in shakuhachi playing. Instead,

specific notes are treated with yuri inflections. Saxophonists may be mindful of this, straying from the

common “classical” or “traditional” forms of saxophone playing.


37

Musical Terminology – Attari/Furi

Figure 3.4 – Improvisation I Excerpt

Improvisation I also contains extended ornamentation, attari or furi. This is

shown in the excerpt above. Notated like grace notes, this specialized ornamentation is

representative of the inflections shakuhachi players use in their own performances.

Perform the attari/furi as notated and follow Noda’s instructions. This excerpt is to be

played bien rhythme et non measure, or “with good rhythm.” It also shows an aggressive

fortissimo dynamic that might be played wildly. Though aggressive playing is

acceptable, the student can risk overplaying. Maintain levels of subtlety while

performing the attari/furi.

Musical terminology – Meri/Kari

Figure 3.5 – Fragment of Introduction Improvisation I

The pitches that color the piece without the use of extreme bends in pitch (yuri) is

the meri. The contemporary equivalent of the meri are quarter and half tones. Looking at

the opening of Improvisation I, Noda includes the meri via quarter-tone notation.82

82 In this segment, Noda also includes a bend notated below the staff. This indicates a yuri technique added

to the quarter-tone notation above the staff. Within this analysis, it is interpreted as an exaggeration of the

quarter-tones (playing quarter-tones while also bending the pitch with jaw motions for added effect).


38

The attari/furi, yuri, and meri/kari are the more common elements of shakuhachi

playing in Ryo Noda’s compositions. They are seen in all three Improvisations, Phoenix,

Mai, and others, ornamenting and accenting pitches and rhythms. With regard to modern

performance practices, findings based on aural research through video and audio

recordings indicate some performance practices on shakuhachi can smoothly be

transferred to saxophone.83 For example, many of the attari/furi ornamentations are

performed with air attacks. If the performer’s goal is to emulate as closely as possible to

the bamboo, I suggest saxophone players do the same. Air attacks might make a good

strategy, as they can help to achieve a closer emulation of the shakuhachi sound.

Performance practices such as this example can give the piece added dimension of

authenticity.

Additionally, familiarity with alternate fingerings using palm and side keys

marked by the French nomenclature will aid the saxophonist with his or her

performances. These alternate fingerings are the most appropriate for any mid-range

notation as they provide a tool for a quieter performance, softer timber, and an airy sound

quality. These fingerings are commonly notated as the French nomenclature. A guide

for the French nomenclature fingerings can be found in methods already suggested, as

well as in Daniel Kientzy’s Les Sons Multiples Aux Saxophones as seen in figure 3.6.84

83 “Riley Lee | Sound of Bamboo.” Riley Lee. rileylee.net. 2014. 84 Kientzy, Daniel. Les Sons Multiples Aux Saxophones. Paris: Salabert Editions, 2003.


39

85

Figure 3.6 – Saxophone French Nomenclature

Though there may be some intonation issues, this approach can prove effective.

Using these techniques throughout the Improvisations can assist the saxophonist to come

closer to historically characterized performances.

85 Image taken from Les Son Multipons Aux Saxophones by Daniel Kientzy. Published by Salabert Editions,

2003. Used for educational purposes. It is important to note that many works using French nomenclature

have varying usage of French nomenclature identification.


40

Improvisation II and III

Improvisation II (1973) and Improvisation III (1974) and their melodic themes

give the performer additional material for interpretation. Improvisation II is still placed

in this analysis with the early free-form playing as already described. It is in the

melodies that the theatrical aspect of the Improvisations comes into the interpretive

approach. The historical analysis Part I mentions the earliest use of the shakuhachi was

in courts and gagaku ensembles. These courts used the gagaku for various reasons, likely

including plays.

The melodies throughout Improvisation II and III could indicate a storytelling.

The theatrical interpretation includes the Kabuki, Bunraku, Kyogen and, possibly more

suitably, Noh, a major Japanese musical drama based on traditional literature with some

supernatural elements.86 The Noh Theater has been described as a living art,

representative of Japanese art forms introducing culture in a broacher scope as opposed to

western plays which often struggle in modern productions to re-create lost traditions.87

It is important to note that when beginning a discussion of Japanese theater and its

application to Noda’s music, the virtuosity in Noda’s music is not found in break-neck

passages requiring extreme precision and control. Its virtuosity is its simplicity. From

the examples already seen, and the ones which will be discussed as this analysis

continues, Noda’s music demonstrates simple rhythmic patterns and musical motifs. This

does not mean to imply that they are easy; rather, this highlights the strong correlation

86 www.unesco.org. UNESCO. “Nogaku Theater:” The Representative List of the Intangible Cultural

Heritage of Humanity. 87 Ishii, Mikiko. The Noh Theater: Mirror, Mask, and Madness. Comparative Drama. Vol. 28, No. 1.

Spring 1994. 43-66.

http://www.unesco.org/


41

which can be made between Japanese theater (ancient art forms) and the compositional

devises used by Noda reflecting those practices and sounds.

As a way to juxtapose this compositional style with the use of Japanese drama,

ethnomusicologists have noted that Noh drama is a Zen-inspired form, with gestures

abstracted by simplification, rather than of imagination.88 To clarify, the simplification

of Noh through the barest possible resources gives the freedom of comprehension beyond

external means. If extremely virtuosic gestures were used, it would be the skill of the

performer’s technique and precision that would gain the attention. Ethnomusicologist

and Chinese music scholar Frederic Lieberman writes, “This forced abandonment of

external reality is obvious in Noh. If a boat is called for in the story, an imaginary boat

would let us imagine our own private imitation of reality: the no prop is a simple, open

bamboo frame, wrapped in white paper: a public denial of external reality.”89

This background gives the saxophonist a framework for an approach to

Improvisation II and III. Elements of the dramatic storytelling could be a valid answer

for an interpretive approach that would prove helpful, such as a masked Geisha or the

Shite (the main character of Noh). Perhaps the saxophonist could also envision him or

herself as part of the drama; the minstrels playing music to accompany the scene.

There are several thematic areas in Improvisation II, for example:

Figure 3.7 – Opening theme of Improvisation II

88 Lieberman, Frederic. Zen Buddhism and Its Relationship to Elements of Eastern And Western Arts.

2012. 89 Ibid.


42

Figures 3.8 – Closing themes of Improvisation II

This is in direct contrast to Improvisation I, where melodic themes were not as

present. The saxophonist can use those thematic areas as a framework for applying

modern techniques. Improvisation II is the first of Ryo Noda’s compositions to include

multiphonics as well as third register notation. The multiphonic, common in music for

saxophone written after 1970, is noted as a koro-koro or goro-goro. In shakuhachi

notation, the koro-koro/goro-goro are the ancient terms used to describe a range of

various multiphonics used to color the piece.

Musical terminology – Koro-Koro/Goro-Goro

Figure 3.9 – Multiphonics in Ryo Noda’s Improvisation II

While Improvisation II is a part of Noda’s first three compositions written as a

shakuhachi emulation, many of the techniques mentioned would present various


43

difficulties, multiphonics being one. The extended coloring of longer pitches and its

overall range present further difficulties. For these reasons, Improvisation II can be

approached in a more modern conceptualization. However, while the approach may be

from a modern viewpoint, the performer should not forget the ancient theatrical

influences. This leaves Improvisation III, the work that gives the saxophonist an

opportunity for a more direct shakuhachi emulation and the beginning of what could be

classified as the Zen inspired honkyoku literature.

Improvisation III is written in a manner that gives the saxophonist the most direct

opportunity for an emulation of the bamboo flute. There are several reasons for this: The

first is the simpler use of furi ornamentation. The second is the more relaxed use of yuri

vibrato effects, allowing the saxophonist to remain calm and subtle. Finally, the overall

range of this work allows for a liberal use of alternate fingerings that make the air quality

of the sound more distinct. From here, the saxophonist can expand on the performance

techniques and interpretive ideas already discussed, and apply additional ideas, including

the aspect of the komosō and komusō rōnin.

There is an aspect of secrecy within komusō rōnin which can be key to effective

performances of Improvisation III.90 The komusō were the pilgrims of the shakuhachi,

unlike their predecessors, the komosō beggars. There are also the komosō, the beggar

priests who were the precursors to the komusō monks on Zen pilgrimages. Improvisation

III could be interpreted as a hybrid of both; the theatrics and the rōnin. It is this

90 It is important to remember that the aspect of secrecy was more prevalent in the komusō rōnin, as it was

written many of them were contracted by the government as spies. Improvisation III stands out as a hybrid

of both the wandering beggars (komosō), and the Zen priests who played for spiritual purposes according to

legend along with the government “stool pigeons” of the mid-Edo period (komusō). Improvisation III can

use both sides for an effective performance.


44

interpretive side of the performance that will allow for a fusion of both areas (free

playing vs honkyoku). The performer can incorporate both elements in Improvisation III:

the theatrics of early shakuhachi playing, and the Zen of the honkyoku literature.

I use Improvisation III as a transitional piece between the theatrical interpretation

and the Zen. Improvisation III, when performed, can impart a feeling of spirituality.

Improvisation III stands out as a singular work allowing for an interpretive and structural

(technical elements for performance) analysis. Figure 3.10 demonstrates the opening of

the work.

Figure 3.10 – Improvisation III Excerpt

Alternate fingerings, as well as air and breath attacks, can assist the saxophonist

to more closely emulate a historical performance than the standard fingerings used. An

exception for the air attacks would be in the more melodic passages as recordings of

shakuhachi performances sometimes indicate a possible combination of both. This will

produce a quieter performance. The reason for aiming toward a quiet performance is that

it could be in line with how the komusō pilgrims likely played: softer, more subtle

sounds. Perhaps the komusō “stool-pigeon” could also be envisioned.91 This would be

the softly played melodies of a monk, his face hidden from the public while he listened to

the conversations surrounding him.

91 The “stool-pigeon” aspect goes back to the use of komusō monks as spies by the Japanese government to

suppress any dissention.


45

Improvisation III also uses more melodic material, which is unlike the sporadic

expressions in Improvisation I, but similar to those in Improvisation II. The piece is a

more lyrical work than Improvisation I and II, and therefore, more thematic and

theatrical. Using these combined interpretive devises, Improvisation III can be a

programmatic work.

As with Improvisation II, there are some complications in performing this piece.

While this is not the first piece in Noda’s catalog requiring a range into the third register,

it does require the highest range so far.

Figure 3.11 – Improvisation III Excerpt

The difficulty is playing within this range in a subtle tone. Playing in the third

register of the saxophone is already difficult; it is particularly difficult to do so quietly.

Thus, the saxophonist will need to have a comfortable and confident control of this

register. From a technical approach, first, does the saxophonist have the range?

Secondly, does he or she have a commanding control of this register? Finally, would it

be detrimental to the performance if he or she could not play altissimo?

Other questions to be considered are more pedagogical than technical. Should the

saxophonist be required to have the range to play this small section of the work? If he or

she is able to give an effective performance, would it be admissible to play this section an

octave below? Also, and a broader musical question, if the saxophonist lacks the range to

play any work requiring it, should the work be attempted in the first place?


46

With some caution, I submit that the answer can go in both directions. The

saxophonist can approach this piece for studious purposes, and refrain from public

performances until he or she is comfortable in the altissimo register. Should he or she

feel their performance could be more effective in the lower octave, there must be

qualified reasons to do so. While interpretive liberties could be taken, it is usually

unwise to change the composer’s original writing with regard to the notation.

Subjectivity in the performance should not be perceived as a pass to perform a work

without the prerequisite technical abilities to do so. Despite these difficulties,

Improvisation III can serve as a programmatic inclusion to any recital.

Improvisations I-III can gain more musical definition through historical

information, and become less grounded in 20th century compositional practices if the

saxophonist spends some of the performance preparation learning about the history of the

theater and drama of ancient Japan. By doing so, he or she can gain clarity on the

“virtuosity through simplicity” theme mentioned previously. When transitioning from

the theatrical to the philosophically interpretive, we can identify key elements that

differentiate the two groupings of compositions. The first are composed in a manner that

can be interpreted as a series of gestures or brief musical moments combined into a

singular work. The following works Mai, Phoenix and Requiem have similar

compositional developments. However, they are each stand-alone works. Additionally,

they have a specific musical dialogue which can be used for specific rather than

generalized purposes. This places these next works within the area of honkyoku Zen.


47

The Zen of Mai, Phoenix and Requiem

The honkyoku, or solo repertoire of the shakuhachi is Zen. In the Edo period of

Japan, the masters of shakuhachi began moving away from the temples of the Fuke sect,

and began establishing independent schools, or ryū. Kurosawa Kinko was one of the first

to develop these institutions (the Kinko ryū). In this ryū, there are performance practices

intended for direct spiritual use. Kinko said, “In firmness of breathing is found in the

inner essence of mist,” a reference to Kichiku’s dream (see Kichiku’s Dream below).92

While the shakuhachi would evolve over several centuries into an instrument for

primarily popular entertainment, its roots in Zen are the approach explored for the

following discussion.

Understanding the Zen

Ryo Noda’s compositions can be categorized as hybrids of saxophone and

shakuhachi playing, and performances of his works could be influenced by the honkyoku

literature. The honkyoku is the solo repertoire of the shakuhachi and possesses a spiritual

essence. This essence is identified by shakuhachi scholars as the Empty Bell, giving the

honkyoku a reputation as products of revelation rather than of composition.93 This

revelation is where the influence of Zen becomes a part of the performance. To gain a

better understanding of the revelation of the honkyoku and the Zen influence, the legend

of Kichiku as written in the Kyotaku Denki can be used:


(1977). 93 Ibid.


48

Kichiku was rowing a small boat in the ocean. He was there alone, admiring the bright moon above.

Suddenly a thick mist rose up and enveloped the moon. Then from the depths of the mist the melody

of a flute burst forth, a remote, mysterious melody, beyond the power of speech to describe. After

a moment the music stopped. The obscuring mist gradually began to congeal until at last it froze

into a solid lump. From this lump issued forth a second melody – a strange, wondrous melody

unlike any ever heard on this earth. In the dream Kichiku was deeply moved and wanted to capture

these melodies on his own ‘empty-bell’ flute. Just at that moment, he awoke from his dream. The

mist, the lump, the boat, the oars, all vanished. He took up his flute and tried to play the two

melodies from his dream. When he discovered that their essence was still with him he set off directly

back to Kii, where he told Kakushin of his dream and the melodies he had received. Kakushin had

him play the melodies and then said, “These are truly gifts from the Buddha. The first we will call

‘Flute in a Misty Sea’ and the second ‘Flute in an Empty Sky’.

Thereafter Kichiku wandered the highways and byways. He would first play the ‘Empty Bell’ when

he met people. If they strongly pressed him about the magical qualities of his music, he would go

on to play the other two melodies.94

It is helpful to be familiar with some anecdotal evidence of ancient Japan such as

the story of Kichiku in order to apply aspects of the Zen performance. Additionally, the

significance of the komusō rōnin as wandering musicians can be used to add more

dimension to performances of Noda’s works. The following is a storytelling about the

komusō who played the honkyoku through their travels as written by shakuhachi scholar

James Sanford:

The komusō were seen as pilgrims (though earlier were seen as bandits). A

wandering komusō would spend weeks and months on the open road, a traveler on a lone

journey to the next world. His connection with the world of men was severed, making it

clear he should die on the open road. When he died, the corpse along with the

shakuhachi would be rolled up in his bedroll. His kenkon-bari, or “Heaven and Earth”

placard would be set up as a grave marker with his tengai (the straw hat used to hide his

identity) placed over it. All would be left to weather away naturally, without a funeral

94 Kyotaku Denki. Page 1132. Information of the actual Kyotaku Denki is presented as a supplement to the

aspect of shakuhachi zen and the modern saxophone literature with shakuhachi influences. It is only

intended for anecdotal information pertaining to interpretive analysis. The document itself is widely

regarded as a forgery, and thus is used in these contexts to fill a gap in the interpretive spaces needed for

text derived from the source with Ryo Noda’s musical text (i.e. Mai and Phoenix).


49

service, as the wind blowing above the now silent shakuhachi would play an ever-

repeating funeral song.95

Ryo Noda’s catalog sometimes is performed in a literal rather than spiritual sense

as finding interpretive elements of a spiritual nature can be challenging. This final

section will use the revelation and Zen of the honkyoku, as well as the philosophy of Zen

Buddhism to assist with ways of adding this spiritual dimension to performances of Ryo

Noda’s later catalog of works.


(1977): 426.


50

Mai

Mai (1975) is the first of Ryo Noda’s compositions that includes text, and is

translated into a poem titled “Battle of the Sea.”

Battle of the Sea

At twilight one night in Autumn,

while the moon reflected its silver light on the surface of the waves,

General Kyotsun plays his flute.

Standing at the prow of the ship,

he seizes his sword and cuts the plate which goes down to his feet and disappears

into the sea.

On his doorstep the phantom of the Samurai appeared.

Facing him his wife asks him, "Why did you go?"

"To save my army" he replied, "because I knew the battle was lost in advance and

I also saved the lives of my men and their families."

"And me," she said. "Did you think about me!"96

This poem and its function within the context of the music is a topic for

discussion and debate. For example, if a saxophonist had envisioned a samurai while

playing Mai, it would be appropriate given the story’s content. However, if the

interpretation or inspiration for approaching this piece were a different subject within the

text (such as the wife or the army), the argument could be made the same way.

Considering Mai and its text, envisioning a samurai as a framework for interpretation is

the most direct influence for this piece. However, some additional ideas involving Zen

could further assist the performance, including the elements of Dharma, and the Buddhist

Noble Eightfold Path. The anecdotal evidence from the Kyotaku Denki serves purpose

here for interpretive thinking. To complement this use of the samurai as a guide, the

saxophonist could explore further internal motifs using both stories.

96 Text translated by Jean Leduc as read by Ryo Noda. Text sourced from James Bunte dissertation.


51

It was stated earlier that the honkyoku are products of revelation rather than of

composition. Consider the story of Kichiku, and the teachings of Kurosawa Kinko. “In

firmness of breathing is found in the inner essence of mist” explains Kinko in his

teachings. When playing Mai, the image of the samurai could be aided by the water and

mist mentioned in the poems (Kichiku’s Dream and Battle of the Sea).

Figure 3.12 – Mai Excerpt 1

This opening motif is quiet and subtle with generous use of the furi elements as

well as some coloring of the motif with meri. This section could be performed with a

delicacy akin to the waves and reflection of light on the surface. By maintaining a

calmness instilled by the text, envisioning the samurai can go to a deeper level by

envisioning his thoughts or what he sees: At twilight one night in autumn, while the moon

reflected its light on the surface of the waves, General Kyotsun plays his flute.


When approaching this level of interpretation, the use of air and dynamics can be

used as a method of delivery. For example, the section in figure 3.13 might cause the

performer to overcompensate his or her sound. Noda does imply a gradual crescendo, but


52

it is not specified how quickly the dynamic range should intensify. An emphasis of the

calmness mentioned above, along with some delicacy (in spite of the accents and range),

can be an effective approach. From here, Noda switches to a new thematic area.


This section could resemble light ripples in the water. As it progresses, the

intensity continues to build with increasing rhythmic activity, increasing dynamics, and

increasing agogic accents (the waves rippling as [General Kyotsun] seizes his sword and

cuts the plate which goes down to his feet and disappears into the sea). This portion is

briefly interrupted with a return to the shakuhachi playing, similar to the opening, as the

tremolo continues to interject, giving a theatric quality of suspense (perhaps moving

between the flute playing by General Kyotsun and the ripples in the water). The water

motif and agitation within the writing begins to have stronger currents within the vivo

section.


The vivo section presents a new theme. It is more aggressive, but appears to

accent the previous area (repeated triplets complementing the tremolos). In the previous

examples, calmness and delicacy were used as a performance practice to portray the


53

images of flute playing and the water motif. The saxophonist can continue working

toward the closing, without losing control through restraint. Dampening the reed in these

quieter areas will help the saxophonist to avoid over-playing this section. The poco a

poco crescendo instructions can also be delicate to avoid peaking too early through both

dynamics and tempo, allowing the piece to build toward the closing material.


This final section using the koro-koro/goro-goro notation could be interpreted in

one of two possible ways: The first is through a literal translation of “goro-goro,” the

Japanese sound effect meaning “rumble” indicative of a storm or crashes of thunder. The

other is the “koro-koro” sound effect, which translates to “tumbling,” associated with

something innocent such as a purring cat or rustling water. This could indicate playing

this section very aggressively or very subtly. The dynamics would indicate the former,

and as the piece is gradually building with dynamics, it could be more appropriate.

However, when returning to the text, there is another possible interpretation which can

complement the aggressive playing for added dimension.

On his doorstep the phantom of the Samurai appeared.

Facing him his wife asks him, "Why did you go?"

"To save my army" he replied, "because I knew the battle was lost in advance

and I also saved the lives of my men and their families."

"And me," she said. "Did you think about me!"

General Kyotsun rows to the middle of the sea to die honorably through a ritual

suicide, preventing what he saw as an unwinnable war, to the troubling dismay of his


54

widow. By switching thoughts of the general to his widow, another dimension can be

added as an extension of the interpretations presented. These are the concepts of the

Noble Eightfold Path.

The shakuhachi was described in the text of the Lin-chi lu (the details of the life

of the 9th century Zen master Lin-chi) as an instrument of Dharma. The three bamboo

joints represented the Three Powers: Heaven, Earth, and Man. The five tone holes

represented the Five Elements: Earth, Air, Fire, Water, and Space (see figure 3.17).

Figure 3.17 – Diagram of Shakuhachi Holes and Symbolic Names 97

97 Kurihara 197. Image extracted from Lee, Riley Kelly. "Chapter 3: Historical Background of Shakuhachi

and Honkyoku." In Yearning for the Bell: A Study of Transmission in the Shakuhachi Honkyoku Tradition.

Sydney: University of Sydney, 1993. 126


55

The saxophonist who has this information can move away from more visual

associations of eastern culture and refocus his or her interpretation of the shakuhachi as

General Kyotsun plays it: as an instrument symbolizing the Buddhist aspects of nature

and suffering. By placing this into context of the music, Mai can be interpreted beyond

being a piece about a warrior. The saxophonist can use information about natural law as

it applies to human suffering, and the Noble Eightfold path from suffering to self-

awakening.

Mai, the Noble Eightfold Path, and the Widow

The path toward self-awakening is paradoxical; the teachings of Buddha say this

path is a paradox. To explain, he says your true nature is already present, you are just not

awake to this reality.98 The Four Noble Truths of Buddhism are:

1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)

2. The truth to the cause of suffering (samudaya)

3. The end to suffering (nirvana)

4. The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (magga)99

The performer who envisions the widow as the piece concludes (until this point,

the entire poem was about the General) may see the path to awakening through suffering

is hers to bear, and this could be interpreted as the theme of the piece. The word

“dukkha” in the first truth refers to anything that is temporary, even that which is

precious and enjoyable. To free oneself from this suffering one must understand the

cause, the thirst for external satisfactions. External satisfactions, as Buddha explains, will

always leave you remaining unsatisfied, since the thirst for more is always present. The

98 Bodhi, Bhikkhu. The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering. Onalaska: BPS Pariyatti

Editions, 2000. 99 Ibid.


56

ending to suffering is to walk the path toward enlightenment through the Eightfold

Path.100

This method of interpretation does come with some issues: interpreting dynamics,

the direction of the musical lines, where each theme begins and ends, restatements of

prior themes, and overall technical issues with the saxophone and what fingerings would

be most effective. To remedy some of these issues, three main performance practices are

emphasized: calmness, delicacy and restraint. An additional element is subtlety.

Subtlety with modern performance practices can be very effective as it can add a level of

mystery for the audience.

It is helpful to also recall the komusō rōnin. Though they were not a direct part of

this interpretation, the historical contexts regarding who they were carry additional

influence. That they were pilgrims, eventually used as spies, can lead to a conclusion that

their methods of performance were subtle; thus, adding an additional performance

practice, secrecy. By combining these elements: calmness, delicacy, restraint, subtlety,

and secrecy, an overarching method of transmitting the music from the performer to the

audience can be found.

When performing Mai, envisioning a samurai can be augmented with the various

secondary and tertiary aspects given. This means any interpretation can go deeper than

the generalized context. The Zen aspect of mist and water, the Buddhist noble truth of

suffering and the Eightfold Path, and the text within the poem can have a much deeper

influence on both the performer and the audience and their appreciation for the piece as a

musical work of art.

100 Bodhi, Bhikkhu. The Noble Eightfold Path: Way to the End of Suffering. Onalaska: BPS Pariyatti

Editions, 2000.


57

Phoenix

The Zen of Buddhism and Dharma in Mai provides myriad possibilities for

avenues of approach within Ryo Noda’s catalog. The use of theater and drama augment

these avenues, with added possibilities of interpretive approach. We have explored areas

of theater and drama, Zen Buddhism, the history of the komosō and komusō rōnin, and

the performance elements each provide: subtlety, secrecy, calmness, delicacy, and

restraint. Phoenix (1983) can also be interpreted as a part of the honkyoku repertoire,

using elements of Zen, Dharma, and also including theater and drama.

Returning to the historical performance aspects presented in Mai, we can use each

of these performance elements for Phoenix. By analyzing how they were used in both

Mai and the Improvisations, we can find which would likely give the most musical effect

for Phoenix. If the saxophonist uses the legend of the Phoenix as his or her primary

interpretive approach, the imagery would place it with elements drama and storytelling

(making it align more closely with the Improvisations). This does not exclude using the

komusō pilgrims or the komosō beggar priests as influences. Rather, using the rōnin

interpretation (beggars, pilgrims, spies, and secrecy) can complement the more direct

methods used.

Each of the modern performance aspects used to emulate the historical

performances can provide very effective additions to any works within this catalog.

Regardless of whether the approach is theatrical or Zen, historical or modern, shakuhachi

or saxophone, the aspects of calmness, delicacy, and restraint, as they were emphasized

in Mai, can particularly add dimension to the performance of Phoenix.


58

There is a poem accompanying Phoenix that is to be read to the audience. Unlike

Mai, and “Battle of the Sea,” this poem is part of the performance. In Mai, it was

suggested the saxophonist use the text symbolically, a reference to the General’s vision of

the reflections on the water, or something representative to the Noble Eightfold Path.

The interpretive approach for Mai was spiritual, containing sacred aspects of Zen and

Dharma. Phoenix, by contrast, can be interpreted as symbolic of the legend of the

Phoenix itself and, as the poem is to be read out loud, more theatrical. The approach can

remain close to the legend itself, free from sacred contexts, having inspirations derived

from its tale.

The Phoenix's journey is endless.

There is new life in the place where time and space do not exist.

If one encounters that place, he sees eternal love

and will be reborn in 500 years.

The Phoenix's flight is never-ending.

This poem tells a story which can be used for interpretive guidelines. The story of

the Phoenix and how they live until old age, burst into flames, and rise from their ashes

has been told for centuries, with some scholarly discourse pinpointing its origins to

ancient Egypt.101 Its legend has also been used in various writings in religious contexts,

such as Christian and Jewish symbols of long life.102 By using the legend of the Phoenix,

we can begin by looking at two areas of the piece: the opening and ending:

101 Van der Broek, R. The Myth of the Phoenix According to Classical and Early Christian Traditions. E.J.

Brill Publication. 1972. 14-25. 102 Ibid.


59

Figure 3.18 – Phoenix Excerpt of the Opening Section

Figure 3.18 represents the opening of Phoenix. This indicates its birth, and the

musical journey it will take. The next example shows how the piece closes:

Figure 3.19 – Phoenix Excerpt of the Closing Excerpt

The closing material is identical to the opening. The similarity between the

opening and closing excerpts is intentional; birth and rebirth. This technique is

commonly used in the arts and is known as a framing devise, where the same element is

used at the beginning and end of a work. This is appropriate for Phoenix, considering the

context of its legend. The performer can also look at the opening and closing stanzas of

the poem for a further contextual guide: The Phoenix's journey is endless and The

Phoenix's flight is never-ending.

The ending of the poem, a sense of renewal, is identical with the introduction.

Though identical, the aspect of “rebirth” gives the performer a chance to reimagine the

opening as it was played, a very theatrical interpretation. By beginning with an

acknowledgement of the outer sections, there is now a framework in which to approach

the remaining areas.


60

Figure 3.20 – Phoenix Excerpt 1

This excerpt is used as a general representation of the composition. It shows four

distinct compositional elements used throughout the piece. The first are the

ornamentations added to color the melodic motifs. The second are the motifs themselves,

the musical gestures using sustained tones paired with dotted 16th and 32nd note rhythms.

The third element is the long tones with fermatas, and the fourth is the space between

each. Using these compositional elements, we can find a path toward the interpretive

approach. By using the honkyoku as products of revelation, the saxophonist can free his

or herself from the constraints of a note-by-note analysis, exploring deeper levels of

musical thought.

Figure 3.20 provides a visualization of the next portion of the poem; There is new

life in the place where time and space do not exist. Returning to the aspect of the

shakuhachi as an instrument of Dharma, as identified by Riley Kelly Lee, we have the

five elements representing each tone hole: earth, air, fire, water, and space. By

visualizing the flight of the Phoenix for a theatrical representation, we can use the

element space as a Zen representation.103 After reading the piece from a technical point

103 Though others such as air and fire may also be used, space is the Zen element used for the purpose of

this analysis.


61

of view, the saxophonist may then visualize the amount of space he or she could use

based on the written motifs and tempo.104 Visualizing the amount of motion and silence

through the Zen element space can also be meditative, giving the performance more

freedom, and allowing the melodies and the embellishing gestures that accompany them

to musically grow.

The Zen element space, in the literal sense of “space” can be used in various areas

where the musical lines deviate from the gestures of figure 3.20.


This section follows the same musical structure of figure 3.20, with subtle

deviations including extending the ornamentations, and including the glissandi runs as a

separate component of the musical line. This is the gradual unfolding of the piece

through extending prior material. Ryo Noda seems to be expanding the work through a

reversal of rhythmic activity by elongating the held tones and extending the glissandi

runs. This is interrupted briefly with uses of agitation in the rhythmic activity before a

return to the long tones by the closing of the piece:

104 Refer back to the section Bridging the Gap between Ancient and Modern Music, pages 26-28, for a

review of the technical vs interpretive approach.


62


By applying the interpretive elements of drama and storytelling, this can be

viewed as a method of giving a musical timeline of the life of the Phoenix from its birth

to rebirth. Adding the Zen element of space throughout, the saxophonist can expand this

story and determine what areas of this life he or she choose to emphasize. The entire

piece (the only exception being the final sustained note before the rebirth) is written in a

mezzo piano dynamic, leaving no additional musical instructions for dynamics. The

freedom of space gives the performer a chance to imagine the flight of the Phoenix as he

or she chooses while determining what part of its musical life is most significant to him

or her: If one encounters that place, he sees eternal love and will be reborn in 500 years.

An argument can be made for avoiding a visualization of the element space based

on the text, [...the place where time and space do not exist], but the saxophonist need not

read this as a literal point of view. Rather, it can serve as a metaphor. By thinking of the

flight of the Phoenix (a bird in flight, resting occasionally, and again in flight until its

death and rebirth) we use the Zen element of space to give a more relaxed approach to

the pacing, adding to the theatrical aspect of ancient shakuhachi playing.

Despite using the Zen element of space, and having associated Phoenix with the

honkyoku repertoire, this work can be a hybrid of the theatrical and the Zen, similar to


63

the interpretation of Improvisation III. The formula of this interpretive analysis has been

to use compositions to explain how we can apply the theatrical directly (Improvisation

II), how we can apply the theatrical and add some elements of Zen (Improvisation III), to

use Zen as a guide (Mai), and how all interpretive aspects can be combined (Phoenix).

Saxophonists can use each, and there are no constraints or boundaries to determine which

is most appropriate or correct. Each method described presents possibilities and

suggestions serving a single purpose; that a piece of music is more than notes on a page.

It is a gateway to self-expression.


64

Requiem

Requiem (1989) is one of the more difficult works in Ryo Noda’s catalog to

approach. Reasons for this include the use of multiphonics throughout, giving little

discernable areas for thematic interpretation. Requiem also confuses earlier

representations of shakuhachi influence. Without the melodic and thematic lines using

the historical aspects of shakuhachi playing (yuri, meri, furi), Requiem can be placed into

a category separate from those associated with the honkyoku, perhaps even being a fully

modern composition, free from historical influence. However, before choosing this

approach, the saxophonist could explore alternative ideas. He or she may use the title

and its significance in musical contexts.

A requiem in music was originally set to monophonic chant in liturgical settings,

such as a mass. As the expansion of polyphonic text settings began to occur, so did the

expansion of the requiem into its own musical classification (similar to the overture of the

opera becoming the symphony in the Classical era). This led to some of the more famous

requiem settings in the western canon, such as W.A. Mozart’s Requiem, Johannes

Brahms’ German Requiem, and Benjamin Britton’s War Requiem.

The most direct information about a requiem is from the text itself. This text

provides guidelines used within this analysis as a way to contextually move the piece

forward from an interpretive approach. Both Mai and Phoenix have poems included by

Ryo Noda. Though no such poem is provided in Requiem, the saxophonist can use the

text from the Liber Usualis in the same method. The requiem in music is an homage to

the dead. The original Latin text from the Gregorian Introit reads:


65

Original Latin text

Requiem aeternam dona eis, Domine,

Et lux perpetua luceat eis.

Te decet hymnus Deus, in Sion,

et tibi reddetur votum in Ierusalem.

Exaudi orationem meam;

ad te omnis caro veniet.

Requiem æternam dona eis, Domine,

et lux perpetua luceat eis.

English translations

Grant them eternal rest, O Lord,

and let perpetual light shine upon them.

A hymn becomes you, O God, in Zion,

and to you shall a vow be repaid in

Jerusalem.

Hear my prayer;

to you shall all flesh come.

Eternal rest grant unto them, O Lord,

and let perpetual light shine upon them.

The opening text from the Liber Usualis, “Grant them eternal rest, O Lord, and

let perpetual light shine upon them,” may be used to influence the performance of Ryo

Noda’s Requiem. This influence would be indirect, as Requiem is not a liturgical work.

It is a dramatic work that pays homage to a specific person. The word “requiem” means

an act of token or remembrance. Throughout Noda’s compositional career, he dedicates

many of his works to persons of significant influence on his life. Improvisations I-III

were dedicated to Jean-Marie Londeix, his mentor at the National Conservatory of

Bordeaux. Mai has the dedication a ma femme, translating to “for my wife.” The

dedication of Requiem is to a Japanese composer named Yoshiro Irino.

Requiem and Yoshiro Irino

Yoshiro Irino was a composer who was born in Vladivostok, U.S.S.R in 1921,

and would become one of the pioneering Japanese composers of the 20th century. Along

with many other composers of the post 1945 avant-garde era, Irino used 12-tone methods

of composition similar to Arnold Schoenberg and the 2nd Viennese School.

Japanese identities in musical composition during this time were, as noted in an

essay on the Crisis in Asian Music, “experiencing the greatest cultural schizophrenia of


66

all.”105 Irino said, “I use the European method of construction, but my methods are

purely Japanese.” An example of this is in his composition Globus II, which used

adaptations of serial techniques with microtonal intervals of the Japanese hichiriki.

Attempts to reconcile compositional techniques within an idiom for which they

were never intended or designed gives possible explanation for why this composer may

have been a large influence on Ryo Noda’s own life and works. Using German serialism

in connection with Japanese traditional music likely presented an array of challenges,

particularly with how to reconcile the western art form with the eastern. Noda’s own

compositions began incorporating other cultural aspects, particularly French, in his later

career (Pavane, La Nuit du Dinant). Yoshiro Irino died in 1980, and Noda dedicated this

work to him nine years later.

It is difficult to place this piece in the context of the hybrid works of the

shakuhachi, considering the music itself. Without the melodic material similar to that

used in works such as Improvisation II and III, or the distinct thematic areas reminiscent

of Mai, there is little to use from a structural or technical basis. Requiem is a piece that

consists of sustained multiphonics throughout, with quarter tone notation at the closing.

This makes using the shakuhachi as an interpretive and aural representation unlikely.

However, this is because the Japanese instrument better suited for these interpretive

guidelines is the shō.

105 Somtow Sucharitkul Crisis in Asian Music: The Manila Conference 1975. Tempo. No. 117 (Jun., 1976),

pp. 18-22


67

The Shō

106

Figure 3.23 – The shō

The shō is an instrument native to China, tracing back before the Nara.107 In

Japanese traditional music it was a gagaku instrument which could produce tone clusters,

adding harmonic effects to the ensemble.108 The shō can be viewed as an organ,

producing one of several possible chords, or tone clusters. To gain a sense of the nature

of Noda’s Requiem, listen to examples of shō playing, as well as be familiar with its

various uses.109110 The Zen aspect is still possible to attain in Requiem even though the

long-standing history of the shō is in ensemble playing.

106 Image extracted from mimo-international.com. Musical Instruments Museum Online. 107 Sato, Naomi. "Sato-naomi.com." Sato-naomi.com. 108 Ibid. 109 For the purposes of an aural representation of the shō in saxophone playing, I chose Naomi Sato, whose

training in music includes saxophone studies, making the connection to this document further significant. 110 Sato, Naomi. "Naomi Sato Demonstrates the Sho." YouTube. July 23, 2010.


68

111

Figure 3.24 – Shō Player Performing Court Banquet Music in the T’ang Style

With the information about requiem in music, the significance of Yoshiro Irino,

and the influences already discussed in prior works by Ryo Noda, it is possible to gain an

understanding of Requiem and how to approach this composition from a technical and

interpretive point of view.

Figure 3.25 – Requiem Excerpt 1

Figure 3.25 is a close representation of the entire work. Throughout this piece,

Noda uses quiet multiphonics built off voicing the fundamental, giving the work a

seemingly dark quality. The title is accompanied by the phrase Shin-en, with some

translations including: deep, passion, profound, or unfathomable. This may give

111 Garfias, Robert. The Music of a Thousand Autumns: The Togaku Style of Japanese Court Music.

Berkeley: University of California Press, 1975.


69

credence to the dark approach. However, when referring back to the redefinition of

komosō as a transference of the meaning to the more other-worldly komusō, this may

provide an alternative approach.

As previously stated, the name komo means “straw mat,” but split into two

separate words, gives new definition: ko (emptiness) and mo (illusion). The same can be

done with Shinen; shin and en. Shin and En have separate meanings: Shin meaning truth,

or real; En meaning fate, or connection. This gives a redefinition to the prior translations.

Whereas the original approach could be that of a dark or ominous nature, this alternative

approach would be more meditative and spiritual, connecting the piece with the composer

and dedicatee (Ryo Noda and Yoshiro Irino), and the historical aspect of a requiem (an

act of token or remembrance; an homage for the dead).

By combining each aspect of this work: the title and its meaning, the instrument

used for aural guidelines, and the significance of the dedicatee, there is now a strong

foundation for a musical approach. Using Figure 3.26, the saxophonist can see a gradual

rise in the musical line. A full picture of a likely phrase, or thematic area can be seen

here.



70

The multiphonics written in this section show a gradual increase of the range.

There is a gradual rise before settling on the opening multiphonic to close the opening

stanza. This may be used as a theme of the piece. Throughout, the multiphonics rise and

fall, either by the range of each, or by their approach. Figure 3.27 shows a fragment of a

new section, also indicating both a rise and fall.


The “rise and fall” motif throughout Requiem may give the performer an avenue

of approach. The first excerpt shows the lowest pitch of the multiphonic being played

with a gradual rise to the upper pitches. The second shows the multiphonic played at its

center, with a rise and fall, eventually coming back to the center. This may indicate a

struggle, or possibly a conversation. When discussing Mai, the aspect of Zen Buddhism

and the Four Noble Truths were used to describe a philosophical approach:

To reiterate the Four Noble Truths of Buddhism from the section on Mai:

1. The truth of suffering (Dukkha)

2. The truth to the cause of suffering (Samudaya)

3. The end to suffering (Nirvana)

4. The truth of the path that frees us from suffering (Magga)

The approach for Mai was Dukkha, or the truth of suffering, using the story of the

samurai and the widow. For Requiem, a story could be inferred from the dedication; a

last conversation between Noda and Irino. The rise and fall within the multiphonics


71

throughout may illustrate a path to the end of suffering, and the truth of the path that frees

us from suffering (Nirvana and Magga); a farewell and acceptance of loss, freeing

ourselves from grief. The constant use of sustains of individual pitches from each

multiphonic, with a quiet approach to the full chord, returning to the original sustained

note gives the feeling of a dialogue, one that is balanced with pitches approaching the full

chord from the bottom, middle, and top of each. The aspect of freeing ourselves from

grief may give additional relevance to the original subtitle, Shinen, translating as deep, or

unfathomable. But it is the end of suffering (Nirvana) which is at last seen within the

ending, the multiphonics removed, and replaced with sustained individual notes and

quarter tones.


The individual pitches throughout this section are a single voice and are used

toward the conclusion of Requiem (the end of suffering). The interpretive approach may

be symbolic of the overall work, this being either Noda, or Irino’s farewell. As there no

longer is a pull toward multiple pitches, this voice is now a single communication,

complemented with an additional element, the inclusion of spoken word at the end.



72

The text, ‘Dites la date et le lieu du concert’ translates to English as “say the date

and the venue of the concert.” The use of this spoken word at the end could align with

the translations previously mentioned; Requiem: an homage for the dead, Shinen:

unfathomable, Shin: truth, and En: connection. This could be used by the performer to

connect with the audience, breaking the boundary between performer and observer, a

further connection to the symbolic dialogue approached.

Requiem ends on one final sustained tone, which is also the first tone used in the

piece. This refers back to the framing device used in Phoenix, and can be a final

connection to the aspect of the end of suffering.

Figure 3.30 – Requiem Ending

This last tone, sustained for an undetermined amount of time, with an

undetermined length of silence at the end is further symbolic to the text of the requiem:

Eternal rest grant unto them, O Lord, and let perpetual light shine upon them. This final

tone can be a last call or response to the final spoken word. It is a settling tone, giving

Requiem (an homage for the dead) a resolution to the struggle, Shinen (unfathomable), to

Shin (truth) and En (connection), the joining of two friends together.

Requiem poses a number of challenges for the performer. Considering the need

for the softest dynamics on challenging multiphonics, some technical suggestions may be

taken. First, the saxophonist could use a softer reed than he or she is accustomed to.


73

This will help each multiphonic speak more easily. Secondly, the saxophonist may spend

time voicing each fundamental and its overtones. This will assist the performer in

learning how each chord sounds. With fifteen different multiphonic chords as well as a

number of quarter tones, this will be time consuming; however, the end result will be

worth the effort. Finally, the saxophonist can map where each multiphonic is restated.

This will give a clearer direction for the piece. Following these suggestions, Requiem

could be one of the more rewarding pieces to perform in Ryo Noda’s catalog.


74

Postscript

Throughout this research, I have found several interpretive approaches to Ryo

Noda’s catalog. Among those approaches included are overviews of ancient Japanese

musical instruments and practices as well as a sketch of Ryo Noda’s musical lineage.

These both combine to give the saxophone student a means of influencing him or herself

in an interpretive and performance perspective. Having knowledge of the periodization

of ancient and modern-day Japan can cast new light on how one can play works such as

Improvisation or Mai. This complements the information on Ryo Noda’s musical lineage

as his influences can point to additional works and references as a guide (such as using

Hello! Mr. Sax as a reference for extended techniques).

Using historical accounts will provide interpretive measures and practical

performance practices, but the saxophone student may also focus on which historical

references to use and how to apply them. In this document, the specific areas of ancient

history included shakuhachi playing with that of the samurai rōnin – the komosō and

komusō – as well as brief accounts of ancient Japanese theater. By separating the two, a

distinction between two different approaches to Ryo Noda’s music were defined. By

outlining how the shakuhachi evolved over time, a line was established between its use in

theater and in Zen drawn over specific periods of history and between the two rōnin, the

mat monks and emptiness monks. By focusing on that distinction, it was possible to

categorize the works discussed from Noda’s catalog. This categorization aided in giving

additional dimension to the historical interpretive approach.

Historical insight and a more philosophical approach are not effective without

elements of performance practices. This is why the elements of subtlety and restraint


75

were frequently referenced with their complementing techniques of using palm/side keys

and subtones. By studying the history of ancient Japanese music while combining this

knowledge with Ryo Noda’s own vision, a process of emulation is attained. Regardless

of the aesthetic choice of hybrid vs emulation, there is a distinct quality within the writing

that points to ancient Japanese instruments as models for Noda’s compositional method.

The saxophonist may spend time listening to modern recordings of the shakuhachi and

shō as solo and chamber instruments to gain a sound reference. The approach given

within this analysis included my own preferences of side and palm keys in an effort to

change the saxophone’s timbre as well as provide a subtle and an airy tone quality.

Finally, regarding the philosophical aspect of Zen and Buddhism, how does this

tie into the interpretive approach involving history? How will it aide the saxophonist

with performance practices? The answer is by using Buddhism as a supplemental

element for a much deeper interpretation. My suggestions included using the element

water as a focal point of Mai, complementing the possible interpretation of the piece

being about a samurai. Dr. Riley Kelly Lee even stated in his dissertation, quoting the

Lin-chi Lu, that the shakuhachi is “an instrument of dharma.” The purpose of including

philosophical elements in the historical and technical interpretations of Ryo Noda’s

catalog was to add an element saxophonists could use for an even more delicate

performances.

Additionally, Ryo Noda’s catalog of works are easy to “overplay.” The objective

is to create the duality of secrecy and subtlety (History: rōnin/wandering minstrels), and

restraint (Philosophy: Buddhism) and apply both to the works that can be interpreted as

theatrical or Zen-like in their writing.


76

I stress the phrase of how the works within Ryo Noda’s catalog can or could be

interpreted. The methods and suggestions given in this analysis are certainly not the only

approach that can or should be used. However, the element missing over the years as a

student of saxophone and as a performer of Ryo Noda’s literature was the limited

references of possibilities for an interpretive approach. While these works have been

performed for almost half a century, it is rare that I ever saw or heard a student explain

what he or she thought they were, or were playing. The four components discussed, the

interpretive components of history and philosophy, and the performance components of

balance and sound, combine to provide those possibilities and suggestions.


77

Annotated Bibliography

1 Asai, Susan. “Transformations of

Tradition: Three Generations of

Japanese American Music Making.”

The Musical Quarterly. 79, no. 3

(1995): 429-453.

A good reference on history of Japanese music, and its

impact in American Culture. Used to demonstrate the

change of Japanese music after the Meiji restoration.

2 Berger, Donald Paul. “The

Shakuhachi and the Kinko Ryū

Notation.” Asian Music. 1, no. 2

(1969): 32-72.

My topic focuses heavily on the notation of the

Shakuhachi as it existed from its creation in the Edo

Period to the modernization of the notation toward the end

of the Meiji Period. This article is a survey of the notation

systems used, as well as fingerings. This is a helpful

article as it not only has the history of the instrument, but

also the symbols used as step-by-step instructions on how

to interpret the older notation systems within the Kinko-

Ryū systems.

3 Bodhi, Bhikkhu. The Noble

Eightfold Path: Way to the End of

Suffering. Onalaska: BPS Pariyatti

Editions, 2000.

A guide to Buddhism and the noble eightfold path to the

end of suffering. Serves as a basic guide to Buddhism. Is

helpful to know basics of the religion to gain more

perspective on how the instrument serves as a Buddhist

tool.

4 Bunte, James. A player’s guide to the

music of Ryo Noda: Performance

preparation of “Improvisation I” and

“Mai”. PhD diss., University of

Cincinnatti, 2010.

James Bunte’s dissertation gives another performance

analysis of Ryo Noda’s works. Ryo Noda is the primary

composer that I have associated with shakuhachi. This

will allow for a source on how to interpret the music of

Ryo Noda, and is cross-referenced with other dissertations

and writings in the same field.

5 Delangle, Claude, and Jean-Denis

Michat. The Contemporary

Saxophone. The Cambridge

Companion to the Saxophone. Edited

by Richard Ingham. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1998.

This article in the Cambridge Companion outlines the

beginnings of the contemporary music written for

saxophone. It also provides an introduction to Ryo Noda,

the Japanese composer who introduced the saxophone

literature to shakuhachi techniques in the contemporary

style. The focus of this section will be on contemporary

literature as it applies to the saxophone and how the

notation changed for our instrument. It provides an

interesting parallel to the changes of the shakuhachi, and

how it changed during the Meiji Restoration.

6 Eishi, Kikkawa. Hogaku Kansho.

Tokyo: Hobun-kan, 1952.

This is a book on Japanese music. It serves as a beginning

method to understanding and appreciation. The title itself

translates to “The Appreciation of Japanese Music.”

Citation from William P. Malm’s “Japanese Music and

Musical Instruments.”

7 Enzan, Kamitsuki. Shakuhachi

Seisaku-ho Taizen. Tokyo: Takeda

Toshado, 1933.

This was used directly from writings in Japanese Music

and Musical Instruments. According to William P Malm,

it is the only book on Japanese instrument construction. It

deals only with the shakuhachi. Therefore, this is good

book for the organology of the shakuhachi.


78

8 Goldron, Romain. Ancient and

Oriental Music. Westport: H. S.

Stuttman Co., Inc, 1968.

This book gives a good history on the music of ancient

Japan, and is organized clearly so that is serves as a

summary of more complex writings. Additionally,

Goldron speaks of the Shakuhachi in a way that allows me

to clearly see how it was played with regard to the

settings. Also, it gives a periodization of the music of

ancient Japan (Legend, Classical, Feudal, Westernization).

This gives me a better way to organize the periodization I

spoke of in my presentation.

9 Gutzwiller, Andreas. Shakuhachi:

Aspects of History, Practice and

Teaching. PhD diss., Wesleyan

University, 1974.

This is a document dealing with each aspect of the

shakuhachi that I am focusing on for the first half of my

topic. Therefore, it serves as an academic document that

will serve as a model for formatting and presenting the

first part of my topic, the history of the shakuhachi. In

addition, it is the perfect resource to condense all other

readings on the history of Japan and the shakuhachi.

10 Hanafusa, Chiaki. The Influence of

Japanese Composers on the

development of the repertoire for the

saxophone and the significance of the

“Fuzzy Bird Sonata” by Takashi

Yoshimatsu. PhD diss., University of

North Texas, 2010.

This dissertation explores the influence of Japanese

composers on modern music. While my topic is more

focused on the actual instrument and its influence on the

composers, this serves as a good case study for my topic.

Also, it is good that this dissertation specifically focuses

on saxophone music. My topic and this document

complement each other without having the same exact

themes.

11 Hall, Bonlyn G. “The American

Education of Luther Whiting

Mason.” American Music. 6, no. 1

(1988): 65-73.

One of the major points brought up in another article I

used spoke about the westernization of Japan during the

Meiji Period. This included bringing in western notation

styles which had not yet been used in Japan. The educator

mentioned was Luther Whiting Mason, who was credited

as being a major contributor to bringing this style of

composition to Japan. I felt it would be good to have an

article that spoke about him in more detail to effectively

answer questions should they be brought up during the

discussion.

12 Hiroshi, Kurihara. Shakuhachi shiko.

Tokyo: Kawase Junsuke, 1920.

This book serves as a general history of the shakuhachi. It

is cited many times in the texts of William P. Malm.

Therefore, it is included here as a general reference.

13 Hughes, David W. Traditional Folk

Songs in Modern Japan: Sources,

Sentiment and Society. Folkestone:

Global Oriental, 2008.

This book explores folk songs in modern day Japan. It is a

good balance to the sources I have which deal with folk

song in ancient Japan. Traditional folk song in modern

Japan is a part of my research. How do we as today’s

performers approach this music of this culture? I hope to

answer these questions with Hughes’ writings.

14 Inzan, Tanaka. Gosenfu kara

shakuhachifu no torikata. Tokyo:

Ongaku no Tomosha, 1956.

This is a notation reference. It describes how to transcribe

shakuhachi notation into western notation. This source

was taken from readings in the Malm book.


79

15 Keister, Jay. “The Shakuhachi as a

Spiritual Tool: A Japanese Buddhist

Instrument in the West.” Asian

Music. 35, no. 2 (2004): 99-131.

Since my topic deals mostly with notation systems for the

shakuhachi, their modernization out of the Meiji

Restoration and how to transcend the traditional styles of

performances to an instrument scored to “adapt” to its

style, I wanted to get a perspective on western practices.

This article answers the question concerning western

practice of product versus the traditional Japanese practice

toward the process. This article helps provide me with the

argument that performance practice of shakuhachi

techniques on saxophone should (at least to a degree) be

geared toward a process rather than polished product. It

acts as documentation toward the argument that the music

written for saxophone can indeed be performed with a

modest respect to the traditional Zen style.

16 Kientzy, Daniel. Les Sons Multiples

Aux Saxophones. Paris: Salabert

Editions, 2003.

The music written for saxophone to emulate the

shakuhachi requires extensive use of multiphonics. To

provide a more useful guide to performance in the latter

half of this project, it is necessary to have a reference

guide to all multiphonic fingerings and their alternates for

each instrument in the saxophone family. This reference

serves as a guide for saxophone techniques as they will

apply to shakuhachi practices.

17 Kyoshi, Kozan. Meian Suishoho

Kikai. Tokyo: Oya Shobo, 1930.

For historical purposes, this text was used from writings in

William Malm’s “Japanese Music and Musical

Instruments. This is a history of the shakuhachi and the

Meian ryū school. Therefore, it is a history of the oldest

ryū in the history of shakuhachi.

18 Lee, Riley Kelly. “Fu Ho U vs. Do

Re Mi: The Technology of Notation

Systems and Implications of Change

in the Shakuhachi Tradition of

Japan.” Asian Music. 19, no. 2

(1988): 71-81.

This article describes the differences in notation systems

between the different ryū, and explains their exclusivity.

Additionally, there are lengthy sections describing the

changes in notation from westernized staff notation which

came into Japan during the Meiji Restoration. The article

therefore serves as a good resource for how the changes

were implemented and received. Therefore, this article

serves more as a historical resource rather than as strictly

musically relevant.

19 Lee, Riley Kelly. Yearning For the

Bell; a study of transmission in the

shakuhachi honkyoku tradition. PhD

diss., University of Sydney, 1992.

Riley Lee is a primary figure in American shakuhachi

playing. His dissertation is a great resource for the study

of the shakuhachi.

20 Lependorf, Jeffery. “Notation for the

Shakuhachi: A Primer for

Composers.” Perspectives of New

Music. 27, no. 2 (1989): 232-251.

This article was chosen because it shows how to notate

traditional practices in modern notation. After examining

these notation symbols, it is apparent that Ryo Noda did in

fact model his notation after these practices, rather than

developing his own. The musical examples also give the

terms associated with them as well as method of delivery,

allowing for a more informed path toward interpretation

on the saxophone. Visual examples were the main focus

for me in this article.


80

21 Liley, Thomas. The Repertoire

Heritage. The Cambridge

Companion to the Saxophone. Edited

by Richard Ingham. Cambridge:

Cambridge University Press, 1998.

The history of the saxophone repertoire began around the

same time as the Meiji restoration. There is a cross-over

with the modernization of Japanese music, and the

beginnings of saxophone repertoire. This provides a very

interesting cross current with musical boundaries being

bridged in the later years of the 20th Century. This

reference serves as the beginnings of the saxophone

literature, and how it developed over the decades

preceding the works written for the instrument by

Japanese composers.

22 Londiex, Jean-Marie. Hello! Mr.

Sax. Paris: Alphonse Leduc, 1989.

This book is considered by some saxophonists including

its English editor William Street to be the quintessential

guide to contemporary techniques for the saxophone. This

will provide the groundwork for interpretation of

contemporary notation. It also provides historical

background for when these notation styles first appeared.

23 Malm, William P. Japanese Music

and Musical Instruments. Charles

E. Tuttle Co: Rutland, 1959.

Malm is a forerunner of the ethnological research into

Japanese music. It is therefore that I included him as a

major resource into my project. This specific text not only

gives time charts of the history of the music of Japan, but

also demonstrates the important fact that each ryū had

their own specific notation systems. It illustrates those

differences clearly in a way as to see how each school

developed their own honkyoku style. In addition, this

book specifically is crucial to nearly a third of the depth of

my research.

24 ______________. Music Cultures of

the Pacific, the Near East, and Asia.

Englewood Cliffs: Prentice Hall, Inc.,

1967.

No other source was used as much as William Malm. I

found this additional source in the dissertation of William

Schmidt. It serves as an encompassing vantage of all

eastern music culture. It helps me to find more

perspective of orientalism of music.

25 ______________. Six Hidden Views

of Japanese Music. University of

California Press: Berkeley, 1986.

This source was quoted a lot in various articles so I

included it originally as a supplement to research.

However, I later found it was this resource that said

straight forward that “Japanese music is taught as a sonic,

not graphic event.” This allows me to further my study

into the paleography of notation since I have repeatedly

stressed that Japanese music with regard to shakuhachi

playing is a process oriented system, rather than product

oriented.

26 Matsuo, Kenji. A History of Japanese

Buddhism. Folkestone: Global

Oriental, 2007.

Buddhism is an important part of shakuhachi and Japanese

music. Getting recourses on Buddhism itself seemed to be

an important part to be more informed of how to speak on

the subject.

27 May, Elizabeth. “The Influence of

the Meiji Period on Japanese

Children’s Music.” Journal of

Research in Music Education. 13, no.

2 (1965): 110-120.

This is a historical reference taken from the writings cited

from Riley Kelly Lee. It serves as another reference to see

the influence on western music in Japan.


81

28 Mayers, Dan E. “The Unique

Shakuhachi.” Early Music. No. 4

(1976): 467.

This is a brief snippet of the shakuhachi in an article. It

was the first resource I found. It is small, yet gave me a

jumping off point for terms I used to find more

appropriate resourcs.

29 Nitobe, Inazo. Music in Japan,

Western Influences in Modern Japan.

Chicago: University of Chicago

Press, 1931.

This is a summary of both traditional and Western-style

music in Japan. Used in a major portion of Malm’s texts.

This is a reference used to show western influences on

Japanese music.

30 Perez, Louis G. The History of

Japan. Westport: Greenwood Press,

1998.

This source is another that deals with the overall history of

Japan. I wanted to find as many as I could on this subject

to gain an insight on the early eras as well as periods such

as feudalism, and the dynasties which led to changes in

culture.

31 Piggott, Sir Francis. The Music and

Musical Instruments of Japan. New

York: Da Capo Press, 1971.

Historiography of music within Japanese culture is a

foremost part of the interpretational etiquette I am trying

to establish on modern instruments. Piggott wrote this as

an all-encompassing history of the music of Japan. I

included this for two reasons: the first is because

historiography is important for my research, and the other

is because Sachs himself cited Piggott a number of times

in his History of Musical Instruments (though not this

specific book). The organological side of this text

however, gives another description of the technical aspects

of the instrument, rather than its significance. Therefore,

this is strictly a resource on the history of Japanese music

as a whole.

32 Rinzo, Nakao. Tozan-ryū -shi.

Tokyo: Soke, 1932.

A history of the Tozan ryū. A reference on the

periodization and historiography of the shakuhachi,

specifically within this ryū. Reference taken from

writings in William P. Malm’s texts.

33 Sachs, Curt. The History of Musical

Instruments. New York: W. W.

Norton and Company, 1940.

As organology is a major component of this topic, picking

a resource by one of the most important organologists in

music was crucial to my research. While his entry for the

shakuhachi is quite limited as far as its significance, it

does give a good description of the mechanics involved.

This includes is construction, length, finger holes, and

how sound is made.

34 _________. The Rise of Music in

the Ancient World East and West.

New York: W. W. Norton and

Company, 1943.

The section Curt Sachs wrote on the music of East Asia is

specifically important for me as it describes notation

systems among other unique areas in the eastern world.

Sachs was also a prolific organologist and musicologist.

This makes any resource by him a crucial inclusion to this

research for the finding on the Shakuhachi. While his

writing on the subject specifically seems limited, his

writings on the music of the time in the culture help for a

better understanding of the cross-cultural findings in the

20th Century.


82

35 Sanford, James H. “Shakuhachi Zen:

The Fukeshu and Komusō.”

Monumenta Nipponica. 32, no. 4

(1977): 411-440.

The komusō were the first documented performers of the

shakuhachi during the Edo Period based on my research.

Articles dealing with notation and history of the

instrument only briefly touched on the komusō.

Therefore, it seemed to be important to find information

which would give more information about the komusō in

greater detail. The information provided would allow me

to be better informed about the history of this sect in case

questions came up during the presentation.

36 Sansom, George B. Japan: A short

cultural history. Revised edition.

New York: Appleton-Century-Crofts,

1962.

This is a resource used directly from Weisgarber’s article.

It is a historical reference. Good information on the

cultural history of Japan.

37 Schmid, William Roger.

Introduction to Tribal, Oriental, and

Folk Music: A Rational and Syllabus

for a New Course For

Undergraduate Music Education

Curricula. PhD Diss., University of

Rochester, Eastman School of Music,

1971.

While this is a dissertation that deals with a basic course

criteria for undergraduate studies, it is organized in a very

simple manner that allows me to focus all of my content

into a single unit. Essentially, each section is an outline

that is focused to give a basic understanding of the history

of each area written about. Specifically, the Japanese

section is outlined the exact same way my topic outline

will be done. Therefore, it serves as a perfect guide for

how to finish this project.

38 Sunaga, Katsumi. Japanese Music.

Maruzen Company LTD: Tokyo,

1936.

While this resource is small, it indeed reflects the views of

a musicologist who is closest than all others to the Meijian

Restoration. It is important to try to include research from

scholars who lived as close to the era before the

westernization of music in Japan as possible to get a first-

hand glimpse into the accounts of the traditional style.

Sungawa seems to have written this text for outsiders, or

tourists, who want to get a basic idea about Japanese

music and culture. It is therefore an abridged account of

all other texts on the history of Japanese music.

39 Tanabe, Hisao. Japanese Music.

Kokusai Bunka Shinkokai: Tokyo,

1959.

This resource gives an account into Buddhist music, as

well as other aspects of Japanese culture. Like the Sunaga

text, it seems to be written for the westerner who wants to

gain a basic knowledge of the music of Japan. The book

is filled with modern iconography (in the 2nd edition),

showing festival photos among other colorful photos

intended to catch the eye. Therefore, the resource here

allows for another basic view of the history and culture of

Japanese music to gain a ground work for heavier

research.

40 ____________. Nihon no Ongaku.

Tokyo: Bunka Kenkyu-kai, 1954.

Hisao Tanabe is a great scholar on the history of Japanese

music. Many cited resources are taken directly from his

writings. This is another on Japanese music.


83

41 ____________. Edo Jidai no

Ongaku. Tokyo: Bunkyo Shoin,

1928.

This is a resource on Japanese music in the Edo period.

This shows how music evolved with notation systems.

Again, many citations in the books and articles are from

Tanabe, specifically this one is from the Wesigarber

article.

42 Tanaka Gi-ichi. Gendai Sankyoku

Tembo. Osaka: Mae-gawa Shuppan-

sha, 1964.

This is a view of the present day sankyoku. It is a book

cited out of the Weisgarber article. It is a useful source in

seeing the attitude and approach to modern shaku playing.

43 Tann, Hilary. “Coming to Terms:

(Futaiken) Reibo.” Perspectives of

New Music. 27, no. 2 (1989): 52-76.

This article not only gives detailed descriptions and

definitions of terms I have come across in my research for

the shakuhachi, but it also outlines a notation system for a

ryū other than the Kinko, the Meian. Since in my research

I found that different ryū had their own systems of

notation, it is helpful to get a cross-examination of the

different notation systems. This article includes facsimiles

of the Meian ryū honkyoku, as well as modernized

notation.

44 Totman, Conrad. A History of Japan.

Oxford: Blackwell Publishers, 2000.

I wanted to get resources on the history of Japan to get

more knowledge of the periods. Additionally, there is

information regarding the different aspects of Japanese

history, such as feudalism that is important to my topic.

Musical history is not the only part of my topic, the

overall history of Japan serves a vital importance as well.

45 Various, “The History of the

Kyotaku,” Asian music. 8, no. 2

(1977): 47-63.

This is a historical article on the kyusaku, or the fkue

shakuhachi. Therefore, it is another reference in the

organology of the shakuhachi.

46 Weisgarber, Eliott. “The Honkyoku

of the Kinko ryū: Some Principles of

Its Organization.” Ethnomusicology.

12, no. 3 (1968): 313-344.

This article provides facsimile examples of the Kinko ryū

notation. This is a crucial portion of my research as I want

to show how the notations systems of the shakuhachi

worked. In addition, the article also provides information

about the Kinko ryū in detail, whereas other articles

dealing with all of the shakuhachi history only touch on

the subject. It is important to point out that each ryū had

their own systems of notation. History of this instrument

is the primary component of this research, as it provides

an in depth account of how modern musicians can

interpret today’s works.

47 Wellesz, Egon. Ancient and Oriental

Music. London: Oxford University

Press, 1957.

This resource was used in William Schmidt’s dissertation.

I included it since it is one of his citations on information I

used. Additionally, this resource adds to the numerous

others on the overall music of the ancient orient, including

Japan.

48 Wen, Andy. “Improvisation I’’ and

“Pulse 72 –‘’ by Ryo Noda: An

analytical and interpretive study.

PhD diss., University of Georgia,

1995.

Professor Wen’s dissertation focuses on two pieces

dealing with the composer that I have chosen as my

overall case study for the shakuhachi influences on

modern saxophone music. While his document focuses on

only two works in his catalogue, this document includes

interviews by the composer, giving my primary source

information. Additionally, as a performance analysis, it is

a good starting point for my own analysis.


84

49 Wiant, Bliss. The Music of China.

Hong Kong: Chung Chi Publications,

The Chinese University of Hong

Kong, 1965.

The shakuhachi had its origins in China. Japan owes

much of its culture to China as much of it migrated to

Japan after being first discovered in this country.

Therefore, I wanted to include a source to have

information on the origins of Chinese music as a

foundation for Japanese culture.


Appendices

Appendix A


Appendix B


Appendix C


Appendix D


Appendix E


Appendix F

Copyright 2015, Michael Christensen

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