Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin CHAPTER 5 Motor Behavior.

1

Copyright © 2012 by The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.McGraw-Hill/Irwin

CHAPTER 5

Motor Behavior

2

Goals of Motor Behavior

Understand how motor skills are learned

Understand how motor skills are controlled

Understand how learning and control of motor skills changes across the lifespan

Thomas and Thomas

3

Definitions

Motor Learning –acquisition of motor skills as a result of practice and experience

Motor Control –neurophysiological and behavioral processes affecting the control of skilled movements

Motor Development –origins of and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan

4

Learning

Relatively permanent change in behavior or performance as a result of instruction, experiences, study, and/or practice.

Inferred from changes in performance.

Motor behavior is concerned with the learning or acquisition of skills across the lifespan. Motor learning Motor control Motor development

5

Motor Learning and Motor Control

6

Historical Development

Early Period (1880-1940) Research focused on how the mind worked, not

the production of skills. Thorndike: Law of Effect

When responses were rewarded, the behavior was strengthened.

Middle Period (1940-1970) Craik focused research on how the brain

processes and uses information to determine the motor response.

Henry - “Memory drum theory” (role of cognitive activity in motor learning)

7

Historical Development

Present Period (1970-present) Emergence of motor learning and motor control

within physical education programs. Closed Loop theory (Adams) Schema theory (Schmidt) Dynamical Systems theory (Kelso)

8

Sample Research Questions

How does the type and frequency of feedback impact skill acquisition?

How does the structure of practice influence the retention of skills?

What can be done to facilitate the transfer of previous learning to the learning of new skills?

How does the aging process affect motor control?

How do differences in individuals’ learning styles influence their ability to learn motor skills?

9

Information-Processing Model

InputDecision-Making

Output

Feedback

10

Dynamical-System Theory

Human Movement

Human Movement

11

Stages of Learning

Cognitive Stage Understanding of the nature and goal of the

activity Initial attempts at the skill - gross errors

Associative Stage Practice on mastering the timing of the skill Fewer and more consistent errors

Autonomous Stage Well coordinated and appears effortless Few errors “Automatic” performance allows attention to be

directed to other aspects of skill performance

12

Open vs Closed Skills

Closed SkillsStable, predictable; self-paced

Diving 2 ½ somersaultBowlingDriving golf ball off a tee

Open SkillsVariable, unpredictable; externally-paced

Hitting tennis forehand in a matchDefending a player during a soccer gameOffensive play during rugby game

13

Factors Influencing Learning

Readiness Physiological and psychological factors influencing an

individual’s ability and willingness to learn.

Motivation A condition within an individual that initiates activity directed

toward a goal. Concern with initiation, maintenance, and intensity of behavior.

Reinforcement Using events, actions, and behaviors to increase the

likelihood of a certain response recurring. May be positive or negative.

Individual differences Backgrounds, abilities, intelligence, learning styles, and

personalities of learners.

14

Motor Learning Concepts

Structure practice sessions to promote optimal conditions for learning.

Help learners understand the skill or task. Design practice according to the skill or task

to be learned. Whether to teach by the whole or the part

method depends on the skill and the learner. Whether speed or accuracy is emphasized in

teaching a skill depends on the requirements of the skill.

15

Motor Learning Concepts

Transfer of learning can facilitate the acquisition of motor skills.

Feedback is essential for learning. Knowledge of results (KR) Knowledge of performance (KP)

Learners may experience plateaus in learning.

Develop self-analysis. Leadership influences the amount of

learning.

16

Motor Development

17

Motor Development

Study of the origins and changes in movement behavior throughout the lifespan.

Biological and environmental influences on motor behavior from infancy to old age.

Influence of psychological, sociological, cognitive, biological, and mechanical factors on motor behavior.

Rate and sequence of development.

18

Historical Development

Maturational Period (1928-1946) Research on the underlying biological processes guiding

maturation. Focus on rate and sequences of motor development from infancy

in terms of acquisition of rudimentary and mature movements.

Normative/Descriptive Period (1946-1970s) Description of the motor performances of children. Research on how growth and maturation affect performance and

the impact of perceptual-motor development.

Process-Oriented Period (1980s-present) Research on how cognitive factors influence motor skill

acquisition and motor development based on dynamical systems theory.

19

Sample Research Questions

How does socioeconomic status affect the development of motor skills?

How does early sensory stimulation affect the development of motor skills?

What are the changes in motor skill development experienced across the lifespan?

What are the developmental stages individuals go through as they acquire fundamental skills?

What are the heredity and environmental factors most significantly associated with obesity?

At what age can children safely engage in resistance training?

20

Phases of Development

Early reflexive & rudimentary movement phases Hereditary is the primary factor for development.

Sequential progression of development but individuals’ rates of development will differ.

Fundamental movement phase Skill acquisition based on encouragement,

instruction, and opportunities for practice.

Specialized movement phase Skill refinement

Hereditary and environmental factors influence the rate of the aging process.

21

Fundamental Motor Skills

Fundamental motor skills are the foundation for development of more complex and specialized motor skills used in games, sports, dance, and fitness activities.

Classification: Locomotor Nonlocomotor Manipulative

22

Fundamental Motor Skills

Locomotor Examples: walking, running, jumping, hopping,

leaping, sliding, skipping, galloping, dodging

Nonlocomotor Examples: bending, stretching, pushing, pulling,

twisting, turning, swinging

Manipulative Examples: throwing, catching, striking, kicking,

dribbling, volleying

23

Fundamental Motor Skills

Rate of progress in developing these skills varies with each individual.

Several fundamental motor skills can be combined to create a specialized movement necessary in an activity.

Lack of development of fundamental skills may hinder future participation in activities.

24

Acquisition of Fundamental Skills

Initial Stage (~ age 2) Poor spatial and temporal integration of skill movements. Improper sequencing of the parts of the skill Poor rhythm, difficulties in coordination

Elementary Stage (~ age 3 & 4) Greater control and rhythmical coordination Temporal and spatial elements are better synchronized. Movements are still restricted, exaggerated, or

inconsistent.

Mature Stage (~age 5 or 6) Increased efficiency, enhanced coordination, and improved

control of movements. Greater force production