Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 Adolescence 9th edition By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D. Chapter Six: Schools Insert.

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved.

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AdolescenceAdolescence9th edition9th edition

By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D.By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D.

Chapter Six:Chapter Six:

SchoolsSchools

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Chapter 6 OverviewChapter 6 Overview

• The context of secondary education in AmericaThe context of secondary education in America– What should schools teach? What should schools teach? – What are the problems specific to inner-city schools?What are the problems specific to inner-city schools?

• The social organization of schoolsThe social organization of schools– Which is more important: school size or class size?Which is more important: school size or class size?– Should students be put in special tracks?Should students be put in special tracks?

• Why does the climate of the classroom matter?Why does the climate of the classroom matter?• Beyond high school: college and non-college-bound Beyond high school: college and non-college-bound

studentsstudents• What are the main characteristics of a good school?What are the main characteristics of a good school?


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Secondary EducationSecondary Education• Middle schools, junior Middle schools, junior

highs, and high schools highs, and high schools are all forms of are all forms of secondary educationsecondary education

• The proportion of the The proportion of the 14- to 17-year-old 14- to 17-year-old population enrolled in population enrolled in school increased school increased dramatically between dramatically between 1910 and 19401910 and 1940

• Today, nearly 95% of Today, nearly 95% of individuals this age are individuals this age are in schoolin school


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Origins of Origins of Compulsory Compulsory Education in Education in

AmericaAmerica

• IndustrializationIndustrialization– Greater need for skilled Greater need for skilled

and reliable (adult) and reliable (adult) workersworkers

– Many jobs required Many jobs required strength beyond the strength beyond the capacity of many youthcapacity of many youth

• Urbanization and Urbanization and ImmigrationImmigration– Rapid population growth Rapid population growth

led to overcrowding, led to overcrowding, slums, crimeslums, crime

– Compulsory secondary Compulsory secondary education was a means of education was a means of social control, to improve social control, to improve lives of poor and working lives of poor and working classesclasses


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The Rise of the The Rise of the Comprehensive High SchoolComprehensive High School

• Before secondary education was compulsory, high Before secondary education was compulsory, high schools were for the socioeconomic elite schools were for the socioeconomic elite

• By 1920s, educators called for curricular reform to By 1920s, educators called for curricular reform to match changes in social composition of schoolsmatch changes in social composition of schools– Focus on intellectual training Focus on intellectual training – New focus on preparing youth for life in modern society New focus on preparing youth for life in modern society

(roles of work and citizenship)(roles of work and citizenship)

• Comprehensive high schoolComprehensive high school– General education, college preparation, vocational General education, college preparation, vocational

education all housed under one roofeducation all housed under one roof


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School Reform: School Reform: What Should Schools Teach?What Should Schools Teach?

• History of curricular reform in American education has History of curricular reform in American education has been one of shifting between an emphasis on rigor been one of shifting between an emphasis on rigor and relevanceand relevance

• Rigor has ruled for the past three decadesRigor has ruled for the past three decades• Critics of American education have been calling for a Critics of American education have been calling for a

return to a curriculum that stresses the basics and that return to a curriculum that stresses the basics and that attempts to ensure that all students master themattempts to ensure that all students master them

• Return to basics has been accompanied by what is Return to basics has been accompanied by what is called standards-based reformcalled standards-based reform


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School Reform:School Reform:What Should Schools Teach?What Should Schools Teach?

• No Child Left Behind Act (2002)No Child Left Behind Act (2002)– Mandates that all states ensure that all students, Mandates that all states ensure that all students,

regardless of economic circumstances, achieve regardless of economic circumstances, achieve academic proficiency on standardized annual testsacademic proficiency on standardized annual tests

– Schools that repeatedly fail face losing funding, Schools that repeatedly fail face losing funding, being forced to closebeing forced to close

• Addresses problem of social promotionAddresses problem of social promotion• Advancing students regardless of their academic Advancing students regardless of their academic

competence or performancecompetence or performance• Introduces problem of teaching to the test for Introduces problem of teaching to the test for

teachers who are under pressure to get kids to pass teachers who are under pressure to get kids to pass annual examsannual exams


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School Reform: School Reform: Education in Inner CitiesEducation in Inner Cities

• Some have argued that low American academic Some have argued that low American academic achievement was concentrated among achievement was concentrated among poor/minority youth in inner citiespoor/minority youth in inner cities

• Why has school reform failed in urban schools? Why has school reform failed in urban schools? – Increasing concentration of poverty in certain inner-city Increasing concentration of poverty in certain inner-city

communities has led to a population of students with very communities has led to a population of students with very grave academic and behavioral problems grave academic and behavioral problems

– Urban school districts are burdened by administrative Urban school districts are burdened by administrative bureaucracies that impede reformbureaucracies that impede reform

– Students report less sense of belonging to their schoolsStudents report less sense of belonging to their schools– Erosion of job opportunities: Little incentive to remain in Erosion of job opportunities: Little incentive to remain in

school or put effort into academic pursuitsschool or put effort into academic pursuits


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The Organization of Schools:The Organization of Schools: School SizeSchool Size

• Schools grew larger to offer a wider range of courses Schools grew larger to offer a wider range of courses and services to studentsand services to students

• Student performance and interest in school improve Student performance and interest in school improve when schools are more intimate when schools are more intimate – Schools within schoolsSchools within schools

• Smaller school size encourages participation Smaller school size encourages participation – Ideal size: Between 600 and 900 studentsIdeal size: Between 600 and 900 students– In larger schools, students tend to be observers rather than In larger schools, students tend to be observers rather than

participantsparticipants– Especially important for students whose grades are not very Especially important for students whose grades are not very

good to begin withgood to begin with


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The Organization of Schools:The Organization of Schools: Class SizeClass Size

• Classroom sizeClassroom size– Research findings Research findings

misinterpreted by politicians misinterpreted by politicians who began emphasizing who began emphasizing importance of small classesimportance of small classes

– Does Does notnot affect scholastic affect scholastic achievement during achievement during adolescence, except in adolescence, except in remedial coursesremedial courses

– Adolescents learn as much in Adolescents learn as much in classes of 40 students as in classes of 40 students as in classes of 20 studentsclasses of 20 students

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Age Grouping and Age Grouping and School TransitionsSchool Transitions

• Early 1900sEarly 1900s– Two-school systemTwo-school system– Elementary School (6 or 8 Elementary School (6 or 8

grades)grades)– Secondary School (6 or 4 Secondary School (6 or 4

grades)grades)

• Compulsory Secondary Compulsory Secondary EducationEducation– Introduction of Junior HighsIntroduction of Junior Highs

• More recent yearsMore recent years– Introduction of Middle SchoolsIntroduction of Middle Schools– Some schools have returned to a Some schools have returned to a

two-school modeltwo-school model

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Age Grouping and Age Grouping and School TransitionsSchool Transitions

• As children move into middle school or junior highAs children move into middle school or junior high– School grades and academic motivation dropSchool grades and academic motivation drop– Scores on standardized achievement tests do not declineScores on standardized achievement tests do not decline– Student motivation and changes in grading practices may Student motivation and changes in grading practices may

be changing, not student knowledgebe changing, not student knowledge

• Schools can combat these changes by reducing Schools can combat these changes by reducing anonymity, hiring teachers with training in adolescent anonymity, hiring teachers with training in adolescent development, and strengthening ties between the development, and strengthening ties between the school and communityschool and community


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Age Grouping and School TransitionsAge Grouping and School Transitions

• Classroom environment in middle school/junior high is Classroom environment in middle school/junior high is different than elementary schooldifferent than elementary school

• Teachers in middle school/ junior high:Teachers in middle school/ junior high:– hold different beliefs about studentshold different beliefs about students– are less likely than other teachers to feel confident are less likely than other teachers to feel confident

about their teaching abilityabout their teaching ability– are less likely to trust their students and more likely are less likely to trust their students and more likely

to emphasize disciplineto emphasize discipline– more likely to believe that students’ abilities are more likely to believe that students’ abilities are

fixed and not easily modified through instructionfixed and not easily modified through instruction• Developmental mismatch between what adolescents Developmental mismatch between what adolescents

need and what they get from teachersneed and what they get from teachers


Individual Differences in the Extent of Individual Differences in the Extent of Transitional ProblemsTransitional Problems

• Among Black and Latino Among Black and Latino students, transitioning to a students, transitioning to a school where the proportion of school where the proportion of students from the same ethnic students from the same ethnic background is lower than it background is lower than it had been at their previous had been at their previous school is associated with:school is associated with:

– greater disengagement greater disengagement from schoolfrom school

– lower gradeslower grades

– more frequent absencesmore frequent absences

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Social Organization of Schools:Social Organization of Schools: TrackingTracking

• Separating students, by academic ability, into different Separating students, by academic ability, into different classes within the same schoolclasses within the same school

• Proponents argue that ability-grouping allows teachers Proponents argue that ability-grouping allows teachers to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to to design class lessons that are more finely tuned to students’ abilitiesstudents’ abilities

• Critics argue tracking leads to problemsCritics argue tracking leads to problems– Students who are placed in the remedial track generally Students who are placed in the remedial track generally

receive a poorer quality education, not just a different receive a poorer quality education, not just a different educationeducation

– Socialize only with peers from same trackSocialize only with peers from same track– Difficult to change tracks once in place, especially for minority Difficult to change tracks once in place, especially for minority

studentsstudents


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Social Organization of Schools:Social Organization of Schools: TrackingTracking

• Sex differencesSex differences– Girls score higher on math tests in elementary school, yet Girls score higher on math tests in elementary school, yet

are less likely to be placed in high math track are less likely to be placed in high math track • Gifted studentsGifted students––score 130 or higher on IQ testscore 130 or higher on IQ test• Learning disabled studentsLearning disabled students

– Actual academic performance less than expected from IQ Actual academic performance less than expected from IQ tests, no emotional explanation for discrepancytests, no emotional explanation for discrepancy

– Assumed to have neurological problemsAssumed to have neurological problems• Mainstreaming of gifted and learning disabled Mainstreaming of gifted and learning disabled

students into regular classroomsstudents into regular classrooms– Big fish—little pond effect for gifted studentsBig fish—little pond effect for gifted students– Problematic for learning disabled studentsProblematic for learning disabled students


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The Organization of Schools: Ethnic The Organization of Schools: Ethnic CompositionComposition

• Landmark U.S. Supreme Court rulings legally ended Landmark U.S. Supreme Court rulings legally ended segregation of schools (segregation of schools (Brown v. Board of Education Brown v. Board of Education of Topekaof Topeka 1954; 1955) 1954; 1955)

• How does desegregation affect school achievement? How does desegregation affect school achievement? Research findings mixed: Research findings mixed: – Desegregation has little impact on achievement levels Desegregation has little impact on achievement levels

of either minority or White adolescentsof either minority or White adolescents– Minority youngster’s self-esteem is higher when they Minority youngster’s self-esteem is higher when they

attend schools in which they are in the majorityattend schools in which they are in the majority


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Public Schools Public Schools vs.vs. Private SchoolsPrivate Schools

• To encourage better schools and To encourage better schools and competition among schools for competition among schools for better students, parents given more better students, parents given more choices of where to send their choices of where to send their childrenchildren

• Government-subsidized school Government-subsidized school vouchers vouchers – Used to “purchase” education at Used to “purchase” education at

a school of one’s choosinga school of one’s choosing––private or public schoolsprivate or public schools

• Charter schoolsCharter schools– independent public schools that independent public schools that

operate as they wishoperate as they wish


Public Schools Public Schools vs.vs. Private Schools Private Schools

• Recent research has suggested that private Recent research has suggested that private schools aren’t necessarily more effective than schools aren’t necessarily more effective than public schoolspublic schools– Family background is more important influence Family background is more important influence

on achievement than school qualityon achievement than school quality• Exception is Catholic (private) school:Exception is Catholic (private) school:

– Climate is different from public schoolsClimate is different from public schools– Strong community values promote social capital, Strong community values promote social capital,

give students additional resourcesgive students additional resources


Public Schools vs. Private Public Schools vs. Private SchoolsSchools

2020


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The Climate of the ClassroomThe Climate of the Classroom• How teachers interact with students, use class time, How teachers interact with students, use class time,

and the expectations they hold for students all and the expectations they hold for students all influence learning and academic achievementinfluence learning and academic achievement

• Students achieve more when attending schools that Students achieve more when attending schools that are responsive and demanding, where teachers are are responsive and demanding, where teachers are supportive but in controlsupportive but in control

• Similar to the authoritative family environmentSimilar to the authoritative family environment


Teacher Expectations and Student PerformanceTeacher Expectations and Student Performance

• Strong correlation between teacher expectations and student Strong correlation between teacher expectations and student performanceperformance– 2 reasons:2 reasons:

• Teachers’ expectations are often accurate reflections of their Teachers’ expectations are often accurate reflections of their students’ abilitystudents’ ability

• Teachers’ expectations actually create self-fulfilling propheciesTeachers’ expectations actually create self-fulfilling prophecies• Which pathway is more powerful?Which pathway is more powerful?

– 80% of the relation between teacher expectations and student 80% of the relation between teacher expectations and student achievement results from teachers’ having accurate perceptionsachievement results from teachers’ having accurate perceptions

– 20% is an effect of the self-fulfilling prophecy20% is an effect of the self-fulfilling prophecy– Might be stronger for academically weaker studentsMight be stronger for academically weaker students

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Parents’ Role in Relation Between Parents’ Role in Relation Between Teacher Expectation and Student Teacher Expectation and Student

PerformancePerformance

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The Importance of Student The Importance of Student EngagementEngagement

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School ViolenceSchool Violence• One in four American high school students has been One in four American high school students has been

the victim of violence in or around schoolthe victim of violence in or around school– Violence more common in overcrowded schools in poor Violence more common in overcrowded schools in poor

urban neighborhoodsurban neighborhoods– Zero-tolerance policiesZero-tolerance policies

• Lethal school violenceLethal school violence– Widely publicized but rare, school shootings declined since Widely publicized but rare, school shootings declined since

1990s1990s– Increase in number of school-shooting related deaths Increase in number of school-shooting related deaths

because of automatic weaponsbecause of automatic weapons– Impossible to predict which students will commit these actsImpossible to predict which students will commit these acts


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Beyond High School: Beyond High School: The College BoundThe College Bound


The Growth of College The Growth of College EnrollmentEnrollment

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Beyond High School: Beyond High School: The College BoundThe College Bound

• College in the United States relative to other College in the United States relative to other countriescountries– More diverse and accessibleMore diverse and accessible– Wider variety of liberal arts, technical, Wider variety of liberal arts, technical,

vocational, pre-professional schoolsvocational, pre-professional schools• Rates of graduation lag far behind rates of Rates of graduation lag far behind rates of

enrollment enrollment – Fewer than 60% of all students who enroll in a 4-Fewer than 60% of all students who enroll in a 4-

year college complete their degree within 6 yearsyear college complete their degree within 6 years


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Beyond High School: Beyond High School: The Non-College-BoundThe Non-College-Bound

• Secondary schools are geared almost Secondary schools are geared almost exclusively toward college-bound youngsters, exclusively toward college-bound youngsters, even though one third of adolescents do not go even though one third of adolescents do not go on to collegeon to college

• Rise in minimum-wage service jobs means less Rise in minimum-wage service jobs means less chance of making decent living without college chance of making decent living without college experience experience

• Critics argue we should ease transition to adult Critics argue we should ease transition to adult world of work for those not interested in college world of work for those not interested in college by providing apprenticeship and advanced by providing apprenticeship and advanced skilled job trainingskilled job training


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What Do Good What Do Good SchoolsSchools Look Like? Look Like?

• Emphasize intellectual activities over athletics or Emphasize intellectual activities over athletics or extracurricular activitiesextracurricular activities

• Employ teachers who are strongly committed to Employ teachers who are strongly committed to students and have enough freedom to teach students and have enough freedom to teach effectivelyeffectively

• Links with the communityLinks with the community––Schools are well integrated Schools are well integrated into the communities they serve (e.g., with local into the communities they serve (e.g., with local colleges and employers)colleges and employers)

• Composed of classrooms with good climate, where Composed of classrooms with good climate, where students are active participants who are challenged to students are active participants who are challenged to think criticallythink critically

• Staffed by teachers who have received specific Staffed by teachers who have received specific training in teaching adolescentstraining in teaching adolescents


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Schools and Schools and Adolescent DevelopmentAdolescent Development

Low SES studentsLow SES students– Rates of academic progress during the school year are Rates of academic progress during the school year are

equal to high SES studentsequal to high SES students– Scores decline in the summer Scores decline in the summer

• Summer school may prevent widening of Summer school may prevent widening of achievement gap between affluent and poor achievement gap between affluent and poor studentsstudents


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Schools and Schools and Adolescent DevelopmentAdolescent Development

• Most schools are not structured to promote Most schools are not structured to promote psychosocial developmentpsychosocial development

• For most adolescents, school is a primary For most adolescents, school is a primary setting for socializing setting for socializing

Copyright © 2011 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. All rights reserved. 1 Adolescence 9th edition By Laurence Steinberg, Ph.D. Chapter Six: Schools Insert.

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