Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Behaviour in Social and Cultural Context Chapter 8.

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada

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Behaviour in Social and Behaviour in Social and Cultural ContextCultural Context

Chapter 8Chapter 8


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Chapter OutlineChapter Outline

• Roles and rulesRoles and rules

• Social influences on beliefsSocial influences on beliefs

• Individuals in groupsIndividuals in groups

• Us versus them: Group identityUs versus them: Group identity

• Group conflict and prejudiceGroup conflict and prejudice


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Roles and RulesRoles and Rules

• Defining norms and roles Defining norms and roles

• The obedience studyThe obedience study

• The prison studyThe prison study

• The power of rolesThe power of roles


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Defining Roles and RulesDefining Roles and Rules

• NormsNorms– Rules that regulate human life, including Rules that regulate human life, including

social conventions, explicit laws, and social conventions, explicit laws, and implicit cultural standardsimplicit cultural standards

• RoleRole– A given social position that is governed by A given social position that is governed by

a set of norms for proper behavioura set of norms for proper behaviour


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Defining Roles and RulesDefining Roles and Rules

• CultureCulture– A program of shared rules that govern A program of shared rules that govern

the behaviour of members of a the behaviour of members of a community or society, andcommunity or society, and

– A set of values, beliefs and attitudes A set of values, beliefs and attitudes shared by most members of that shared by most members of that communitycommunity


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The Obedience StudyThe Obedience Study• Stanley Milgram and coworkers investigated Stanley Milgram and coworkers investigated

whether people would follow orders, even whether people would follow orders, even when the order violated their ethical standardswhen the order violated their ethical standards

• Most people were far more obedient than Most people were far more obedient than anyone expectedanyone expected– Every single participant complied with at least Every single participant complied with at least

some orders to shock another personsome orders to shock another person– 2/3 shocked the learner to the full extent2/3 shocked the learner to the full extent

• Results are controversial and have generated Results are controversial and have generated much research on violence and obediencemuch research on violence and obedience


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Milgram’s Obedience ExperimentMilgram’s Obedience Experiment


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Factors Leading to Disobedience Factors Leading to Disobedience in Milgram’s studyin Milgram’s study

• When the experimenter left the roomWhen the experimenter left the room• When the victim was in the same roomWhen the victim was in the same room• When the experimenter issued conflicting When the experimenter issued conflicting

demandsdemands• When the person ordering them to continue When the person ordering them to continue

was an ordinary manwas an ordinary man• When the subject worked with peers who When the subject worked with peers who

refused to go onrefused to go on


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Evaluating the Obedience StudyEvaluating the Obedience Study

• Raises ethical questions regarding the Raises ethical questions regarding the deception used in the studydeception used in the study

• Ethical concern over the emotional pain Ethical concern over the emotional pain many subjects experiencedmany subjects experienced

• Some question the similarity of this Some question the similarity of this study with the actions of Nazis in study with the actions of Nazis in Germany Germany


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The Prison StudyThe Prison Study• Subjects were physically and mentally healthy Subjects were physically and mentally healthy

young men who volunteered to participate for young men who volunteered to participate for moneymoney

• They were randomly assigned to be prisoners They were randomly assigned to be prisoners or guardsor guards

• Those assigned the role of prisoner became Those assigned the role of prisoner became distressed, helpless, and panickydistressed, helpless, and panicky

• Those assigned the roles of guards became Those assigned the roles of guards became either nice, “tough but fair,” or tyrannicaleither nice, “tough but fair,” or tyrannical

• Study had to be ended after 6 daysStudy had to be ended after 6 days


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Why People ObeyWhy People Obey• Factors causing people to obey:Factors causing people to obey:

– Allocating responsibility to the authorityAllocating responsibility to the authority– Routinizing the taskRoutinizing the task– Wanting to be politeWanting to be polite– Becoming entrappedBecoming entrapped

• Entrapment: A gradual process in which Entrapment: A gradual process in which individuals escalate their commitment to a individuals escalate their commitment to a course of action to justify their investment of course of action to justify their investment of time, money, or efforttime, money, or effort


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Social Influences on BeliefsSocial Influences on Beliefs

• Defining social cognitionDefining social cognition

• Attribution theory and conceptsAttribution theory and concepts

• Attitudes Attitudes


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Social CognitionSocial Cognition

• An area in social psychology concerned An area in social psychology concerned with social influences on thought, with social influences on thought, memory, perception, and other cognitive memory, perception, and other cognitive processesprocesses

• Researcher are interested in how Researcher are interested in how people’s perceptions of themselves and people’s perceptions of themselves and others affect:others affect:– Their relationships, thoughts, beliefs and Their relationships, thoughts, beliefs and

valuesvalues


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AttributionsAttributions• Attribution Theory Attribution Theory

– The theory that people are The theory that people are motivated to explain their motivated to explain their own and other peoples’ own and other peoples’ behaviour by attributing behaviour by attributing causes of that behaviour to causes of that behaviour to a situation or a dispositiona situation or a disposition

• Fundamental Attribution Fundamental Attribution ErrorError– Tendency in explaining Tendency in explaining

others’ behaviours to others’ behaviours to overestimate personality overestimate personality factors and underestimate factors and underestimate situational influencesituational influence


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Other AttributionsOther Attributions• Self-serving biasSelf-serving bias

– Tendency, in explaining own behaviour, to take credit for Tendency, in explaining own behaviour, to take credit for one’s good actions and rationalize one’s mistakesone’s good actions and rationalize one’s mistakes

• Group-serving biasGroup-serving bias– The tendency to explain favourably the behaviours of The tendency to explain favourably the behaviours of

members of groups to which we belong members of groups to which we belong

• Just-world hypothesisJust-world hypothesis– The notion that many people need to believe that the world The notion that many people need to believe that the world

is fair and that justice is servedis fair and that justice is served– Bad people are punished and good people rewardedBad people are punished and good people rewarded


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AttitudesAttitudes• A relatively stable opinion containing beliefs A relatively stable opinion containing beliefs

and emotional feelings about a topicand emotional feelings about a topic– ExplicitExplicit

• We are aware of them; they shape conscious We are aware of them; they shape conscious decisionsdecisions

– ImplicitImplicit• We are unaware of them; they may influence We are unaware of them; they may influence

our behaviour in ways we do not recognizeour behaviour in ways we do not recognize


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Factors Influencing Attitude ChangeFactors Influencing Attitude Change

• Change in social environmentChange in social environment• Change in behavioursChange in behaviours• Due to a need for consistencyDue to a need for consistency

– Cognitive DissonanceCognitive Dissonance• A state of tension that occurs when a person A state of tension that occurs when a person

simultaneously holds two cognitions that are simultaneously holds two cognitions that are psychologically inconsistent, or psychologically inconsistent, or

• When a person’s belief is incongruent with his When a person’s belief is incongruent with his or her behaviouror her behaviour


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Friendly PersuasionFriendly Persuasion

• Validity effect Validity effect The tendency of people to believe The tendency of people to believe

that a statement is true or valid simply that a statement is true or valid simply because it has been repeated many because it has been repeated many times times


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Influencing AttitudesInfluencing Attitudes


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Coercive PersuasionCoercive Persuasion

• Person is under physical or emotional duressPerson is under physical or emotional duress• Person’s problems are reduced to one simple Person’s problems are reduced to one simple

explanation, repeated oftenexplanation, repeated often• Leader offers unconditional love, acceptance, Leader offers unconditional love, acceptance,

and attentionand attention• New identity based on group is createdNew identity based on group is created• Person is subjected to entrapmentPerson is subjected to entrapment• Person’s access to information is controlledPerson’s access to information is controlled


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Individuals in GroupsIndividuals in Groups

• ConformityConformity

• The anonymous crowdThe anonymous crowd

• Altruism and dissentAltruism and dissent


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ConformityConformity• Subjects in a group were asked to match line lengthsSubjects in a group were asked to match line lengths• Confederates in the group picked wrong lineConfederates in the group picked wrong line• Subjects went along with wrong answer 37% of trialsSubjects went along with wrong answer 37% of trials• Meta-analyses demonstrate that conformity has Meta-analyses demonstrate that conformity has

decreased in US since 1950. May be due to social normsdecreased in US since 1950. May be due to social norms– Individualistic vs.Individualistic vs.

Collectivist cultures Collectivist cultures


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Individualism and CollectivismIndividualism and Collectivism

• Individualist CulturesIndividualist Cultures– Are those in which individual goals and Are those in which individual goals and

wishes are prized above duty to and wishes are prized above duty to and relations with othersrelations with others

• Collectivist CulturesCollectivist Cultures– Are those in which harmony with one’s Are those in which harmony with one’s

group is prized above individual goals and group is prized above individual goals and wisheswishes


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The Anonymous CrowdThe Anonymous Crowd• Diffusion of ResponsibilityDiffusion of Responsibility

– In organized or anonymous groups, the In organized or anonymous groups, the tendency of members to avoid taking tendency of members to avoid taking responsibility for actions or decisions responsibility for actions or decisions because they assume that others will do sobecause they assume that others will do so

– Bystander apathy Bystander apathy • People fail to call for help when others are near.People fail to call for help when others are near.

– Social loafingSocial loafing• When people work less in the presence of others, When people work less in the presence of others,

allowing others to work harderallowing others to work harder


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DeindividuationDeindividuation

• In groups or crowds, the loss of In groups or crowds, the loss of awareness of one’s own individualityawareness of one’s own individuality

• Factors influencing deindividuationFactors influencing deindividuation– Size of city, groupSize of city, group– Uniforms or masksUniforms or masks

• Deindividuation can influence unlawful Deindividuation can influence unlawful as well as friendly behavioursas well as friendly behaviours– Depends on norms of the specific situationDepends on norms of the specific situation


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Altruism and DissentAltruism and Dissent

• AltruismAltruism – involves a willingness to take selfless or dangerous involves a willingness to take selfless or dangerous

action on behalf of othersaction on behalf of others– is seen as a matter of personal conviction and is seen as a matter of personal conviction and

conscienceconscience


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Altruism and DissentAltruism and Dissent

• Situational factors contributing to altruism and Situational factors contributing to altruism and dissent:dissent:– You perceive the need for intervention or helpYou perceive the need for intervention or help– Situation makes it more likely that you will take Situation makes it more likely that you will take

responsibilityresponsibility– Cost-benefit ratio supports your decision to get Cost-benefit ratio supports your decision to get

involvedinvolved– You have an allyYou have an ally– You become entrappedYou become entrapped


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Us versus Them:Us versus Them: Group Identity and Conflict Group Identity and Conflict

• Social IdentitySocial Identity The part of a person’s self-concept that is The part of a person’s self-concept that is

based on his or her identification with a based on his or her identification with a nation, culture, or ethnic group or with nation, culture, or ethnic group or with gender or other roles in societygender or other roles in society

• Ethnic IdentityEthnic Identity A person’s close identification with a A person’s close identification with a

religious or ethnic group, often related to religious or ethnic group, often related to traditional family customs and practicestraditional family customs and practices


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AcculturationAcculturation• Process of cultural identity Process of cultural identity

change when two or more change when two or more cultures are in continuous cultures are in continuous contactcontact– Often involves assimilation Often involves assimilation

or identification with the or identification with the dominant culturedominant culture

– May involve separation, May involve separation, marginalization, or bicultural marginalization, or bicultural integrationintegration


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Group Identity: Us versus ThemGroup Identity: Us versus Them

• Ethnocentrism Ethnocentrism – The belief that one’s own ethnic group, The belief that one’s own ethnic group,

nation, or religion is superior to all othersnation, or religion is superior to all others– Aids survival by making people feel Aids survival by making people feel

attached to their own group and willing to attached to their own group and willing to work on their group’s behalfwork on their group’s behalf

• Us versus them social identities are Us versus them social identities are strengthened when groups compete strengthened when groups compete with one anotherwith one another– Robbers’ Cave studiesRobbers’ Cave studies


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Robbers’ Cave ExperimentRobbers’ Cave Experiment• Boys were randomly Boys were randomly

separated into two groupsseparated into two groups– ““Rattlers” and “Eagles”Rattlers” and “Eagles”

• Competitions fostered Competitions fostered hostility between the hostility between the groupsgroups

• Experimenters contrived Experimenters contrived situations requiring situations requiring cooperation for successcooperation for success

• Cross-group friendships Cross-group friendships increasedincreased


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StereotypesStereotypes

• Cognitive schemas or summary impressions Cognitive schemas or summary impressions of a group, in which a person believes that all of a group, in which a person believes that all members of the group share a common trait members of the group share a common trait or traits (positive, negative, or neutral)or traits (positive, negative, or neutral)

• Allow us to quickly process new information Allow us to quickly process new information and retrieve memoriesand retrieve memories

• Distort reality in 3 waysDistort reality in 3 ways– Exaggerate differences between groupsExaggerate differences between groups– Produce selective perceptionProduce selective perception– Underestimate differences between groupsUnderestimate differences between groups


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Group Conflict and PrejudiceGroup Conflict and Prejudice

• The origins of prejudiceThe origins of prejudice

• Defining and measuring prejudiceDefining and measuring prejudice

• Reducing conflict and prejudiceReducing conflict and prejudice


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Origins of PrejudiceOrigins of Prejudice

• Psychological functionsPsychological functions– People inflate own self-worth by disliking People inflate own self-worth by disliking

groups they see as inferiorgroups they see as inferior

• Social and cultural functionsSocial and cultural functions– By disliking others we feel closer to others By disliking others we feel closer to others

who are like uswho are like us

• Economic functionsEconomic functions– Legitimizes unequal economic treatmentLegitimizes unequal economic treatment


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Defining and Measuring PrejudiceDefining and Measuring Prejudice

• Not all people are prejudiced in the Not all people are prejudiced in the same waysame way

• People know they shouldn’t be People know they shouldn’t be prejudiced so measures of prejudice prejudiced so measures of prejudice have declinedhave declined

• Distinguishing between explicit and Distinguishing between explicit and implicit prejudiceimplicit prejudice


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Measures of Explicit PrejudiceMeasures of Explicit Prejudice


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Defining and Measuring PrejudiceDefining and Measuring Prejudice• Measuring implicit Measuring implicit

prejudiceprejudice– Measures of Measures of

symbolic racismsymbolic racism– Measures of Measures of

behaviours rather behaviours rather than attitudesthan attitudes

– Measures of Measures of unconscious unconscious associations with a associations with a target grouptarget group


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Reducing Prejudice and ConflictReducing Prejudice and Conflict

• Groups must have equal legal status, Groups must have equal legal status, economic opportunities, and powereconomic opportunities, and power

• Authorities and community institutions must Authorities and community institutions must endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral endorse egalitarian norms and provide moral support and legitimacy for both sidessupport and legitimacy for both sides

• Both sides must have opportunities to work Both sides must have opportunities to work and socialize together, formally and and socialize together, formally and informallyinformally

• Both sides must cooperate, working together Both sides must cooperate, working together for a common goalfor a common goal

Copyright © 2007 Pearson Education Canada 1 Behaviour in Social and Cultural Context Chapter 8.

Documents

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