Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–1 Chapter 5 PerceptionPerception Understanding PeopleUnderstanding People.

Copyright © 2002 by South-WesternCopyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–5–11

Chapter 5Chapter 5

•PerceptionPerception

•Understanding PeopleUnderstanding People


Management Practices and Management Practices and Organizational Affect EmployeesOrganizational Affect Employees

FIGURE IIFIGURE II–1–1

ManagementPractices

OrganizationalDesign

Employee Perceptions,Attitudes, Motivation

& Behavior


The Importance of PerceptionThe Importance of Perception

•PerceptionPerception The process by which we become aware of, and give The process by which we become aware of, and give

meaning to, events around us.meaning to, events around us. Perception helps define “reality.”Perception helps define “reality.”

Objective realityObjective reality—what truly exists in the physical —what truly exists in the physical world to the best abilities of science to measure it.world to the best abilities of science to measure it.

Perceived reality—what individuals experience Perceived reality—what individuals experience through one or more of the human senses, and the through one or more of the human senses, and the meaning they ascribe to those experiences.meaning they ascribe to those experiences.

Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s Behavioral problems arise when an individual’s perceived reality does not match objective reality.perceived reality does not match objective reality.


The Perceptual ProcessThe Perceptual Process

1.1. SensationSensation An individual’s ability to An individual’s ability to

detect stimuli in the detect stimuli in the immediate environment.immediate environment.

2.2. SelectionSelection The process a person uses The process a person uses

to eliminate some of the to eliminate some of the stimuli that have been stimuli that have been sensed and to retain others sensed and to retain others for further processing.for further processing.

3.3. OrganizationOrganization The process of placing The process of placing

selected perceptual stimuli selected perceptual stimuli into a framework for into a framework for “storage.”“storage.”

4.4. TranslationTranslation The stage of the perceptual The stage of the perceptual

process at which stimuli are process at which stimuli are interpreted and given interpreted and given meaning.meaning.


Characteristics of the PerceiverCharacteristics of the Perceiver

•MotiveMotive Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s Increased notice of a stimuli due to an individual’s

current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g., current active motives such as a deficiency (e.g., hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of hunger) that is associated with the subject (e.g., food) of the stimulus.the stimulus.

•PersonalityPersonality An individual characteristic that creates an increased An individual characteristic that creates an increased

likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the likelihood that a particular stimulus related to the characteristic will be noticed.characteristic will be noticed.


The Perceptual Process (cont’d)The Perceptual Process (cont’d)

•OrganizationOrganization The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into The process of placing selected perceptual stimuli into

a framework for “storage.”a framework for “storage.” Stimuli become associated when they:Stimuli become associated when they:

Are similar in Are similar in physical resemblance.physical resemblance. Occur in close physical (space) proximity.Occur in close physical (space) proximity. Occur in close time proximity.Occur in close time proximity. Are used for figure-ground differentiation.Are used for figure-ground differentiation. Are used together to achieve closureAre used together to achieve closure——a perception of a perception of

the whole or to piece together a message.the whole or to piece together a message.


Figure-Ground IllustrationFigure-Ground Illustration

•Field-ground differentiationField-ground differentiation The tendency to distinguish The tendency to distinguish

and focus on a stimulus that and focus on a stimulus that is classified as figure as is classified as figure as opposed to background.opposed to background.

FIGURE 5FIGURE 5–3–3


ClosureClosure

•ClosureClosure The tendency to organize The tendency to organize

perceptual stimuli so that, perceptual stimuli so that, together, they form a together, they form a complete message.complete message.


Source: Reprinted with permission from Introduction to psychology: Explorations and applications by Dennis Coon. Copyright © 1977 by West Publishing Company. All rights reserved.


The Perceptual Process (cont’d)The Perceptual Process (cont’d)

•TransitionTransition The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are The stage in the perceptual process at which stimuli are

interpreted and given meaning.interpreted and given meaning. Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective Transition errors that distort perceptions (i.e., subjective

reality) of objective reality :reality) of objective reality : Primacy effectPrimacy effect Recency effectRecency effect StereotypingStereotyping Halo effectHalo effect ProjectionProjection Selective perceptionSelective perception Expectancy effectsExpectancy effects


Transition ErrorsTransition Errors

•Primacy effectPrimacy effect The disproportionately high weight given to the first The disproportionately high weight given to the first

information obtained about a stimulus.information obtained about a stimulus.

•Recency effectRecency effect The disproportionately high weight given to the last The disproportionately high weight given to the last

information obtained about a stimulus.information obtained about a stimulus.

• StereotypingStereotyping The generalization (application) of a person’s prior The generalization (application) of a person’s prior

beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during beliefs about a class of stimulus objects during encounters with members of that class of objects.encounters with members of that class of objects.


Transition Errors (cont’d)Transition Errors (cont’d)

•Halo effectHalo effect The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation The process of generalizing from an overall evaluation

of an individual to specific characteristics of the person.of an individual to specific characteristics of the person.

•ProjectionProjection The process by which people attribute their own The process by which people attribute their own

feelings and characteristics feelings and characteristics to other people.to other people.


Transition Errors (cont’d)Transition Errors (cont’d)

• Selective perceptionSelective perception The selection of things consistent with one’s own The selection of things consistent with one’s own

personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are personal viewpoint and the rejection of things that are inconsistent with that viewpoint; inconsistent with that viewpoint;

A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs A perceptual defense is the retention of existing beliefs that conflict with new information.that conflict with new information.

•Expectancy effectExpectancy effect The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that The perception of stimuli by persons in ways that

confirm expectations.confirm expectations. Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs Self-fulfilling prophecy (Pygmalion) effect-occurs

when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to when people unconsciously adjust their behaviors to reflect their expectations in a situation. reflect their expectations in a situation.


Self Perceptions: The Johari WindowSelf Perceptions: The Johari Window


Openly shared data

A’s unshared data

B’s blind spots

Unknowns in therelationship

Future potential

B’s unshared data

A’s blind spots

Known to A

Relationship from A’s position

Unknown to A

Un

kn

ow

n t

o B

Kn

ow

n t

o B

Re

lati

on

sh

ip f

rom

B’s

po

sit

ion

One way to conceptualize the possible combinations of what you know about yourself and what others know about you.

Source: This model is a modification of the “Johari Window, “ a concept presented in J. Luft. 1970. Group Processes. Palo Alto, CA: National Press Books.


Characteristics Affecting the Characteristics Affecting the Perception of OthersPerception of Others

Person PerceivedPerson PerceivedPerson PerceivedPerson Perceived

OrganizationOrganizationOrganizationOrganization

PerceiverPerceiverPerceiverPerceiver

Group membershipGroup membershipStatusStatus

Group membershipGroup membershipStatusStatus

Organizational cultureOrganizational cultureCompetitive conditionsCompetitive conditions

Organizational cultureOrganizational cultureCompetitive conditionsCompetitive conditions

Attribution errorsAttribution errorsAttribution errorsAttribution errors


Perceiving OthersPerceiving Others

•Characteristics of the person perceivedCharacteristics of the person perceived Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe Implicit personality theory—the tendency to ascribe

personality traits to people because they share certain personality traits to people because they share certain characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with characteristics (e.g., group membership, status) with others.others.

•Characteristics of the organizationCharacteristics of the organization An individual’s association with an organization affects An individual’s association with an organization affects

the perception of that individual.the perception of that individual. Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how Organization culture (e.g., focus on quality) affects how

other individuals are perceived within the organization.other individuals are perceived within the organization.


Perceiving Others (cont’d)Perceiving Others (cont’d)

•Characteristics of the perceiverCharacteristics of the perceiver Attribution theory—explains how people assign Attribution theory—explains how people assign

responsibility and the cognitive processes by which responsibility and the cognitive processes by which they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the they interpret the causes of their own behavior and the behavior of others.behavior of others.

Locus of causality—the attribution of the observed Locus of causality—the attribution of the observed behavior of others to internal or external causes.behavior of others to internal or external causes.

Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the Fundamental error—the tendency to overestimate the effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects effects of internal causes and underestimate the effects of external causes when we judge other people’s of external causes when we judge other people’s actions. actions.


Reducing Perceptual ErrorsReducing Perceptual Errors

• Self-understandingSelf-understanding The acknowledgement that you and people who interact The acknowledgement that you and people who interact

with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.with you are susceptible to perceptual errors.

•Conscious information processingConscious information processing Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual Carefully considering the “facts” during the perceptual

process and consciously questioning process and consciously questioning the accuracy of what you perceive.the accuracy of what you perceive.

•Reality testingReality testing The comparison of developed The comparison of developed

perceptions about a stimulus object perceptions about a stimulus object to another (objective) measure of the object.to another (objective) measure of the object.


PersonalityPersonality

•Personality (individual differences)Personality (individual differences) The characteristics or traits that describe how people The characteristics or traits that describe how people

are likely to behave in a given situation.are likely to behave in a given situation. Determines how a person will react to a managerial Determines how a person will react to a managerial

practice.practice.

•Pitfalls in assessing personalityPitfalls in assessing personality Making hasty judgments about personalities.Making hasty judgments about personalities. Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm Having the tendency to see only behaviors that affirm

judgments.judgments.


Determinants of PersonalityDeterminants of Personality

•Nature (heredity)Nature (heredity) The assumption that part of personality is biologically- The assumption that part of personality is biologically-

based and predetermined.based and predetermined.

•Nurture (environment)Nurture (environment) The assumption that The assumption that

personality is shaped personality is shaped primarily by life primarily by life experiences, experiences, especially those especially those of early childhood.of early childhood.


Dimensions of PersonalityDimensions of Personality

• Self-esteem (self-concept)Self-esteem (self-concept) How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their How individuals perceive themselves in terms of their

abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.abilities, competencies, and effectiveness.

LowLow Self EsteemSelf Esteem HighHighLowLow Self EsteemSelf Esteem HighHigh

Incapable Incapable IncompetentIncompetentInsignificantInsignificant

UnworthyUnworthy

Incapable Incapable IncompetentIncompetentInsignificantInsignificant

UnworthyUnworthy

CapableCapableCompetentCompetentSignificantSignificant

WorthyWorthy

CapableCapableCompetentCompetentSignificantSignificant

WorthyWorthy


Self-Esteem DimensionsSelf-Esteem Dimensions

•Global self-esteemGlobal self-esteem

•Role-specificRole-specificself-esteemself-esteem

• Job-basedJob-based self-esteemself-esteem

•Organization-basedOrganization-basedself-esteem (OBSE)self-esteem (OBSE)


Other Dimensions of PersonalityOther Dimensions of Personality

•Locus of controlLocus of control The degree to which people believe their actions The degree to which people believe their actions

determine what happens to them in life.determine what happens to them in life. Internal locus of controlInternal locus of control—occurs when people believe —occurs when people believe

that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the that internal factors (their skills and abilities) are the determinants of their destiny.determinants of their destiny.

External locus of control—External locus of control—occurs when people believe that occurs when people believe that external factors such as luck, external factors such as luck, other people, or organizations other people, or organizations are the determinants of are the determinants of their destiny.their destiny.


Measuring Locus of ControlMeasuring Locus of Control

TABLE 5TABLE 5–1–1

I more strongly believe that

Internal Control External Control

Promotions are earned through hard work and persistence.

Making a lot of money is largely a matter of getting the right breaks.

In my experience I have noticed that there is usually a direct connection between how hard I study and the grades I get.

Many times the reactions of teachers seem haphazard to me.

The number of divorces indicates that more and more people are not trying to make their marriages work.

Marriage is a legal gamble.

When I am right I can convince others.

It is silly to think that one can really change another person’s basic attitudes.

Source: Derived from Rotter’s I-E test. J. B. Rotter. 1971. External control and internal control. Psychology Today 5(1):37–42, 58–59.


Other Dimensions of Personality Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)(cont’d)•MachiavellianismMachiavellianism

Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who Based on the writings of Niccolo Machiavelli who advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional advocated a psychologically detached and unemotional behavioral approach by individuals to organizational behavioral approach by individuals to organizational participation in meeting their personal objectives. participation in meeting their personal objectives.

The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner The belief that it is appropriate to behave in any manner that will meet one’s own needs.that will meet one’s own needs.

The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as The primary focus is on obtaining and using power as a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its a means to further one’s own ends, regardless of its impact on others.impact on others.


Other Dimensions of Personality Other Dimensions of Personality (cont’d)(cont’d)•The “Big Five” personality theoryThe “Big Five” personality theory

The view that all personality traits can be distilled into The view that all personality traits can be distilled into five big ones:five big ones:

ExtroversionExtroversion—outgoing/withdrawn—outgoing/withdrawn AdjustmentAdjustment—flexible/rigid—flexible/rigid AgreeablenessAgreeableness—cooperative/uncooperative—cooperative/uncooperative ConscientiousnessConscientiousness—thorough/sloppy—thorough/sloppy InquisitivenessInquisitiveness—curious/disinterested—curious/disinterested


Cultural Differences Among Cultural Differences Among Organizational MembersOrganizational Members

•Culture definedCulture defined How a society perceives the world How a society perceives the world

and how it should operate based and how it should operate based on the beliefs, values, attitudes, on the beliefs, values, attitudes, and expectations for behavior that and expectations for behavior that the society believes to be good, the society believes to be good, effective, desirable, and beneficial.effective, desirable, and beneficial.

CultureCultureKnowledgeKnowledge

BeliefsBeliefsLawsLaws

MoralsMoralsArtArt

AssumptionsAssumptionsCustomsCustoms

HabitsHabits

InstitutionsInstitutionsParentingParentingEducationEducation

Religious activitiesReligious activitiesLaw enforcementLaw enforcement

EntertainmentEntertainment

FutureFutureGenerationsGenerations


Cultural Awareness and ManagersCultural Awareness and Managers

•Culture affects:Culture affects: The success of expatriate employees The success of expatriate employees

in overseas assignments.in overseas assignments.

The effectiveness of management The effectiveness of management practices and leadership stylespractices and leadership styles

in different cultures. in different cultures.


Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede)

• Individualism-collectivismIndividualism-collectivism The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to The degree to which individuals in a society prefer to

act as individuals, as opposed to a group.act as individuals, as opposed to a group.

•Power distancePower distance The acceptance of large differences The acceptance of large differences

in power between the most and least in power between the most and least powerful in society.powerful in society.

•Uncertainty avoidanceUncertainty avoidance The degree to which cultures differ The degree to which cultures differ

in the extent to which they tolerate in the extent to which they tolerate uncertainty.uncertainty.


Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) Cultural Dimensions (Hofstede) cont’dcont’d•Masculinity-femininityMasculinity-femininity

The degree to which a society displays mostly The degree to which a society displays mostly traditionally male or traditionally female traits.traditionally male or traditionally female traits.

•Time orientationTime orientation The degree to which cultures The degree to which cultures

possess a short or long possess a short or long perspective on time.perspective on time.


Cultural Differences for Ten CountriesCultural Differences for Ten Countries

Individualism

High Power Distance

High Uncertainty Avoidance Masculinity

Long-term Time Orientation

High USA Netherlands Germany France

Russia China France Hong Kong Indonesia West Africa

Japan France Russia

Japan USA Germany Hong Kong

China Japan Hong Kong

Medium Russia Japan

Japan West Africa China Germany Netherlands

China West Africa Indonesia France

Netherlands Germany

Low China West Africa Indonesia Hong Kong

Netherlands Germany USA

Indonesia USA Hong Kong

Russia Netherlands

West Africa Indonesia France USA Russia

Collectivism Low Power Distance

Low Uncertainty Avoidance

Femininity Short-term Time Orientation

Source: G. Hofstede. 1993. Cultural constraints in management theories. Academy of Management Executive 7(1):81–94. TABLE 5TABLE 5–3–3

Copyright © 2002 by South-Western 5–1 Chapter 5 PerceptionPerception Understanding PeopleUnderstanding People.

Documents

selected perceptual

figureground differentiation

motivation behavior

individuals ability

objective realitywhat

closurea perception

physical world

physical resemblance