Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon Complex Cognitive Processes Woolfolk, chapter 8.

Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon

Complex Cognitive Processes

Woolfolk, chapter 8


The Importance of UnderstandingLearning and Teaching about Concepts Problem SolvingBecoming an Expert StudentTeaching for Transfer

Overview


Concept Map for Chapter 8

Learning & Teachingabout Concepts

Teaching forTransfer

Becoming anExpert Student

Importance ofUnderstanding

Complex CognitiveProcesses

ProblemSolving


Thinking is the hardest work there is, which is probably why so few people

engage in it. Henry Ford


The Importance of Understanding

More than memorizingApplying what you knowTransforming and using knowledge, skills, and ideasHigher level thinking


Thinking and Understanding

“…being able to do a variety of thought-demanding things with a topic - like explaining, finding evidence and examples, generalizing, applying, analyzing, and representing the topic in new ways.”


Learning and Teaching Concepts

Concepts are categories of similar ideas, events, objects, people, etc.Concepts are abstractions.Concepts are ways to organize information.


Concept Learning Terms

Defining attributePrototype : Representative member of the concept Graded membershipExemplarsConcepts and schemas


Strategies for Teaching Concepts

Concept attainmentExamplesNon-examplesHypothesisCompare & contrastConcept constructed through discussion


Strategies for Teaching Concepts

Examples & non-examplesRelevant & irrelevant attributesName of the conceptDefinition of the concept– General category– Defining attributes

Use visual aids


Concept Attainment Lesson Structure

Phase 1: Presentation of Data & Identification of Concept– Present labeled examples– Students compare negative and positive examples

– Students generate and test hypotheses– Students state a definition



Phase 2: Testing Attainment of the Concept

– Students identify additional unlabeled examples as ‘yes’ or ‘no’

– Teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept, restates definition

– Students generate examples



Phase 3: Analysis of Thinking Strategies– Students describe their thoughts– Students discuss role of hypothesis and attributes

– Students discuss type and number of hypotheses


Concept Attainment Lesson StructurePhase 1:Presentation of Data & Identification of Concept

Phase 2: Testing Attainment of the Concept

Phase 3: Analysis of Thinking Strategies

Present labeled examples

Students identify additional unlabeled examples as ‘yes’ or ‘no’

Students describe their thoughts

Students compare negative and positive examples

Teacher confirms hypothesis, names concept, restates definition

Students discuss role of hypothesis and attributes

Students generate and test hypotheses

Students generate examples

Students discuss type and number of hypotheses

Students state a definition

See Table 8.1, Woolfolk, p. 282Copyright 2001 by Allyn and BaconCopyright 2001 by Allyn and BaconCopyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon


Key Concepts for Teaching Concepts

Less obvious examples help prevent undergeneralizationNon-examples help prevent overgeneralizationConcept mapping can help connect the new concept to other concepts they know


Reflection Questions

Choose a concept, like tree or bird.Identify a prototype.What are the defining attributes?Identify examples and non-examples.What are the irrelevant attributes?What thinking was required to analyze your chosen concept?


Construct a Concept Map for Reinforcement Schedules

C on tin u ou s

In te rva l R a tio

F ixed V ariab le

Typ es o f R e in fo rcem en t S ch ed u les


Teaching Concepts through Discovery

Understanding the structure of the subjectUsing a coding systemTeacher presents examplesStudents discover the interrelationshipsInductive reasoning or eg-ruleRequires intuitive thinkingGuided vs. unguided discover approaches


Teaching Concepts through Exposition

Focus on meaningful verbal learningThe concept is presentedExpository teaching model : AusubelLearning progresses deductively : rule-egSubsumer is the general concept under which other concepts fitAdvanced organizers help schema development


Advanced Organizers

An introduction to help the students understand the coming conceptComparative– Activate existing schema

Expository– Provides new knowledge

to understand coming information

– Statement of the subsumer


Advance organizerAdvance organizer

Present content in terms of similarities and differencesusing specific examples.

Present content in terms of similarities and differencesusing specific examples.

Relate content back toadvance organizer.

Relate content back toadvance organizer.

Phases of Expository Teaching

See Guidelines, Woolfolk, P. 289

See Guidelines, Woolfolk, P. 289


Problem Solving


Problem Solving

General or domain-specific?A heuristic:– Identify the problem– Define and represent the problem– Explore possible strategies– Act on the strategies– Look back, evaluate the effects of your strategies


Identifying the Problem

Identifying the problem: Slow elevators or bored riders?The ‘problem’ is an opportunity!Consider alternate perspectives


Defining the Problem

Focusing attentionUnderstanding the wordsUnderstanding the whole problemTranslation & schema trainingResults of problem representation


Exploring Possible Solutions

AlgorithmsHeuristics– Means-ends analysis– Working backwards– Analogical thinking– Verbalization


Anticipate, Act, Look Back

Anticipate the consequencesAct on the best solutionLook back and evaluate your success


The Problem Solving ProcessThe Problem Solving Process

Construct aConstruct arepresentationrepresentation

Search for Search for a solutiona solution

Try aTry asolutionsolution

EvaluateEvaluate StopStop

SucceedSucceed

FailFail


Factors That Hinder Problem Solving

Functional fixednessResponse setsLack of flexibility


Effective Problem SolversLarge store of domain knowledge Quickly recognize patternsOrganized knowledge schemas Condition-action schemasElaborated & well practiced knowledgeSpend time analyzing


Expert Teachers

Sense what is typicalDevelop routinesLook for patternsApply principlesPossess deep knowledge of subject & studentsImproviseAre flexible


Novice Knowledge

May possess misinformationIntuitive ideas are incorrectHold on to misconceptions


Reflection Questions

Describe the differences between functional fixedness and response set.Describe a recent problem solving event in which you overcame a response set or functional fixedness. How did you do it?Describe an expert teacher you had. How did that teacher solve classroom problems?


Becoming an Expert Student


Expert Students

Are cognitively engagedFocus attention & effortProcess information deeplyMonitor understanding


Expert Students Possess:Learning strategies and tacticsSeveral different strategiesConditional knowledge for various strategies– when to use them– where to use them– why to use them

Desire to employ learning strategiesStudents may need direct instruction in schematic knowledge: how to identify main ideas


Learning StrategiesDeciding what is importantCreating summaries Underlining & high- lightingTaking notesSee Table 8.2, Woolfolk, p. 303


Visual Tools for Organizing

Maps & chartsVenn or tree diagramsTimelinesReading strategies– READS– PQ4R– CAPS– KWL


READS

Review headings & subheadings.

Examine bold face print.

Ask, “What do I expect to learn?”

Do it – Read!

Summarize in your own words.


PQ4RPreviewQuestionReadReflectReciteReview


CAPS

Strategy for reading literature

Who are the Characters in the story?

What is the Aim of the story?

What Problem happens?

How is the problem Solved?


KWL Plus

Guide for reading and inquiry in general:What do I already know about this subject?

What do I want to know?

At the end of the reading or inquiry, what have I learned?

See Guidelines, Woolfolk, p. 309.


ExpertExpertStudentsStudentsExpertExpert

StudentsStudents

FocusFocusattentionattention

&&efforteffort

FocusFocusattentionattention

&&efforteffort

Desire toDesire touse skillsuse skillsDesire toDesire touse skillsuse skills ConditionalConditional

knowledgeknowledgeConditionalConditionalknowledgeknowledge

MonitorMonitorunderstandingunderstanding

MonitorMonitorunderstandingunderstandingSchematicSchematic

knowledgeknowledgeSchematicSchematicknowledgeknowledge

Process Process informationinformation

deeplydeeply

Process Process informationinformation

deeplydeeply

PossessPossessLearningLearning

strategies strategies &&

tacticstactics

PossessPossessLearningLearning

strategies strategies &&

tacticstactics

PQ4RPQ4RPQ4RPQ4R


Transfer of Learning

Low road & high roadForward-reachingBackward-reachingMindful abstractionSituated learningOverlearning


Encouraging Transfer

Make learning meaningfulPractical applications: real life problem solvingContextTeach critical thinking skillsTeach self-regulation skills


Retention PhaseRetention PhaseRetention PhaseRetention Phase

Transfer PhaseTransfer PhaseTransfer PhaseTransfer Phase

Acquisition PhaseAcquisition PhaseTeach a new strategy &Teach a new strategy &

how to use ithow to use it

Practice the Practice the strategystrategy

Give feedbackGive feedback

Provide new Provide new problemsproblems

Use the same Use the same strategystrategy


Summary

The Importance of Understanding

Learning and Teaching about Concepts

Problem Solving

Becoming an Expert Student

Teaching for Transfer


Review Questions

Distinguish between prototypes and exemplars.What are the four elements needed in concept teaching?What are the key characteristics of Bruner’s discovery learning?What are the stages of Ausubel’s expository teaching?What are the steps in the general problem-solving process?


Review Questions

Why is the representation stage of problem solving so important?Describe factors that can interfere with problem solving.What are the differences between expert and novice knowledge in a given area?How do misconceptions interfere with learning?Distinguish between learning strategies and tactics.


Review Questions

What key functions do learning strategies play?Describe some procedures for developing learning strategies.Distinguish between specific and general transfer.Distinguish between low-road and high-road transfer.


End Chapter 8

Copyright 2001 by Allyn and Bacon Complex Cognitive Processes Woolfolk, chapter 8.

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