Copular verbs

140 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BITE F

Do: As a main verb, do is a general transitive verb of action (e.g. do some work).

~c It often combines with a noun phrase to form idiomatic expressions (e.g. do the dishes).

B- As a main verb, do can also function as a transitive pro-verb (do it, do that) or an intransitive pro-verb (e.g. I must have done.) As an auxiliary verb, do is used in the do-support construction for forming negation and questions (e.g. Didn't you know?). Auxdiary do is also used for emphatic meaning (e.g. Oh do shut up!).

5.16 The copula be, and other copular ~ verbs

Copular verbs are used to associate an attribute with the subject of the clause. The attribute is usually expressed by the subject predicative following the verb. For example, in the clause:

You're very stupid. ( c o w ) you is the subject, and the phrase very stupid is the subject predicative that specifies the attribute that is associated with the subject. The copula be (contracted as 're) links this attribute to the subject.

Many copular verbs are also used to locate the subject of the clause in time or space. Times and places are expressed by an obligatory adverbial of position, duration, or direction that occurs after the copula. For example:

I was in the kitchen. ( c o w ) Several verbs-like go, grow, and come-can function as either a copular verb or a transitivelintransitive verb, depending on the context:

copular verb: It makes your teeth and your bones grow stronx and healthy. ( c o ~ v ) It's beginning to go bad for you. ( F I C T )

Your prophecy of last night has come m. ( F I C T )

transitive verb: So you said she started to grow sesame herbs. ( c o w )

intransitive verb: It was when Wharton Horricker and I went to Mexico. ( F I C T )

He came from the far north. ( F I C T ~ )

There are many verbs that can function as copular verbs. They fall into two main categories: current copular verbs and result copular verbs.

Functions of cbpular verbs-

A Current copular verbs

Current copular verbs have two subclasses. The first subclass identifies attributes that are in a continuing state of existence. This includes: be, seem, appear, keep, remain, stay. The other subclass reports sensory perceptions. This includes: look, feel, sound, smell, taste.

state-of-existence: W e are all human. (FICT) I may have appeared a little short with m y daughter that morning. (FICT) David Elsworth seemed quite satisfied with the performance of Barnbrook. (NEWS)

sensory perception: I really do look awful. ( c o ~ v ) Ooh that feels good. (cow) They just sound really bad when they're recorded on. ( co~v)

6 Result copular verbs

Result copular verbs identify an attribute that is the result of a process of change: She'll end up pregnant. ( c o ~ v ) His breathing became less frantic. (FICT)

M y heart grew sick and I couldn't eat. (FICT)

Other result copular verbs include: become, get, go, grow, prove, come, turn, turn out, end up, wind up.

5.17 Functions of copular verbs Copular verbs differ in their meanings and in the complements that they take. Overall, most copular verbs occur with an adjective phrase as the subject predicative, but some verbs are also strongly associated with other structures, such as a noun phrase or complement clause. Some verbs are limited to one type of complement, while others occur with many. In the following subsections, we review the associations between the most common copular verbs and their complements, and discuss how these associations reflect the differences in meaning and function of the verbs.

5.17.1 Current copular verbs: state of existence

The copula be is by far the most common verb in English. Surprisingly, the copula be differs from most lexical verbs because it is much more frequent in academic prose than in conversation, newspapers, or fiction. Be also occurs with a wide range of complements.

Unlike most copular verbs, be occurs most commonly with a noun phrase as subject predicative. In these structures, the noun phrase following be has two common functions: to characterize the subject noun phrase in some way, or to identify the subject noun phrase:

142 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BITE F

characterizing: Oh, my dad was a great guy, too. (cow) Tomorrow could be a sunny day. (co~vt )

identifying: That's our back yard. (cow)

The kernel is the part of the plant o f greatest value. ( A C A D ~ )

Adjective phrases are also very common as subject predicatives of be. The most common of these predicative adjectives express stance. In conversation, these are mostly general evaluative terms, such as right, good, sure, nice, and funny. In most cases, these adjectives occur without complements after them:

That wasn't very nice. (co~v) It was & though. (co~v)

In contrast, academic prose uses a larger range of predicative adjectives that express more specific evaluations, such as important, possible, necessary, dificult, and useful. In most cases, these adjectives occur with a complement clause or prepositional phrase. The predicative adjective expresses an evaluation that applies to the following clause or phrase:

It is also important to gain the cooperation of workshop participants. (ACAD t ) It is possible to have more than one major hypothesis. ( A C A D ~ )

The common predicative adjectives occurring with be are described fully in 7.8. Prepositional phrases are much less common as complements of be. They are

used for two functions: as a subject predicative describing a characteristic of the subject:

Umuofia was in a festival mood. (FICT)

The resistive voltage drop is in phase with the current. (ACAD)

as an adverbial expressing position or direction:

I wish you were at the shack with me last night. (cow)

The houses are in a conservation area. (NEWS)

Finally, be sometimes occurs with a complement clause as subject predicative: The capital is to be provided by the French government. ( N E W S ~ )

But the danger was that the pound would fall further than planned. (NEWS)

Table 5.1 summarizes the patterns of use for five other state-of-existence copular verbs. These verbs are all relatively common but far less common than be. Seem and appear have a variety of functions, while remain, keep, and stay all mark the continuation of a state.

Table 5.1 State-of-existence copular verbs (in addition to be)

most common verb frequency complements examples

seem most common to-complement clause This seemed to work. (FICT)

copular verb other than be

Functions of copular verbs=

7

'a& 5.1 continued

most common verb frequency complements

adjectives, especially conveying attitudes, surprise and possibility in fiction

adjectives of likelihood in academic prose, with extraposed that-clauses

noun phrase as subject predicative, especially with perceptions that are not necessarily accurate

prepositional phrase expressing an attribute of the subject

..... . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . , . . .

appear less common to-complement clause than seem

adjectives of likelihood in academic prose and news

remain most common of adjectives, often the three reporting absence of continuation change verbs; particularly common in academic prose and news

typical adjectives: unchanged, constant, Intact, mot~onless, immobile, low, high, open, closed, controversial, uncertain, unknown, obscure

examples

Sometimes i t seemed impossible that he should fail. (FICT)

He seemed surprised by that. (FICT)

I t seems likely that practical work has helped to develop these skills in some students. (ACAD)

It seems clear that more meals will be cooked over charcoal in the future. (ACAD~) Fijisankei, itself privately owned and independent, seems the ideal partner. NEWS^) Now he seemed in control. (FICT)

Most o f the time he seems like such a normal guy. ( F I ~

. . . . . . . . . .

The inheritance o f leaf angle appears polygenic. (ACAD)

There was never a moment when i t appeared likely that we could get them. (NEWS)

The courts have appeared willing to go beyond the rules of neutral justice. (ACAD)

. . . . . .... . . ...

Next Friday's date for the final remains unchanged. (NEWS)

The opening of the oviduct remains mt. (ACAD)

144 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BITE F

Table 5.1 continued most common

verb frequency complements examples

keep less common typical adjectives: alive, It's funny how he manages than remain awake, quiet, silent, to keep awake. (co~v)

secret, busy, fit, close, warm subject of keep is usually an animate being

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . stay least common of typical adjectives: awake,

the three dry, sober, alive, clear, continuation loyal, healthy verbs

subject of stay is usually human

He was just trying to keep warm. (FICT)

. . . . . . . . . .

I mean, i f you stay =. (CONV)

Meanwhile, Millie's mistress stayed IOJ$ to her husband's ambitions. (FICT)

5.17.2 Current copular verbs: sensory perceptions The patterns of use for sensory copular verbs are summarized in Table 5.2.

Sensory copular verbs-look, feel, sound, smell, taste-occur with adjectival complements to report positive or negative evaluations. For example:

Do I look nice? ( c o ~ v ) The food smelled gt& to her. (FICT)

Table 5.2 Sensory copular verbs

verb frequency

look very common in fiction; relatively common in conversation

. , . , . . , . . . . . . . .

feel very common in fiction; moderately common in news and conversation

sound most common in fictlon and conversation

most common functions and complements examples

often evaluates physlcal appearance common adjectives: awful, different, happy, lovely, pale, puzzled, sad, small, surprised, temble, t~red, well, young

reports an assessment of physical or mental state of being

common adjectives: ashamed, bad, better, cold, good, guilty, sick, sure, tired, uncomfortable, uneasy

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . literal use: evaluations of sound perceptions

common adjectives: good, nice, silly, stupid, interesting, awful, angry, sad, strange additional use: reactions t o ideas/suggestions

Oh he does look sad, doesn't he? ( C O N V ) ~ Quite frankly she looked terrible. (FICT)

You look lovely. (FICT)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . It'll make you feel better. (NEWS) My hands feel &d. (FICT) I always feel guilty passing Mike's house. (CONV)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . She doesn't sound

anymore. (FICT)

He looked and sounded awful. (FICT)

Oh how nice. That sounds gooo' to me. (CONV)

Functions of copular verbs=

*able 5.2 continued

most common functions and verb frequency complements examples

I know it sounds stupid, but I wanted to go. (CONV)

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

smell generally rare reports evaluations of smell I t smells funny in perceptions here. (CONV) common adjectives: awful, bad, funny, musty, odd, rotten, terrible, delicious, fresh, good, lovely, nice

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .

taste rare; occasional reports evaluations of taste They just taste occurrences in perceptions awful. (CONV) ~O~~versation and common adjectives: awful, fiction horrible, nice, wonderful

Here, the copular verb identifies the sense (e.g. sight, hearing), while the predicative adjective reports the evaluation. The general evaluating adjectives nice, good, and bad occur commonly as subject predicative with all five sensory copular verbs.

5.17.3 Result copular verbs The verbs become, get, go, grow, prove, come, turn, turn out, end up, and wind up are all used to describe a process of change. However, despite this general similarity, these verbs differ greatly in their specific meanings, collocational preferences, and register distributions.

The result copular verb become is especially common in academic prose and fiction. It is used to describe the process involved in changing from one state to another. In academic prose, it often refers to an impersonal process of moving from a state of ignorance or disbelief to one of knowledge or belief (i.e. without mentioning individual people who experience the change). The adjectives clear and apparent are most common with this function, but there are a number of other adjectives that occur with become, including dificult, evident, important, possible.

In the joint-stock company, the social character of production has become apparent. (ACAD)

It soon becomes &r that there is much more to comprehension than vocabulary. ( A C A D ~ )

Performance and functionality only become important with Release 3.

(ACAD t In fiction, become usually refers to a specific person. It describes a change in that person's state of awareness or state of being:

Raymond soon became aware that his strategy and hard work was paying dividends. ( F I C T )

146 Chapter 5: Verbs GRAMMAR BlTE F

It all became &r to me when 1 reached street level. (FICT) I became &t, overwhelmed suddenly by the great gulf between us. (FICT~)

?-@&

The result copular verb get is usually used to describe a person changing to a new state. Get is very common, especially in conversation and fiction, and it has many uses, describing both physical and mental changes. The adjectives ready and worse are the most common subject predicatives with get, but a number of other adjectives recur: angry, bigger, better, bored, cold, dressed (up), drunk, lost, mad, mixed (up), old, older, pissed ( o m , sick, tired, upset, wet. Many of these mark some affective or attitudinal stance. For example:

Well he's only gonna get m. (cow) And if she doesn't win, she either gets upset and cries or gets a n ~ r y . (cow) And people get pissed o f i don't they? ( c o ~ v ) <note: pissed off is slang and may be offensive to some people>

C -8d-

The copular verb go is usually used to describe a change towards an undesirable state, especially in conversation and fiction. Go describes changes experienced by humans and other natural processes. The adjectives crazy, mad, and wrong are the most common complements of go, but several other adjectives recur: bad, cold, deaf, funny, limp, quiet, red, wild.

You can't go wronx with that, can you? (cow) Yeah I know. 1 would go &. (cow) Mama will go crazy. (FICT)

D Less common result copular verbs

Although become, get, and go are the most common result copular verbs, several others deserve mention. These verbs and their functions are summarized in Table 5.3.

Major points of GRAMMAR BlTE E: Copular verbs Copular verbs are used to express a relationship between the subject of the clause and an attribute. Copular verbs usually take an obligatory subject predicative. Some copular verbs can also occur with an obligatory adverbial. Many different verbs can function as copulas. These verbs can be grouped into two major categories: current copular verbs and result copular verbs. > Current copular verbs express states of existence or sensory perceptions (e.g.

be, feel). > Result copular verbs express the result of a process of change (e.g. become,

turn out). The copular verbs differ in their meanings and in the complements that they can take. There are highly systematic patterns of use associated with copular verbs + complements.

Functions of copular verbs-

Tabk 5.3 Less common result copular verbs most common functions and

verb frequency complements examples

come generally rare, usually describes a change t o I t hterally is a dream occurs mainly in a better condition come g. NEWS^)

fiction and news recurring adjectives: a11ve. Slowly his face came awake, clean, loose, short, true, and he grinned. unstuck (~1~7)

grow primarily used in describes gradual change We should grow &d fiction often makes an implicit here together. (FICT)

comparison with an earlier The wlnd dropped and i t state through use of suddenly grew cold. (FICT) comparative adjective as The girl's deep black complement eyes grew darker. (FICT)

recurring adjectives: angry. She continued to lose big, bright, cold. dark. hot, weight and grow large. old, pale, tall. tired, weaker. ( F I ~ ~ ) warm, weak, bigger, darker, - larger, louder, older, shorter, smaller, stronger, warmer, weaker, worse

prove used primarly in reports an assessment Looking for tourist academic Prose recurring adjectives: costly, highlights in and news decisive, d~fficult, fatal, Montepulciano can

necessary, popular, possible, Prove difficult (NEWS)

successful, suitable, useful, He was confident the wrong units would prove

popular with travellers. (NEWS)

Yet i t has proved necessary to attempt this task. (ACAD~)

turn occas~onally used turn + adjective describes The canals in the suburbs in fict~on; rare in change In appearance; typically appear to turn plack. other registers refers t o color changes (FICT)

recurring adjectives: black, She had turned pale and brown, (bright) red, white, pale her voice shook. (FICT)

turn out generally rare emphasizes the end-point of a A lot of times they process wlth simple positive or turned out wrong. (FICT) negative evaluatron The marriage will turn recurring adjectives: good, out all right. (FICT) ~gsty, n~ce, (all) rrght, wrong

end up generally rare describe an unintended And this argument went and wind negative event or state on. UP Danny ended up in tears

and I ended up a w. (CONV)

He says Marilyn ended up pregnant after her affair with President Kennedy. (NEWS)

And the young bucks who tore the place apart ~nvariably wound up dead. ( F I C T ~ )