COPING WITH CULTURE SHOCK: A STUDY OF STRESSORS, ADJUSTMENTS AND STEREOTYPES AMONG CHINESE STUDENTS AT BANGKOK UNIVERSITY

COPING WITH CULTURE SHOCK: A STUDY OF STRESSORS, ADJUSTMENTS AND STEREOTYPES AMONG CHINESE STUDENTS AT BANGKOK UNIVERSITYAND STEREOTYPES AMONG CHINESE STUDENTS AT BANGKOK
UNIVERSITY
AND STEREOTYPES AMONG CHINESE STUDENTS AT BANGKOK
UNIVERSITY
The Graduate School of Bangkok University
In Partial Fulfillment
Master of Communication Arts
Bangkok University
Coping with culture shock: a study of stressors, adjustment and stereotypes among
Chinese students at Bangkok University (pp.77)
Advisor of Independent Study: Assoc. Prof. Dr. Boonlert Supadhiloke
ABSTRACT
This independent study is designed to explore Chinese students’ stressors, copings,
and adjustments in Thai society by relating to culture shock concept in Bangkok
University; and to explore Chinese students’ stereotypes about Thailand in pre-arrival
and post-arrival in Bangkok University. Since intercultural communication caused many
stress to international students and those stresses are inducements to psychological and
physical diseases, a research on stressors, coping, adjustment and stereotypes among
Chinese students in Bangkok University is necessary. And the research is unique since
nobody conducted such research in Bangkok University.
Altogether, there are 40 respondents participant to the research and they are
selected by purposeful sampling techniques. Those respondents include both male and
female Chinese students who are currently study in Bangkok University. According U-
curve culture shock theory, 4 stages in culture shock, respondents are selected into 4
groups by related to their length of stay in Thailand. 10 respondents are selected for each
group with Chinese students who have been in Thailand less than 6 months, 6-18 months,
18-30 months, and more than 30 months. Unconstructed interviews are used to collect
data from 40 respondents. In the research, a descriptive analysis used to generate research
result.
In the research result, there are several intercultural communication stressors
found via interviews. Language, cultural and religious knowledge, local information,
loneliness and homesickness are main stressors among Chinese students. In addition,
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pressure of study, work and graduation, food, living condition, friendship, lost of identity
are explored stressors in each group. Moreover, in pre-arrival and post-arrival,
respondents stereotypes are found as well. In general, respondents hold negative
stereotype toward to Thailand in pre-arrival such as sexy overabundance, many
transsexuals, weak in social security and overabundance of drugs; in post-arrival,
respondents’ stereotypes are generally positive in 0-6 months period and negative in 6-18
months and 18-30 months periods; and their stereotypes are become to average in 30 up
months period.
Theoretical Orientation 7
Conceptual Model 15
Literature Review 16
CHAPTER 3: METHODOLOGY
Result of Culture Shock Study 29
Result of Stereotypes Study 55
CHAPTER 5: CONCLUSION AND DISCUSSION
Conclusion 60
Discussion 62
Recommendations 66
BIBLIOGRAPHY 68
Interview Questions 77
LIST OF TABLES
Table 1: Number of Students in Each Age 26
Table 2: Number of Students and Students’ Status in Each Stage 27
Table 3: Intercultural Communication Stressors, Copings and Adjustment in 29
0-6 Months Group
Table 4: Intercultural Communication Stressors, Copings and Adjustment in 38
6-18 Months Group
Table 5: Intercultural Communication Stressors, Copings and Adjustment in 44
18-30 Months Group
Table 6: Intercultural Communication Stressors, Copings and Adjustment in 48
30 Up Months Group
Table 8: Respondents’ Stereotype about Thailand (Pre-arrival) 55
Table 9: Respondents’ stereotypes about Thailand (Post-arrival) 57
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1. Statement of problem
The world’s population is becoming increasingly transient as individuals from all
walks of life take advantage of the opportunities for working and studying outside their
home countries (Grushina, 2008). Whether dictated by choice or by necessity,
intercultural transitions are becoming more common for millions of people, including
immigrants, refugees, and others who relocate permanently, as well as travelers visiting
foreign countries for shorter periods of time and who have a specific purpose – exchange
students, government workers, business people, missionaries, volunteers for various aid
organizations, and others (Grushina, 2008). In light of these trends that reflect the
globalization of businesses, increased diversity in many countries, and growing necessity
for adapting an intercultural perspective for more effective integration into society,
understanding cross-cultural adaptation experiences of individuals has become a
necessity (Grushina, 2008).
Over the past decades there has been an increasing interest in the impact of
migration on mental health. Migration has been identified as a stressful process, which
can pose a risk to the psychological and physical health of migrants (Bhugra & Jones,
2001). Overseas students, although typically only temporarily separated from their home
country, may also suffer psychological distress associated with moving to an unfamiliar
environment (Pantelidou & Craig, 2006).
There are many reseaches conducted to investigate culture shock among
international students. Most of the early studies were concerned with such things as the
relationship between student mental health and academic performance (Kelvin et al.,
1965; Lucas et al., 1966) without any special reference to the particular problems of
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foreign students (Furnham & Bochner, 1986). Some of the earliest studies concerned the
suicide of university students (Rook, 1954; Gunn, 1979) though there is some debate as
to the extent of this (Schwartz, 1980). Some have argued that parasuicide and suicide
attempts have reached epidemic proportions (Gunn, 1979), other have noted that suicide
accounts for 50 percent of all causes of student death (Norman, 1974). However, these
studies have not separated foreign (oversea) from native (home) students, nor have they
been able to overcome the problems associated with all suicide statistics (error,
differential registration procedures of death, religious sanctioning) (Furnham & Bochner,
1986).
Also, the empirical literature broadly supports Furnham and Bochner’s contention.
Oversea students report more social difficulty than do host students (Furnham and
Bochner, 1982); they also experience more sociocultural adaptation problems than their
compatriots who remain at home (Kennedy, 1999; Ward and Kennedy, 1993). Uehara’s
study (cited in Jou and Fukada, 1996) of foreign students in Japan found that the
differences in host-sojourner difficulties were greatest for language fluency and
interpersonal relations. This was also observed in Chataway and Berry’s (1989) research
with oversea students in Canada which indicated that international pupils experienced
more problem with communication and prejudice than did their Canadian peers.
Loneliness is a significant problem among oversea students and was reported as such in
almost one quarter of the international sample surveyed by Sam and Eide (1991) in
Norway. Homesickness is also frequently observed (Lu, 1990; Sandhu and Asrabadi,
1994), and it has been found to be the more problematic for international students than
their domestic counterparts (Zheng and Berry, 1991).
According to Lin (2006), there are several stressors found among Chinese
students in a US campus. For example, language barrier, separation from family, poor
cooking facilities, boring small town life, and political discrimination are main findings
in the research. And, the research also found that Chinese students’ suffering already
began even before the trip to the campus and intensified during the first few weeks or
months after their arrival (Lin, 2006).
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In addition, many other researches are conducted to investigate intercultural
adaptation among Chinese international students over the world. For example, an
empirical study is conducted to investigate Chinese students’ psychological and
sociocultural adjustments to Britain (Oatey & Xiong, 2006). The study found that the
majority of students have few psychological or sociocultural adjustment difficulties.
Nevertheless, social interaction with non-Chinese was consistently identified as
problematic and this, as well as difficulties in adjusting to daily life, were very highly
correlated with psychological stress (Oatey & Xiong, 2006). Also, an in-depth qualitative
research is conducted to investigate the experience of a small cohort of Chinese
postgraduate students’ in a British university (Gill, 2007). The study found the three-fold
‘stress-adaptation-growth’ intercultural learning process of these participants by focusing
the discussions on the their lived experience in the UK (Gill, 2007). According to Zhong
(1996), a study is conducted to investigate Intercultural adaptation process among
Chinese students and scholars in U.S. Findings suggest that many (Chinese students) do
not intend to return to China in the near future, so they are highly motivated to become
acculturated in America (Zhong, 1996).
However, there is only few researches conduct to investigate international
students’ stressors and adjustment, especially Chinese students. And, there is no research
about Chinese students in Bangkok University at all; thus, this research is armed to
explore Bangkok University’s Chinese students’ stressors and adjustments in intercultural
communication field. Also, findings of the research are unique since there is no related
previous research.
There are several questions to be answered in this study:
1. According to culture shock stages, how do Chinese students appear in Thai
society in term of stressor, coping and adjustment?
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2. What are stereotypes that Chinese students hold about Thailand in pre-arrival and
post-arrival?
3. Objectives of research
1. To explore Chinese students’ stressors, copings, and adjustments in Thai society
by relating to culture shock stages.
2. To explore Chinese students’ stereotypes about Thailand in pre-arrival and post-
arrival.
4. Significance of study
Since the research is conducted among Chinese students in Bangkok University,
research findings are significantly important to Bangkok University. Bangkok University,
especially International College, could get better understanding toward Chinese students
and improve its operation in International students’ aids. Recently, amount of Chinese
students are gradually increasing in Bangkok University International College; thus,
Chinese students are taking a significant important part of international community in
Bangkok University. To build a great international environment in Bangkok University,
the research findings are useful.
Also, the research findings are necessary to education department of Thailand.
For improving educational quality in international colleges, Chinese oversea students are
main part to be considered since there are many Chinese students in Thailand. And, the
improvement of international education is closely related to intercultural matters of
international students.
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Moreover, the research findings are important to Chinese government. Amount of
Chinese oversea students are significantly increased in recent years, many potential
Chinese international students are paying close attention to previous international
students’ living and studying conditions in oversea. Those findings may help potential
international students to understand oversea life and getting prepared for overcoming
stressors and potential problems.
In addition, the research findings may help Chinese student unions to know their
members in overview and provide necessary helps to them based on their stressors and
problems.
5. Definition of terms
In the research, there are several terms have to be defined.
Stressor: according to English dictionary1, stress is defined as ‘pressure or worry
resulting from mental or physical distress, difficult circumstances’; thus, the stressor is
defined as cause and fuse which result to pressure or worry; and stressors include mental
or physical distress and difficult circumstances and potential others. In the research,
stressors are mainly focused on mental pressures and difficult circumstances which are
caused by oversea life in Bangkok among Chinese students.
Coping: the word “cope” is defined as ‘be able to deal with something difficult’2;
thus, the word “coping” is noun of the word “cope”. Coping means ability to deal with
something difficult. In the research, coping is ability or method to deal with stressors in
short term or temporariness.
1 Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (Extended fourth edition). P. 1511. 2 Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (Extended fourth edition). P. 313.
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Adjustment: adjust is defined as ‘become or make suited to new condition’3, and
“adjustment” is noun of ‘adjust’; thus, adjustment means actions or behaviors to become
or make suited to new condition. In the research, adjustment means actions or behaviors
that make Chinese students suited to Thai culture. And those actions and behaviors are
set to solve stressors permanently.
3 Oxford Advanced Learner’s English-Chinese Dictionary (Extended fourth edition). P. 18.
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Theoretical Orientation & Literature Review
In this chapter, culture shock’s concept, U-curve culture shock (4 stages of culture
shock), symptoms of culture shock, and perspectives of culture shock are introduced in
first part of the chapter as theoretical orientation in the research. And, the second part is
literature review of previous studies. It includes previous studies on U-curve hypotheses
of culture shock, stressors and problems in culture shock, coping resource of culture
shock, and psychological and sociocultural adaptation. There are several important
studies are presented in this chapter which are important to understand the study.
1. Theoretical Orientation
1.1 Culture shock
Oberg (1960) first introduced the term ‘culture shock’ to describe the experience
of migration from one culture to another (Austin, 2007). It is originally conceptualized as
“the consequence of strain and anxiety resulting from contact with new culture and the
feeling of loss, confusion, and impotence resulting from loss of accustomed culture cues
and social rules” (Winkelman, 1994). In another word, initially, this term was used to
describe the confusion, disorientation, and disheartenment that accompanied intercultural
contact and migration (Austin, 2007). Smalley (1963) referred to culture shock as
rejection and homesickness. Also, according to Taft (1977), culture shock is
conceptualized as comprising six distinct aspects, including the strain of adapting to the
new cultures, a sense of loss, confusion in role expectations and self-identity, a feeling of
being rejected by members of the new culture, and anxiety and feelings of impotence due
to not being able to cope with the new environment. Obviously, early definitions of this
term focused mainly on the psychological and cognitive reactions of sojourners entering a
new culture (Lin, 2006). In these conceptualizations, culture shock is consistently
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associated with a series of symptoms of discomfort, dislocation, and abnormality (Lin,
2006).
Winkelman (1994) also examined some causes of culture shock such as stress and
cognitive fatigue. Additionally, McDermott (1992) focused on social isolation and
normlessness, two components of alienation. However, if uncertainty, anxiety, stress, and
alienation are defined as causes of culture shock, there must be precauses, factors that
lead to these causes of culture shock (Lin, 2006).
1.2 Four-Stage model of Culture Shock
Oberg (1960) initially postulated a four-stage model of culture shock:
(Source: University of Minnesota, International Students)
Stage 1: Honeymoon. An initial admiration and fascination with the host culture,
usually consisting of superficial relationships and cordial interactions.
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Stage 2: Crisis. Initial differences in values, language, signs and symbols lead to
feelings of inadequacy, frustration, despair and anger.
Stage 3: Recovery. The crisis is gradually resolved through acquisition of knowledge,
skills and values appropriate to the host culture, including language.
Stage 4: Adjustment. An ability to function effectively within and enjoy the new
culture, despite occasional feelings of anxiety or stress.
1.3 Symptoms of culture shock
In honeymoon phase, intense excitement and euphoria associated with being
somewhere different and unusual (Neuliep, 2003). The stresses associated with cultural
differences are tolerated and may even seem fun and humorous (Neuliep, 2003). During
this phase, nearly everything appears wonderful. The food is exciting; the people seem
friendly. Although you may experience some of the symptoms such as sleepless and mild
anxiety, enthusiasm and curiosity quickly overcome these minor discomforts (Dodd,
1982).
In the crisis or cultural shock phase, failure events once considered minor and
funny are now perceived as stressful. Winkelman (1994) maintains that culture shock is
partially based on the simultaneous effects of cognitive overload and behavioral
inadequacy that are rooted in the psychological and physical stresses associated with
confronting a new environment (Neuliep, 2003). During the phase, you begin to feel
more anxious, restless, impatient, and disappointed. It seems you have more difficult time
saying what you mean (Dodd, 1982).
In the recovery phase, it includes crisis resolution and culture learning (Ward,
Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). During the phase, you have learned a lot more about the
culture, and while you still do not like something, you now like more things than a few
months ago (Dodd, 1982). By now, you have become more accustomed to the foods,
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sights, sounds, smells, and nonverbal behaviors of the new culture (Dodd, 1982). Also,
you have fewer headaches and upset stomach problems and less confusion, uncertainty,
and loneliness. And you physical health and mental health have improved (Dodd, 1982).
In the last phase, adjustment phase, reflecting enjoyment of and functional
competence in the new environment (Ward, Bochner, & Furnham, 2001). It is achieved
as one develops stable adaptation in being successful at resolving problems and managing
the new culture (Winkelman, 1994).
1.4 Perspectives of culture shock
Currently, debate exists as to whether culture shock is in itself a specific
psychological event, or whether it is instead an instance of more general psychological
and adaptive processes (Austin, 2007). As a general psycho-adaptive process, theories of
culture shock may be organized along two major themes: culture shock as a culture-
learning phenomenon, and culture shock as stress-coping process (Bochner, 1986).
The culture-learning perspective views culture shock in behavioural terms, as a
time-linked phenomenon by which migrants learn social, linguistic and communicative
customs, knowledge, and skills in order to flourish in a new society (Austin, 2007). Many
scholars, including Argyle (1969, 1981, 1982) and Adler (1975) have discussed the vital
importance of learning verbal, non-verbal and micro-rhythmic conventions of
interpersonal interactions; from this perspective, ‘culture shock’ is simply a reflection of
incomplete or faulty learning processes, and may best be remedied through education,
rehearsal, practice and feedback. This view builds on the notion that social behavior is a
learned, reciprocal, organized and skilled performance (Austin, 2007). The inability of
one party to meet expectations of another leads to breakdown, stress and consequently
culture shock (Austin, 2007).
Another perspective of culture shock, stress-coping perspective views culture
shock within the context of socio-political and economic realities facing the individual,
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and is influenced by the characteristics of both the society of origin and the society of
settlement (Austin, 2007). From this perspective, geographical migration precipitates
stress in so far as it will also entail movement, separation of spouses/family members,
changing of jobs, etc. This stress produces a series of affective, behavioural, and
cognitive coping responses (Austin, 2007). Berry (1994, 1997) and Berry et al. (1989)
have presented an elaborate stress and coping model in which both societal-level factors
and individual factors (such as cultural distance, locus of control, extroversion, and
neuroticism) are important.
1.5 Intercultural adaptation
The term intercultural adaptation broadly refers to the process that people go
through when trying to adjust to the differences they encounter in new cultural
environments, thus becoming better suited for dealing with the extant challenges
encountered in unfamiliar environments (Kim, 1988). Over the last fifty plus years,
researchers have used various terms that describe the same general process of cross-
cultural adaptation but differentiate qualitative shades of the adaptation experience –
assimilation, acculturation, coping or adjustment, integration, and others (Kim, 2002).
A number of different models of cultural adjustment (e.g. Bennett, 1986; Berry,
1990; Kim, 2001) have been proposed, but one that we have found particularly helpful is
that developed by Colleen Ward and her colleagues (e.g. Ward, 1996; Ward et al., 2001).
Ward maintains that there are two main types of adaptation outcome, psychological and
sociocultural, and that these outcomes are influenced by a range of individual level
variables and societal level variables. Psychological adaptation concerns people’s sense
of physical and psychological well-being; sociocultural adaptation concerns people’s
sense as to how well they can ‘fit in’ to the new environment (Spencer-Oatey & Xiong,
2006) .
Psychological adaptation is best understood from a stress and coping perspective.
Naturally, everyone is subject to stressful events and circumstances; it is not unique to
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overseas students, let alone just Chinese students (Spencer-Oatey & Xiong, 2006).
Chinese students may be leaving home for the first time, sharing accommodation with
comparative strangers, learning to cook, dealing with financial pressures and debt, and
finding out what is expected of them at university (Spencer-Oatey & Xiong, 2006). All of
these adjustments can take their toll in terms of general psychological well-being, and so
the students can become stressed, anxious and maybe depressed. However, the number of
significant life changes that overseas students experience is typically higher than for
home students, so their risk of psychological…